THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS

SERIES OF TECHNICAL
HANDBOOKS
WRITING ^ILLUMINATING
& LETTERING
University of California • Berkeley
Purchased from

THE NORMAN H. STROUSE FUND

for the Art & History of the Book

^^^
THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
OF TECHNICAL HANDBOOKS
EDITED BY W. R. LETHABY

WRITING & ILLUMINATING,

AND LETTERING
 iHP -l«fe
Frontispiece.

A SCRIPTORIUM

This drawing (about tivo-Jifths of the linear size

of the original^ is made from a photograph of a
miniature painted in an old MS. (written in 1456
at the Hague by Jean Mielot, Secretary to Philip
the Good, Duke of Burgundy}, now in the Paris
National Library (MS. Fonds frangais 9,198).
// depicts Jean Mielot himself, 'writing his col-
lection ofMiracles of Our Lady in French. His
parchment appears to be held steady by a 'weight and
also by (? the knife or Jiller in) his left hand — com-
pare fig. 4 1 in this book. Above there is a sort of
reading desk, holding MSS. for copying or reference.
WRITING & ILLUMIN-
ATING,& LETTERING
BY EDWARD JOHNSTON. WITH
DIAGRAMS & ILLUSTRATIONS
BYTHEAUTHOR&NOELROOKE
8 pp. EXAMPLES IN RED & BLACK
AND 24pp. OF COLLOTYPES

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK
JOHN HOGG
LONDON
 EDITOR'S PREFACE
IN issuing these volumes of a series of Handbooks Editor's
on the Artistic Crafts, it will be well to state what Preface
are our general aims.
In the first place, we wish to provide trustworthy
text-books of workshop practice, from the points of
view of experts who have critically examined the
methods current in the shops, and putting aside
vain survivals, are prepared to say what is good
workmanship, and to set up a standard of quality
in the crafts which are more especially associated
with design. Secondly, in doing this, we hope to
treat design itself as an essential part of good work-
manship. During the last century most of the arts,
save painting and sculpture of an academic kind,
were little considered, and there was a tendency to
look on " design " as a mere matter of appearance.
Such " ornamentation " as there was was usually
obtained by following in a mechanical way a draw-
ing provided by an artist who often knew little
of the technical processes involved in production.
With the critical attention given to the crafts by
vii
Editor's Ruskin and Morris, it came to be seen that it was
Preface impossible to detach design from craft in this way,
and that, in the widest sense, true design is an
inseparable element of good quality, involving as it
does the selection of good and suitable material,
contrivance for special purpose, expert workman-
ship, proper finish, and so on, far more than mere
ornament, and indeed, that ornamentation itself was
rather an exuberance of fine workmanship than a
matter of merely abstract lines. Workmanship
when separated by too wide a gulf from fresh
thought — that is, from design — inevitably decays,
and, on the other hand, ornamentation, divorced
from workmanship, is necessarily unreal, and quickly
falls into affectation. Proper ornamention may be
defined as a language addressed to the eye ; it is
pleasant thought expressed in the speech of the tool.
In the third place, we would have this series put
artistic craftsmanship before people as furnishing
reasonable occupations for those who would gain a
livelihood. Although within the bounds of academic
art, the competition, of its kind, is so acute that
only a very few per cent, can fairly hope to suc-
ceed as painters and sculptors ; yet, as artistic
craftsmen, there is every probability that nearly
every one who would pass through a sufficient
period of apprenticeship to workmanship and design
would reach a measure of success.
In the blending of handwork and thought in
viii
such arts as we propose to deal with, happy careers Editor's
may be found as far removed from the dreary Preface
routine of hack labour as from the terrible uncer-
tainty of academic art. It is desirable in every way
that men of good education should be brought back
into the productive crafts : there are more than
enough of us " in the city," and it is probable that
more consideration will be given in this century
than in the last to Design and Workmanship.

