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© JOEL W. ROGERS/CORBIS
Common-Pool R
8 ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 50 NUMBER 4
© JOHN CARNEMOLLA/CORBIS
world’s future, including how to address
global resource systems, or “commons.”1
In the two decades that followed, humans
have failed to halt the tragedy of massive
overfishing of the oceans, major defores-
tation, and excessive dumping of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. However, in
Without clear property rights, fisheries can harvest as much as they want, leading to
some specific niches, such as the Maine massive overfishing of the world’s oceans.
lobster fishery, the commons are in better
condition today than they were a decade William Clark of the Harvard Ken- have been achieved at growing costs in
or two ago. nedy School of Government evaluated the the form of the degradation of many eco-
Part of the reason for the mixed results impact of the Brundtland Commission’s system services, increased risks of non-
is that most common-pool resources dif- work for Environment a decade after its linear changes, and the exacerbation of
fer vastly from one another. Many gov- release.5 Clark reflected that many disap- poverty for some groups of people. These
ernment officials and policy analysts’ pointments, resignations, and increased problems, unless addressed, will substan-
advocacy of a single idealized solution cynicism were expressed at the interna- tially diminish the benefits that future
for all of these resources has been a key tional meetings held to evaluate progress generations obtain from ecosystems.8
part of the problem instead of the solu- toward sustainable development. In addi-
tion.2 Further, many of the most pressing tion to the major disappointments of the Thus, the most recent worldwide review
problems future generations will face are decade, Clark found some more optimistic of our common future warned that major
on a global scale. Establishing effective developments. To see these, he argued, changes threatened our future. The MEA
governance arrangements on this scale also advised that policymakers search for
has proved to be more difficult than on a requires a shift in perspective from the solutions for specific niches rather than
local scale. current short-term, global view of inter- generalized problems and avoid standard-
As the WCED noted in its report, “the national environmental diplomacy to lon- ized solutions.
traditional forms of national sovereignty ger term and more local views of sustain- Looking ahead toward long-term effec-
are increasingly challenged by the realities able development. These views cannot be tive management of resource systems on
of ecological and economic dependence. found in any one spot. . . . The pictures a global scale, several important questions
Nowhere is this more true than in shared they provide are, of course, mixed, with require examination: What are “the com-
ecosystems in ‘the global commons.’”3 Yet their own share of environmental horrors, mons?” How successful have efforts been
the WCED, headed by then–Norwegian economic greed, and program failures. to sustain the world’s oceans and forests
Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland, But compared with 20, 10, or even 5 since the publication of the Brundtland
challenged scholars, public officials, and years ago, the extent to which notions of report? What role do international regimes
citizens to recognize that we all share a sustainability have entered mainstream play in a sustainable future? What lessons
common future. That future is severely development thinking is astounding.6 have scholars learned about adaptive gov-
threatened, however, if we do not focus ernance of common-pool resources over
on how to protect our common heritage A few years later, from 2001–2005, the past 20 years that can be applied to the
while endeavoring to achieve greater eco- the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment next 20 years and beyond?
nomic returns for the peoples of the world. (MEA) conducted a massive review of
The WCED conceived “environment” as the state of the world’s ecosystems and
where people live, and “development” their services.7 Their first major finding The Commons and
as how people try to improve their lives. was that the change to ecosystems during Common-Pool Resources
In Our Common Future, the commis- the past half-century has been more rapid
sion wrote, “Humanity has the ability to than any comparable period in human his- Scholars are still in the process of devel-
make development sustainable—to ensure tory. Their second major finding was that oping a shared language for the broad set
it meets the needs of the present without while these changes have led to substan- of things called “the commons.” Com-
compromising the ability of future genera- tial net gains in economic development mons refer to systems, such as knowledge
tions to meet their own needs.”4 and human well-being, the gains and the digital world, in which it is dif-
altogether. Further, each person’s use of government ownership, private property, cited in this chapter, the total volume of
such resources subtracts benefits that oth- community property, and comanagement fish captured (from wild fisheries and
ers might enjoy.10 Fisheries and forests may succeed or fail in sustaining resources aquaculture—cultivating fish, especially
are two common-pool resources that are and providing good economic returns.13 for food) was more than 70 million tons,
of great concern in this era of major Open-access resources—common-pool and overexploitation threatened many
ecological challenges. Others include irri- resources that anyone can enter and/or fishery stocks. “With conventional man-
gation systems, groundwater basins, pas- harvest—are likely to be overharvested agement practices, the growth era of fish-
tures and grazing systems, lakes, oceans, and potentially destroyed. In his classic eries is over,” the report predicted.15
and the Earth’s atmosphere.11 Chapter article, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” The situation has not improved in the
10 of the Brundtland report primarily leading ecologist Garrett Hardin confused 20 years since the report was issued,
discusses the problematic condition of open-access commons with commons that although at first glance, the data might
common-pool resources in the late 1980s; are the joint property of a community.14 seem to indicate the WCED’s prediction
thus this update will focus on common- While Hardin correctly pointed out that was incorrect. Table 1 below presents
pool resources. valuable open-access common-pool world fish catch data in major regional
Common-pool resources may be resources would be overharvested, his fisheries from 1979 through 2005.16 The
governed and managed by a wide variety conclusion of an inevitable tragedy was total volume of fish caught in major
of institutional arrangements that can too sweeping. fisheries around the world has doubled in
1979a 2005c
North Atlantic 14,667 –3.33 –6.5 5.17 –0.15 –3.69 13,278
North Pacific 20,303 27.41 12.6 3.88 12.04 3.37 38,559
Central Atlantic 6,064 5.8 6.36 –5.22 3.34 –4.54 6,883
Central Pacific 7,536 7.28 19.06 14.07 3.54 14.73 13,800
Indian Ocean 3,541 22.42 6.12 44.4 10.77 13.43 9,231
South Atlantic 4,420 0.53 13.55 2.87 5.71 –8.61 3,682
South Pacific 7,242 33.22 43.43 44.23 –15.3 –0.56 16,188
Inland 7,240 30.96 31.24 29.44 35.82 24.01 37,921
Total world catch 71,013 14.96 16.61 19.23 8.86 7.02 141,403
SOURCES:
a
As reported in World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our Common Future (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1987), 267.
