Learning Guide 3 - Data Communication

Electronics Engineering (Camarines Sur Polytechnic

Colleges)

Scan to open on Studocu

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Introduction to Data Communications:
In Data Communications, data generally are defined as information that is stored in
digital form. Data communications is the process of transferring digital information
between two or more points. Information is defined as the knowledge or intelligence. Data
communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of
digital information. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be
part of a communication system made up of a combination of hardware (physical
equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of a data communications system
depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.

A data communications system has five components:

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms
of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.

Standards Organizations for Data Communications

An association of organizations, governments, manufacturers and users form the
standards organizations and are responsible for developing, coordinating and maintaining
the standards. The intent is that all data communications equipment manufacturers and
users comply with these standards. The primary standards organizations for data
communication are:

1. International Standard Organization (ISO)

ISO is the international organization for standardization on a wide range of subjects. It
is comprised mainly of members from the standards committee of various governments
throughout the world. It is even responsible for developing models which provides high
level of system compatibility, quality enhancement, improved productivity and reduced
costs. The ISO is also responsible for endorsing and coordinating the work of the other
standards organizations.
2. International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Sector
(ITU-T)
ITU-T is one of the four permanent parts of the International Telecommunications Union
based in Geneva, Switzerland. It has developed three sets of specifications: the V series
for modem interfacing and data transmission over telephone lines, the X series for
data transmission over public digital networks, email and directory services; the I and Q
series

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

 for Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and its extension Broadband ISDN. ITU-T
membership consists of government authorities and representatives from many
countries and it is the present standards organization for the United Nations.
3. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
IEEE is an international professional organization founded in United States and is
compromised of electronics, computer and communications engineers. It is currently
the world’s largest professional society with over 200,000 members. It develops
communication and information processing standards with the underlying goal of
advancing theory, creativity, and product quality in any field related to electrical
engineering.
4. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ANSI is the official standards agency for the United States and is the U.S voting
representative for the ISO. ANSI is a completely private, non-profit organization
comprised of equipment manufacturers and users of data processing equipment and
services. ANSI membership is comprised of people form professional societies, industry
associations, governmental and regulatory bodies, and consumer goods.
5. Electronics Industry Association (EIA)
EIA is a non-profit U.S. trade association that establishes and recommends industrial
standards. EIA activities include standards development, increasing public awareness,
and lobbying and it is responsible for developing the RS (recommended standard) series
of standards for data and communications.
6. Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
TIA is the leading trade association in the communications and information technology
industry. It facilitates business development opportunities through market
development, trade promotion, trade shows, and standards development. It represents
manufacturers of communications and information technology products and also
facilitates the convergence of new communications networks.
7. Internet Architecture Board (IAB)
IAB earlier known as Internet Activities Board is a committee created by ARPA
(Advanced Research Projects Agency) so as to analyze the activities of ARPANET whose
purpose is to accelerate the advancement of technologies useful for U.S military. IAB is
a technical advisory group of the Internet Society and its responsibilities are:
I. Oversees the architecture protocols and procedures used by the Internet.
II. Manages the processes used to create Internet Standards and also serves as an
appeal board for complaints regarding improper execution of standardization
process.
III. Responsible for administration of the various Internet assigned numbers
IV. Acts as a representative for Internet Society interest in liaison relationships
with other organizations.
V. Acts as a source of advice and guidance to the board of trustees and officers
of Internet Society concerning various aspects of internet and its
technologies.

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

8. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
The IETF is a large international community of network designers, operators, vendors
and researchers concerned with the evolution of the Internet architecture and smooth
operation of the Internet.
9. Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
The IRTF promotes research of importance to the evolution of the future Internet by
creating focused, long-term and small research groups working on topics related to
Internet protocols, applications, architecture and technology.