Of all the Arts, writing, perhaps, shows most

clearly the formative force of the instruments
used. In the analysis which Mr. Johnston gives us
in this volume, nearly all seems to be explained by
the two factors, utility and masterly use of tools.
No one has ever invented a form of script, and
herein lies the wonderful interest of the subject ;
the forms used have always formed themselves by
a continuous process of development.
The curious assemblages of wedge-shaped in-
dentations which make up Assyrian writing are a
direct outcome of the clay cake, and the stylus
used to imprint little marks on it. The forms of
Chinese characters, it is evident, were made by
quickly representing with a brush earlier pictorial
signs. The Roman characters, which are our
letters to-day, although their earlier forms have
only come down to us cut in stone, must have
been formed by incessant practice with a flat, stiff
ix
Editor's brush, or some such tool. The disposition of the
Preface thicks and thins, and the exact shape of the curves,
must have been settled by an instrument used
rapidly ; I suppose, indeed, that most of the great
monumental inscriptions were designed in situ by
a master writer, and only cut in by the mason,
the cutting being merely a fixing, as it were,
of the writing, and the cut inscriptions must
always have been intended to be completed by
painting.
The " Rustic letters " found in stone inscriptions
of the fourth century are still more obviously
cursive, and in the Catacombs some painted
inscriptions of this kind remain which perfectly
show that they were rapidly written. The ordi-
nary "lower case " type with which this page is
printed is, in its turn, a simplified cursive form
of the Capital letters. The Italic is a still more
swiftly written hand, and comes near to the
standard for ordinary handwriting.
All fine monumental inscriptions and types
are but forms of writing modified according to
the materials to which they are applied. The
Italian type-founders of the fifteenth century
sought out fine examples of old writing as models,
and for their capitals studied the monumental
Roman inscriptions. Roman letters were first
introduced into English inscriptions by Italian
artists. Torrigiano, on the tombs he made for
x
 Henry VII. in Westminster Abbey and for Dr.
Young at the Rolls Chapel, designed probably
the most beautiful inscriptions of this kind to be
found in England.
This volume is remarkable for the way in which
its subject seems to be developed inevitably.
There is here no collection of all sorts of lettering,
some sensible and many eccentric, for us to
choose from, but we are shown the essentials of
form and spacing, and the way is opened out to
all who will devote practice to it to form an
individual style by imperceptible variations from
a fine standard.
Writing is for us the most universal of the Arts,
and most craftsmen have to deal with lettering of
a more formal kind. It is a commonplace of his-
torical criticism to point out how much the Italian
artists owed to the general practice amongst them
of goldsmith's work, a craft which required accuracy
and delicacy of hand. We cannot go back to that,
but we do need a basis of training in a demon-
strably useful art, and I doubt if any is so generally
fitted for the purpose of educating the hand, the
eye, and the mind as this one of WRITING.
W. R. LETHABY.
October 1906.

XI
 " We must set up the strong present tense against all the
rumours of wrath, past or to come. So many things are
unsettled •which it is of the first importance to settle, — and,
pending their settlement, ive will do as we do. . . . Expe-
diency ofliterature, reason of literature, lawfulness of 'writing
down a thought, is questioned; much is to say on both sides, and,
'while the fight 'waxes hot, thou, dearest scholar, stick to thy
foolish task, add a line every hour, and between whiles add a
line. Right to hold land, right of property is disputed, and
the conventions convene, and before the vote is taken, dig away
in your garden, and spend your earnings as a waif or god-
send to all serene and beautiful purposes. Life itself is a
bubble and a scepticism, and a sleep •within a sleep. Grant
it, and as much more as they will, — but thou, God's darling/
heed thy private dream : thou •wilt not be missed in the
scorning and scepticism: there are enough of them: stay
there in thy closet, and toil, until the rest are agreed 'what
to do about it. Thy sickness, they say, and thy puny habit,
require that thou do this or avoid that, but know that thy
life is a flitting state, a tent for a night, and do thou, sick or
•well, finish that stint. Thou art sick, but shalt not be
worse, and the universe, which holds thee dear, shall be the
better." — EMERSON.