b
Based on data from Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Fisheries and Aquaculture Information
and Statistics Service, Global Aquaculture Production, 1950–2005 and Global Capture Production, 1950–2005 (Rome: FAO,
2007), http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/16073 (accessed 8 April 2008).
c
Column 2005 does not add due to rounding. Total data for 1980 to 2004 is from the WCED, Our Common Future (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 267; and FAO, Fisheries and Aquaculture Information and Statistics Service, Global
Aquaculture Production, 1950–2005 and Global Capture Production, 1950–2005 (Rome: FAO, 2007), http://www.fao.org/
fishery/topic/16073 (accessed 8 April 2008).
Collaboration between state officials and local fishermen to monitor and protect the Maine lobster fishery averted overharvesting in
the region.
groups’ efforts have been able to stem the program in the mid-1980s through the 80 percent to 40 percent in about one
overharvesting of lobster in this region.29 1990s without any major conflict among year.”32 The imposition of an external,
In the November 2007 issue of Environ- participants. but unenforceable, rule destroyed the pre-
ment, Raul P. Lejano and Helen Ingram Tragically, national officials did not existing local rules. Lejano and Ingram’s
of the University of California, Irvine, recognize local rules when they passed article provides a counterargument to the
document a very successful local system the Wildlife Resources Conservation and notion that only government ownership
that evolved over a decade in the Turtle Protection Act in 2001, which prohibted or management solves the problem of
Islands of the Philippines.30 While out- hunting of threatened wildlife and banned the commons, detailing how top-down
siders were deeply involved in the effort the collection of marine turtle eggs. The rulemaking without an awareness of local
to find mechanisms that would control law was largely based on international norms, rules, and evolved institutions can
overfishing of turtle eggs, they worked conventions that stress the importance lead to disaster.
very closely with local fishers and offi- of protecting endangered species. Very With the establishment of EEZs, some
cials to develop a system, the Pawikan soon after the law was passed, “turtle egg coastal fisheries in Canada, New Zealand,
Conservation Project, which was well- conservation in the Turtle Island system and Iceland have been able to develop indi-
matched to the local economy. As can be ceased altogether, and depletion of turtle vidual transferable quota (ITQ) systems
seen in Figure 2 of their article,31 the per- eggs proceeded at an alarming rate. One that have reduced the level of harvesting in
centage of eggs conserved steadily rose preliminary assessment estimates that egg key coastal fisheries. Governments assign
from the commencement of the Pawikan conservation rates dropped from about ITQs, official harvesting quotas, to a fisher
Continued Overharvesting of
Forest Resources
Consistent monitoring and measurement of forests not only preserve their integrity, but also provide institutions with accurate, up-to-date
information on which to base future decisions.
good.62 Instead, officials and citizens need institutional arrangements fitted to local what the global community has learned
to craft institutions at multiple levels built ecosystems than to try to command it since the Brundtland report,64 Garrett
on accurate data gathered at appropriate from afar.63 Users need to perceive and Hardin’s classic article,65 and the exten-
scales given the type of resource involved. understand the rules as legitimate, or they sive research undertaken by scholars from
Scholars have learned that ecosystems are will invest heavily in illegal harvesting. multiple disciplines related to the study
diverse, complex, and uncertain, and sus- Effective monitoring by officials and users of common-pool resources on multiple
tainable management requires substantial is an essential ingredient of sustainable scales.66 Many scholars now recognize
investment in acquiring accurate data to common-pool resource institutions. The that simple “ideal” solutions imposed
learn more about patterns of interaction specific rules that facilitate low-cost and from the outside can make things worse
and adapt policies over time that are better effective monitoring vary from setting rather than better. The task of designing
fitted to particular systems. to setting depending on ecological as sustainable, complex, coupled human-
Further, policies also have to fit well as social variables. Without active resource systems is indeed always a
with the local culture and institutional monitoring, however, the incentive to struggle. Five basic requirements, how-
environments of those who depend on freeride on the cooperation of others can ever, have been identified from extensive
ecosystems for their livelihood. Thus, generate a tragedy of the commons. multidisciplinary studies of failed and
specific institutional arrangements that successful regimes for governing diverse
work best in a particular location need to Achieving Adaptive commons.67 These include
take into account the appropriate spatial Governance • Achieving accurate and relevant infor-
and temporal scales as well as the type mation. Since the ecological, technologi-
of interactions that occur on the ground. The National Research Council has cal, economic, and social factors affecting
It is better to induce cooperation with convened a series of meetings to assess the performance of any commons regime
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