Layered Network Architecture

To reduce the design complexity, most of the networks are organized as a series of
layers or levels, each one build upon one below it. The basic idea of a layered architecture
is to divide the design into small pieces. Each layer adds to the services provided by the
lower layers in such a manner that the highest layer is provided a full set of services to
manage communications and run the applications. The benefits of the layered models are
modularity and clear interfaces, i.e. open architecture and comparability between the
different providers' components. A basic principle is to ensure independence of layers by
defining services provided by each layer to the next higher layer without defining how the
services are to be performed. This permits changes in a layer without affecting other layers.
The basic elements of a layered model are services, protocols and interfaces. A service is a
set of actions that a layer offers to another (higher) layer. Protocol is a set of rules that a
layer uses to exchange information with a peer entity. These rules concern both the
contents and the order of the messages used. Between the layers service interfaces are
defined. The messages from one layer to another are sent through those interfaces.

In a n-layer architecture, layer n on one machine carries on conversation with the

layer n on other machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation are
collectively known as the layer-n protocol. Basically, a protocol is an agreement between
the communicating parties on how communication is to proceed. Five-layer architecture is
shown below; the entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are
called peers. In other words, it is the peers that communicate using protocols. In reality, no
data is transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n of another machine. Instead,
each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until the
lowest layer is reached. Below layer-1 is the physical layer through which actual
communication occurs.

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

 Peer –to- peer communications

Peers

With layered architectures, communications between two corresponding layers

requires a unit of data called a protocol data unit (PDU). A PDU can be a header added at
the beginning of a message or a trailer appended to the end of a message. Data flows
downward through the layers in the source system and upwards at the destination address.
As data passes from one layer into another, headers and trailers are added and removed
from the PDU. This process of adding or removing PDU information is called
encapsulation/decapsulation. Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface.
The interface defines which primitives operations and services the lower layer offers to the
upper layer adjacent to it. A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture. A
list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called protocol stack.

Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to

develop architecture for computer communication and the OSI model is the result of this
effort. In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as
an international standard for communications architecture. The term “open” denotes the
ability to connect any two systems which conform to the reference model and associated
standards. The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from
application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire)
to another application programme located on another network. The OSI reference model
divides the problem of moving information between computers over a network medium
into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems. The seven layers are:

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1)
are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network. The upper four
layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are
orientated more toward services to the applications. Data is Encapsulated with the
necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers before network transit.

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

 As with any layered architecture, overhead information is added to a PDU in the
form of headers and trailers. Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the
protocol specification. Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware
on other computers.

Physical Layer {the physical layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next}

The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI hierarchy and coordinates the
functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium. It also defines the
procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for
transmission occur. The physical layer specifies the type of transmission medium and the
transmission mode (simplex, half duplex or full duplex) and the physical, electrical,
functional and procedural standards for accessing data communication networks.

Transmission media defined by the physical layer include metallic cable, optical fiber cable
or wireless radio-wave propagation. The physical layer also includes the carrier system used
to propagate the data signals between points in the network. The carrier systems are
simply communication systems that carry data through a system using either metallic or
optical fiber cables or wireless arrangements such as microwave, satellites and cellular
radio systems.

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data-link Layer {the data link layer is responsible for transmitting frames from one node to the next}

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a
reliable link and is responsible for node-to-node delivery. It makes the physical layer appear
error free to the upper layer (network layer).

The data link layer packages data from the physical layer into groups called blocks, frames
or packets. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link
layer adds a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender (source
address) and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame. The data-link layer provides
flow-control, access-control, and error-control.

Network Layer {is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the destination host}

The network layer provides details that enable data to be routed between devices in
an environment using multiple networks, subnetworks or both. This is responsible for
addressing messages and data so they are sent to the correct destination, and for
translating logical addresses and names (like a machine name FLAME) into physical
addresses. This layer is also responsible for finding a path through the network to the
destination computer.

The network layer provides the upper layers of the hierarchy with independence from the
data transmission and switching technologies used to interconnect systems. Networking
components that operate at the network layer include routers and their software.

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Transport Layer {is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to another}

The transport layer controls and ensures the end-to-end integrity of the data message
propagated through the network between two devices, providing the reliable,
transparent transfer of data between two endpoints.

Transport layer responsibilites includes message routing, segmenting, error recovery

and two types of basic services to an upper-layer protocol: connection oriented and
connectionless. The transport layer is the highest layer in the OSI hierarchy in terms of
communicatons and may provide data tracking, connection flow control, sequencing of
data, error checking, and application addressing and identification.