" / began to think that if I should discover how to make

enamels, I could make earthen vessels and other things very
prettily, because God had gifted me 'with some know/edge of
drawing. And thereafter, regardless of the fact that I had
no knowledge of drugs, I began to seek for the enamels as a
man gropes in the dark." — PALISSY.
" . . . in that communion only, beholding beauty with
the eye of the mind, he will be enabled to bring forth, not
images of beauty, but realities (for he has hold not of an
image but of a reality}, and bringing forth and nourishing
true virtue to become the friend of God and be immortal, if
mortal man may" — PLATO.
xii
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE
THE arts of WRITING, ILLUMINATING,
& LETTERING offer a wide field for the Preface
Author's
ingenious and careful craftsman and open the
way to a number of delightful occupations. Be-
yond their many uses — some of which are referred
to below — they have a very great educational value.
This has long been recognized in the teaching of
elementary design, and the practice of designing
Alphabets and Inscriptions is now common in
most Schools of Art. Much would be gained
by substituting, generally, WRITING for designing, WRITING
because writing being the medium by which
nearly all our letters have been evolved from the
Roman Capital (see p. 35), the use of the pen —
essentially a letter-making tool — gives a practical
insight into the construction of letters attainable
in no other way. The most important use of
letters is in the making of books, and the founda-
tions of typography and book decoration may be
mastered — as they were laid — by the planning,
writing, and illuminating of MSS. in book form.
Of this a modern printer (see also p. 368) says :
" In the making of the Written Book, the
adjustment of letter to letter, of word to word, of picture
to text and of text to picture, and of the whole to the
subject matter and to the page, admits of great nicety and
perfection. The type is fluid, and the letters and words,
picture, text, and page are conceived of as one and are all
executed by one hand, or by several hands all working
together without intermediation on one identical page and
xiii
Author's with a view to one identical effect. In the Printed Book
Preface tn^8 adjustment is more difficult Yet in the
making of the printed book, as in the making of the
written book, this adjustment is essential, and should
be specially borne in mind, and Calligraphy and im-
mediate decoration by hand and the unity which should
be inseparably associated therewith would serve as an
admirable discipline to that end."
And though calligraphy is a means to many ends,
a fine MS. has a beauty of its own that — if two
arts may be compared — surpasses that of the finest
printing. This in itself would justify the transcrib-
ing and preservation of much good literature in this
beautiful form (besides the preparation of " Illumi-
nated Addresses," Service Books, Heraldic and other
MSS.) and make the practice of formal writing
desirable. And furthermore as the old-fashioned
notion that a legible hand is a mark of bad breeding dies
out, it may be that our current handwriting will
take legibility and beauty from such practice. And
even the strict utilitarian could not fail to value the
benefits that might some day come to men, if children
learnt to appreciate beauty of form in their letters
and in their writing the beauty of carefulness.
ILLUMI- Of the practice of ILLUMINATING — properly
NATING associated with writing — it may be observed
that, among various ways of acquiring a knowledge
of the elements of design & decoration it is one of the
most simple and complete. Moreover, a fine
illumination or miniature has a beauty of its own
that may surpass the finest printed book-decoration.
And pictures in books may be as desirable as pic-
tures on the wall — even though like the beautiful
household gods of the Japanese they are kept in safe
hiding and displayed only now and then,
xiv
 Magnificent as are the dreams of a fine Decora-
tion based on lettering, the innumerable practical Preface
Author's
applications of LETTERING itself (see Chap. XVI.)
make the study of Letter-Craft not only desirable ING
LETTER-
but imperative. And perhaps I may here be per-
mitted to quote from The Athenaum of Feb. 3,
1906, which says of "the new school of scribes
and designers of inscriptions "
" These have attacked the problem of applied de-
sign in one of its simplest and most universal applications,