Session Layer {responsible for dialog control and synchronization}

Session layer, some times called the dialog controller provides mechanism for
controlling the dialogue between the two end systems. It defines how to start, control and
end conversations (called sessions) between applications.

Session layer protocols provide the logical connection entities at the application layer.
These applications include file transfer protocols and sending email. Session responsibilities
include network log-on and log-off procedures and user authentication. Session layer
characteristics include virtual connections between applications, entities, synchronization of
data flow for recovery purposes, creation of dialogue units and activity units, connection
parameter negotiation, and partitioning services into functional groups.

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Presentation Layer {responsible for translation, compression, and encryption}

The presentation layer provides independence to the application processes by

addressing any code or syntax conversion necessary to present the data to the network in a
common communications format. It specifies how end-user applications should format the
data.

The presentation layer translated between different data formats and protocols.
Presentation functions include data file formatting, encoding, encryption and decryption of
data messages, dialogue procedures, data compression algorithms, synchronization,
interruption, and termination.

Application Layer {responsible for providing services to the user}

The application layer is the highest layer in the hierarchy and is analogous to the
general manager of the network by providing access to the OSI environment. The
applications layer provides distributed information services and controls the sequence of
activities within and application and also the sequence of events between the computer
application and the user of another application.

The application layer communicates directly with the user’s application program. User
application processes require application layer service elements to access the networking
environment. The service elements are of two types: CASEs (common application service
elements) satisfying particular needs of application processes like association control,
concurrence and recovery. The second type is SASE (specific application service elements)
which include TCP/IP stack, FTP, SNMP, Telnet and SMTP.

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

Data Communication Circuits

The underlying purpose of a digital communications circuit is to provide a transmission path
between locations and to transfer digital information from one station (node, where
computers or other digital equipment are located) to another using electronic circuits. Data
communications circuits utilize electronic communications equipment and facilities to
interconnect digital computer equipment. Communication facilities are physical means of
interconnecting stations and are provided to data communications users through public
telephone networks (PTN), public data networks (PDN), and a multitude of private data
communications systems.

The following figure shows a simple two-station data communications circuit. The
main components are:

Source: - This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are mainframe
computer, personal computer, workstation etc. The source equipment provides a means for
humans to enter data into system.

Transmitter: - A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to

produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission
system. For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a
personal computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be
handled by the telephone network.
Transmission medium: - The transmission medium carries the encoded signals from the
transmitter to the receiver. Different types of transmission media include free-space radio
transmission (i.e. all forms of wireless transmission) and physical facilities such as metallic
and optical fiber cables.
Receiver: - The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission medium and converts it
into a form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will

10

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

accept an analog signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a
digital bit stream.
Destination: - Takes the incoming data from the receiver and can be any kind of digital
equipment like the source.

Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

There are two methods of transmitting digital data namely parallel and serial
transmissions. In parallel data transmission, all bits of the binary data are transmitted
simultaneously. For example, to transmit an 8-bit binary number in parallel from one unit
to another, eight transmission lines are required. Each bit requires its own separate data
path. All bits of a word are transmitted at the same time. This method of transmission can
move a significant amount of data in a given period of time. Its disadvantage is the large
number of interconnecting cables between the two units. For large binary words, cabling
becomes complex and expensive. This is particularly true if the distance between the two
units is great. Long multiwire cables are not only expensive, but also require special
interfacing to minimize noise and distortion problems. Serial data transmission is the
process of transmitting binary words a bit at a time. Since the bits time-share the
transmission medium, only one interconnecting lead is required.

While serial data transmission is much simpler and less expensive because of the use
of a single interconnecting line, it is a very slow method of data transmission. Serial data
transmission is useful in systems where high speed is not a requirement. Parallel
communication is used for short-distance data communications and within a computer, and
serial transmission is used for long-distance data communications.

11

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

Data Communication Circuit Arrangements

A data communications circuit can be described in terms of circuit configuration and
transmission mode.

Circuit Configurations

Data communications networks can be generally categorized as either two point or

multipoint. A two-point configuration involves only two locations or stations, whereas a
multipoint configuration involves three or more stations.