and they have already done a great deal to establish a
standard by which we shall be bound to revise all printed
and written lettering. If once the principles they have
established could gain currency, what a load of ugliness
would be lifted from modern civilization ! If once the
names of streets and houses, and, let us hope, even the
announcements of advertisers, were executed in beautifully
designed and well-spaced letters, the eye would become
so accustomed to good proportion in these simple and
obvious things that it would insist on a similar gratifica-
tion in more complex and difficult matters."
Yet Ordinary Writing and even scribbling has
had, and still might have, a good influence on the
art of the Letter maker, and at least the common
use of pen, ink, & paper makes it a simple matter
for any one to essay a formal or ' book ' hand.
A broad nib cut to give clean thick and thin
strokes (without appreciable variation of pressure)
will teach any one who cares to learn, very clearly
and certainly. And though much practice goes to
the making of a perfect MS., it is easier than people
suppose to make really beautiful things by taking a
little pains. As " copy book " hands simple, primi-
tive pen-forms — such as the Uncial & Half-Uncial
(pp. 38, 70) — afford the xvbest training and permit
Author's the cultivation of the freedom which is essential
Preface in writing : they prepare the way for the mastery
of the most practical characters — the ROMAN
CAPITAL, roman small-letter, & Italic— and
the ultimate development of a lively and personal
penmanship.
MODERN Developing, or rather redeveloping, an art in-
DEVELOP- volves the tracing in one's own experience of a process
ME NT OF resembling its past development. And it is by such
WRITING a course that we, who wish to revive Writing
& & Illuminating, may renew them, evolving new
ILLUMI- methods and traditions for ourselves, till at length
NATING we attain a modern and beautiful technique. And
if we would be more than amateurs, we must
study and practise the making of beautiful THINGS
and thereby gain experience of Tools, Materials,
and Methods. For it is certain that we must
teach ourselves how to make beautiful things,
and must have some notion of the aim and bent
of our work, of what we seek and what we do.
Early illuminated MSS. and printed books with
woodcuts (or good facsimiles) may be studied with
advantage by the would-be Illuminator, and he
should if possible learn to draw from hedgerows
and from country gardens. In his practice he
should begin as a scribe making MS. books and
then decorating them with simple pen & colour
work. We may pass most naturally from writing
to the decoration of writing, by the making and
placing of initial letters. For in seeking first a fine
effectiveness we may put readableness before " looks "
and, generally, make a text to read smoothly, broken
only by its natural division into paragraphs, chap-
ters, and the like. But these divisions, suggesting
that a pause in reading is desirable, suggest also that
xvi
a mark is required — as in music — indicating the Author's
" rest " : this a large capital does most effectively. Preface
A technical division of illumination into Colour-
work^ Pen - worky and Draughtsmanship is con-
venient (see Chap. XL). Though these are
properly combined in practice, it is suggested
that, at first, it will be helpful to think of their
effects as distinct so that we may attain quite
definitely some mastery of pure, bright, colours
& simple colour effects, of pen flourishing and
ornament, and of drawing — whether plain or
coloured, that will go decoratively with writing
or printing. This distinction makes it easier to
devise definite schemes of illumination that will
be within our power to carry out at any stage
of our development. And while the penman
inevitably gains some power of pen decoration it
is well for him as an illuminator to practise in
bright colours and gold ; for illumination may be
as brilliant and splendid in its own way as stained
glass, enamels, and jewellery are in theirs.1 At
first, at any rate, hues that have the least suspicion
of being dull or weak are to be avoided as though
they were definite
The more plainly we
" muddy
make " our
or work
" washed-out."
the more
definitely will our materials instruct us ; and such
service must precede mastery.
Referring again to good LETTERING : the MODERN
second part of this book deals with some of its DEVELOP-
Qua/ities, Forms — the Roman Capitals & their im- MENT OF
portant pen-derivatives — and Uses. It is written LETTERING