A two-point circuit involves the transfer of digital information between a mainframe

computer and a personal computer, two mainframe computers or two data
communications networks. A multi-point network is generally used to interconnect a single
mainframe computer (host) to many personal computers or to interconnect many personal
computers and capacity of the channel is either Spatially shared: Devices can use the link
simultaneously or Timeshare: Users take turns

Transmission Modes
There are four modes of transmission for data communications circuits:

12

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

In simplex mode(SX), the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.

Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Commercial
radio broadcasting is an example. Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only or
one-way-only lines.
In half-duplex(HDX) mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction. Citizens band (CB) radio is an example where push to talk (PTT) is to be pressed
or depressed while sending and transmitting.
In full-duplex mode(FDX) (called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required
all the time. The capacity of the channel must be divided between the two directions.
In full/full duplex (F/FDX) mode, transmission is possible in both directions at the
same time but not between the same two stations (i.e. station 1 transmitting to station 2,
while receiving from station 3). F/FDX is possible only on multipoint circuits. Postal system
can be given as a person can be sending a letter to one address and receive a letter from
another address at the same time.

Data Communications Networks

Any group of computers connected together can be called a data communications network,
and the process of sharing resources between computers over a data communications
network is called networking. The most important considerations of a data communications
network are performance, transmission rate, reliability and security.

Network Components, Functions, and Features

The major components of a network are end stations, applications and a network that will
support traffic between the end stations. Computer networks all share common devices,
functions, and features, including servers, clients, transmission media, shared data, shared
printers and other peripherals, hardware and software resources, network interface card
(NIC), local operating system (LOS) and the network operating system (NOS).

Servers: Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs and the network operating
system. Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network and
different kinds of servers are present. Examples include file servers, print servers, mail
servers, communication servers etc.

Clients: Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network
resources. Client computers are basically the customers (users) of the network, as they
request and receive service from the servers.

Shared Data: Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients, such as data files,
printer access programs, and e-mail.
13

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

Shared Printers and other peripherals: these are hardware resources provided to the users
of the network by servers. Resources provided include data files, printers, software, or any
other items used by the clients on the network.

Network interface card: Every computer in the network has a special expansion card called
network interface card (NIS), which prepares and sends data, receives data, and controls
data flow between the computer and the network. While transmitting, NIC passes frames of
data on to the physical layer and on the receiver side, the NIC processes bits received from
the physical layer and processes the message based on its contents.

Local operating system: A local operating system allows personal computers to access files,
print to a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located
on the computer. Examples are MS-DOS, PC-DOS, UNIX, Macintosh, OS/2, Windows 95, 98,
XP and Linux.

Network operating system: the NOS is a program that runs on computers and servers that
allows the computers to communicate over a network. The NOS provides services to clients
such as log-in features, password authentication, printer access, network administration
functions and data file sharing.

Network Models

Computer networks can be represented with two basic network models: peer-to-peer
client/server and dedicated client/server. The client/server method specifies the way in
which two computers can communicate with software over a network.

Peer-to-peer client/server network: Here, all the computers share their resources, such as
hard drives, printers and so on with all the other computers on the network. Individual
resources like disk drives, CD-ROM drives, and even printers are transformed into shared,
collective resources that are accessible from every PC. Unlike client-server networks, where
network information is stored on a centralized file server PC and made available to tens,
hundreds, or thousands client PCs, the information stored across peer-to-peer networks is
uniquely decentralized. Because peer-to-peer PCs have their own hard disk drives that are
accessible by all computers, each PC acts as both a client (information requestor) and a
server (information provider). The peer-to-peer network is an appropriate choice when
there are fewer than 10 users on the network, security is not an issue and all the users are
located in the same general area.

The advantages of peer-to-peer over client-server NOSs include:

 No need for a network administrator
 Network is fast/inexpensive to setup & maintain
 Each PC can make backup copies of its data to other PCs for security.
 Easiest type of network to build, peer-to-peer is perfect for both home and office use.

14

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

Dedicated client/server network: Here, one computer is designated as server and the rest
of the computers are clients. Dedicated Server Architecture can improve the efficiency of
client server systems by using one server for each application that exists within an
organization. The designated servers store all the networks shared files and applications
programs and function only as servers and are not used as a client or workstation. Client
computers can access the servers and have shared files transferred to them over the
transmission medium. In some client/server networks, client computers submit jobs to one
of the servers and once they process the jobs, the results are sent back to the client
computer.