1 See Chap. XVI. « Of Colour " in " Stained Glass Work "
by C. W. Whall, in this Series, and the illuminator might
profit by the suggestion (ibid., p. 232) of playing with a home-
made kaleidoscope.
xvii B
Author's largely from the penman's point of view,1 but a
Preface chapter on inscriptions in stone has been added and
various types and modes of letter making are dis-
cussed. The essential qualities of Lettering are
legibility, beauty, and character, and these are to be
found in numberless inscriptions and writings of
the last two thousand years. But since the tradi-
tions of the early scribes and printers and carvers
have decayed, we have become so used to inferior
forms and arrangements that we hardly realize
how poor the bulk of modern lettering really is.
In the recent " revival " of printing and book
decoration, many attempts have been made to
design fine alphabets and beautiful books — in a
number of cases with notable success. But the
study of Palaeography and Typography has hitherto
been confined to a few specialists, and these at-
tempts to make " decorative " books often shew a
vagueness of intention, which weakens their in-
terest and an ignorance of Letter-craft which makes
the poorest, ordinary printing seem pleasant by
comparison. The development of Letters was a
purely natural process in the course of which dis-
tinct and characteristic types were evolved and
some knowledge of how these came into being will
help us in understanding their anatomy and dis-
tinguishing good and bad forms. A comparatively
little study of old manuscripts and inscriptions will
make clear much of the beauty and method of the
early work. And we may accustom ourselves to
good lettering by carefully studying such examples
as we can find, and acquire a practical knowledge
1 Dealing with the practical and theoretical knowledge of
letter-making and arrangement which may be gained most
effectually by the use of the pen.
xviii
of it by copying from them with a pen or chisel or Author's
other letter-making tool. A conscientious endea- Preface
vour to make our lettering readable, and models1
and methods chosen to that end, will keep our
work straight : and after all the problem before us
is fairly simple — To make good letters and to arrange
them well. To make good letters is not necessarily
to " design " them — they have been designed long
ago — but it is to take the best letters we can find,
and to acquire them and make them our own. To
arrange letters well requires no great art, but it
requires a practical knowledge of letter-forms and
of the rational methods of grouping these forms to
suit every circumstance.
Generally this book has been planned as a sort of THE SCOPE
" guide " to models and methods for Letter-crafts- OF THIS
men and Students — more particularly for those who HANDBOOK
cannot see the actual processes of Writing, Illumi-
nating, &c. carried out, and who may not have
access to collections of MSS. Much of, if not all,
the explanation is of the most obvious, but that,
I hope, gives it more nearly the value of a practical
demonstration. In describing methods and pro-
cesses Ihave generally used the present tense —
saying that they " are — " : this is to be taken as
meaning that they are so in early MSS. and in-
scriptions, and in the practice of the modern school
of scribes who found their work on them.
Regarding the copying of early work (see pp.
195, 323, &c.) it is contended that to revive an art