In general, the dedicated client/server model is preferable to the peer-to-peer

client/server model for general purpose data networks.

Network Topologies

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how the
computers, cables, and other components within a data communications network are
interconnected, both physically and logically. The physical topology describes how the
network is actually laid out, and the logical topology describes how the data actually flow
through the network. Two most basic topologies are point-to-point and multipoint. A point-
to-point topology usually connects two mainframe computers for high-speed digital
information. A multipoint topology connects three or more stations through a single
transmission medium and some examples are star, bus, ring, mesh and hybrid.

Star topology: A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and
peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a
star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its
destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the
network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow.

15

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

Bus topology: Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single
cable, (the backbone) functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or
tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device
on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but
only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. The bus topology is
the simplest and most common method of interconnecting computers. The two ends of the
transmission line never touch to form a complete loop. A bus topology is also known as
multidrop or linear bus or a horizontal bus.

Ring topology: In a ring network (sometimes called a loop), every device has exactly
two neighbours for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the
same direction (either "clockwise" or "counter clockwise"). All the stations are
interconnected in tandem (series) to form a closed loop or circle. Transmissions are
unidirectional and must propagate through all the stations in the loop. Each computer acts
like a repeater and the ring topology is similar to bus or star topologies.

Mesh topology: The mesh topology incorporates a unique network design in which each
computer on the network connects to every other, creating a point-to-point connection
between every device on the network. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent
on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. A

16

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. A
disadvantage is that, a mesh network with n nodes must have n(n-1)/2 links and each node
must have n-1 I/O ports (links).

Hybrid topology: This topology (sometimes called mixed topology) is simply

combining two or more of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more complex
topology. Main aim is being able to share the advantages of different topologies.

Network Classifications
One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope or
scale. Common examples of area network types are:

LAN - Local Area Network

WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network

WAN - Wide Area Network

MAN - Metropolitan Area Network

SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, or sometimes Small Area
Network

CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes Cluster Area Network

PAN - Personal Area Network

DAN - Desk Area Network

17

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

Local area network: A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers
and devices in a limited geographical area such as home, school, computer laboratory,
office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. LANs use a network operating
system to provide two-way communications at bit rates in the range of 10 Mbps to 100
Mbps. In addition to operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owned, controlled,
and managed by a single person or organization. They also tend to use certain connectivity
technologies, primarily Ethernet and Token Ring.

Advantages of LAN:

Share resources efficiently

Individual workstation might survive network failure if it doesn’t rely upon others

Component evolution independent of system evolution

Support heterogeneous hardware/software

Access to other LANs and WANs

High transfer rates with low error rates

Metropolitan area network: A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a
LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. Its geographic scope falls
between a WAN and LAN. A MAN might be a single network like the cable television
network or it usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-
capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to
wide area networks and the Internet. MANs typically operate at speeds of 1.5 Mbps to 10
Mbps and range from five miles to a few hundred miles in length. Examples of MANs are
FDDI (fiber distributed data interface) and ATM (asynchronous transfer mode).

18

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

Wide area network: Wide area networks are the oldest type of data communications
network that provide relatively slow-speed, long-distance transmission of data, voice and
video information over relatively large and widely dispersed geographical areas, such as
country or entire continent. WANs interconnect routers in different locations. A WAN
differs from a LAN in several important ways. Most WANs (like the Internet) are not owned
by any one organization but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management. WANs tend to use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for
connectivity over the longer distances.

Global area network: A GAN provides connections between countries around the entire
globe. Internet is a good example and is essentially a network comprised of other networks
that interconnect virtually every country in the world. GANs operate from 1.5 Mbps to 100
Gbps and cover thousands of miles.

Campus Area Network: - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such as on a
university or local business campus.

Storage Area Network: - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like Fibre
Channel.

System Area Network: - Links high-performance computers with high-speed connections in a

cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.

Building backbone: - It is a network connection that normally carries traffic between departmental
LANs within a single company. It consists of a switch or router to provide connectivity to other
networks such as campus backbones, enterprise backbones, MANs, WANs etc

Camus backbone: - It is a network connection used to carry traffic to and from LANs located in
various buildings on campus. It normally uses optical fiber cables for the transmission media
between buildings and operates at relatively high transmission rates.

Enterprise networks: - It includes some or all of the above networks and components connected in
a cohesive and manageable fashion.

Alternate Protocol Suites

The protocols other than OSI that are in wide spread used are TCP?IP and the Cisco three-
layer hierarchical model.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model because it
wanted a network that could survive any conditions, even a nuclear war. Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) {commonly known as internet suite} model is a
set of communication protocols that allow communication across multiple diverse
networks. TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol comprised of either three or four layers. The

19

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

three-layer version of TCP/IP contains the network, transport and application layers. Four
layer version specifies the host to network layer.

The designers of TCP/IP felt that the higher level protocols should include the
session and presentation layer details. They simply created an application layer that handles
high- level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control. The TCP/IP
combines all application-related issues into one layer, and assures this data is properly
packaged for the next layer.

The TCP/IP transport layer deals with the quality-of-service issues of reliability, flow
control, and error correction. One of its protocols, the transmission control protocol (TCP),
provides excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-flowing, low-error network
communications. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. The other protocol is User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) which is a connection less protocol.

Common TCP/IP Protocols

20

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Data C Unit-1 Introduction to Data Communications

The purpose of the Internet layer is to send source packets from any network on
the internetwork and have them arrive at the destination independent of the path and
networks they took to get there. The specific protocol that governs this layer is called the
Internet protocol (IP). Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer.

The network access layer also called the host-to-network layer is concerned with all
of the issues of physically delivering data packets using frames or cells.

Differences between OSI and TCP/IP


TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer

TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer

TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers

TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP
model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, typically networks aren't
built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a guide.

Cisco Three Layer Model

Cisco has defined a hierarchical model known as the hierarchical internetworking model.
This model simplifies the task of building a reliable, scalable, and less expensive hierarchical
internetwork because rather than focusing on packet construction; it focuses on the three
functional areas, or layers, of your network.

Core layer: This layer is considered the backbone of the network and includes the high-end
switches and high-speed cables such as fiber cables. This layer of the network does not
route traffic at the LAN. In addition, no packet manipulation is done by devices in this layer.
Rather, this layer is concerned with speed and ensures reliable delivery of packets.

Distribution layer: This layer includes LAN-based routers and layer 3 switches. This layer
ensures that packets are properly routed between subnets and VLANs in your enterprise.
This layer is also called the Workgroup layer. It also provides policy-based network
connectivity, including:
 Packet filtering (firewalling): Processes packets and regulates the transmission of
packets based on its source and destination information to create network
borders.
 QoS: The router or layer 3 switches can read packets and prioritize delivery, based
on policies set.
 Access Layer Aggregation Point: The layer serves the aggregation point for the
desktop layer switches.
 Control Broadcast and Multicast: The layer serves as the boundary for broadcast
and multicast domains.
 Application Gateways: The layer allows you to create protocol gateways to and
from different network architectures.
 The distribution layer also performs queuing and provides packet manipulation of
the network traffic.

21

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)

Access layer: This layer includes hubs and switches. This layer is also called the
desktop layer because it focuses on connecting client nodes, such as workstations
to the network. This layer ensures that packets are delivered to end user
computers. At the access layer, youcan:
 Enable MAC address filtering: It is possible to program a switch to
allow only certainsystems to access the connected LANs.
 Create separate collision domains: A switch can create separate
collision domains foreach connected node to improve performance.
 Share bandwidth: You can allow the same network connection to handle all data.
 Handle switch bandwidth: You can move data from one network to
another to performload balancing.

The benefits of the Cisco hierarchical model includes:


High Performance: You can design high performance networks, where only
certain layers aresusceptible to congestion.

Efficient management & troubleshooting: Allows you to efficiently organize network
 and isolate causes of network trouble.
management
Policy creation: You can easily create policies and specify filters and rules.

Scalability: You can grow the network easily by dividing your network into functional areas.

Behavior prediction: When planning or managing a network, the model allows you
determine whatwill happen to the network when new stresses are placed on it

Downloaded by Marketing Cabrini (marketingdept@cabrinimed.com.ph)