1 In making choice of a model we seek an essentially legible

character, remembering that our personal view of legibility
is apt to favour custom and use unduly, for a quite bad,
familiar writing may seem to us more readable than one that
is far clearer in itself but unfamiliar.
xix
Author's one must begin at the beginning, and that, in an
Preface honest attempt to achieve a simple end, one may
lawfully follow a method 1 without imitating a style.
We have an excellent precedent in the Italian
scribes who went back 300 years for a model and
gave us the Roman small-letter as a result (see p.
47). The beginners attitude is largely, and neces-
sarily, imitative, and at this time we should have
much to hope from a school of Artist-Beginners
who would make good construction the only
novelty in their work. We have almost as much
— or as little — to be afraid of in Originality as in
imitation, and our best attitude towards this pro-
blem isthat of the Irishman with a difficulty — " to
look it boldly in the face and pass on " — making an
honest attempt to achieve a simple end. Perhaps we
trouble too much about what we " ought to do " &
" do " : it is of greater moment to know what we
are doing & trying to do. In so far as tradition fails
to bound or guide us we must think for ourselves
and in practice make methods and rules for our-
selves : endeavouring that our work should be effec-
tive rather than have "a fine effect " — or he, rather
than appear, good — and following our craft rather
than making it follow us. For all things — mate-
rials, tools, methods — are waiting to serve us and
1 Much remains to be found out and done in the matter of
improving tools & materials & processes, and it would be
preferable that the rediscovery of simple, old methods should
precede new & complex inventions. We still find the Quill —
for its substance & for shaping it and keeping it sharp — is a
better tool than a modern gold or metal pen (see p. 60). The
old parchment, paper, ink, gilding-size & colours are all much
better than those now obtainable (see pp. 51, 167, 173, 178-
179). I should greatly appreciate any advice from illuminators
and letter-craftsmen as to materials and methods, and should
endeavour to make such information available to others. — £. J.
XX
we have only to find the " spell " that will set the Author's
whole universe a-making for us. Preface
Endeavouring to attain this freedom we may
make Rules and Methods serve us (see p. 22 1),
knowing that Rules are only Guides and that
Methods are suggested by the work itself: from
first to last our necessary equipment consists in
good models, good tools, & a good will. Within
the limits of our craft we cannot have too much
freedom ; for too much fitting & planning makes
the work lifeless, and it is conceivable that in the
finest work the Rules are concealed, and that, for
example, a MS. might be most beautiful without
ruled lines and methodical arrangement (see p.
343). But the more clearly we realize our limita-
tions the more practical our work. And it is
rather as a stimulus to definite thought — not as an
embodiment of hard and fast rules — that various
methodical plans & tables of comparison & analysis
are given in this book. It is well to recognize at
once, the fact that mere taking to pieces, or analys-
ing, followed by " putting together," is only a
means of becoming acquainted with the mechan-
ism of construction, and will not reproduce the
original beauty of a thing : it is an education for
work, but all work which is honest and straight-
forward has a beauty and freshness of its own.
The commercial prospects of the student of
Writing & Illuminating — or, indeed, of any Art
or Craft — are somewhat problematical, depending
largely on his efficiency & opportunities. There is a
fairly steady demand for Illuminated Addresses ; but
the independent craftsman would have to establish
himself by useful practice, and by seizing opportuni-
ties, and by doing his work well. Only an attempt
xxi
Author'g to do practical work will raise practical problems,
Preface and therefore useful practice is the making of real or
definite things. In the special conditions attaching
to work which the craftsman is commissioned to
do for another person, there is a great advantage.
And the beginner by setting himself specific tasks
(for example : making a MS. book for a specific pur-
pose— see p. 100) should give reality to his work.
As a craftsman in Lettering he might get work in
some of the directions mentioned in pp. 337-341.
Although the demand for good work is at present
limited, the production of good work will inevit-
ably create a demand ; and, finally, the value of
Quality is always recognized — sooner or later, but
inevitably — and whatever "practical" reasons we
may hear urged in favour of Quantity, the value of
Quality is gaining recognition every day in com-
merce and even in art, and there or here, sooner
or later we shall know that we can afford the best.
EDWARD JOHNSTON.
October 1906.

My thanks are due to Mr. T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, to Mr.

Emery Walker, and to Mr. George Allen for quotations : to
Mr. Graily Hewitt, to Mr. Douglas Cockerell, to Mr. A. E. R.
Gill, to Mr. C. M. Firth, and to Mr. G. Loumyer, for special
contributions on gilding, binding, and inscription-cutting : to
Mr. S. C. Cockerell for several of the plates : to Mr. W. H.
Cowlishaw, to the Rev. Dr. T. K. Abbott, to Dr. F. S. Kenyon
of the New Palajographical Society, to the Vicar of Holy
Trinity Church, Hastings, to the Secretary of the Board of
Education, S. Kensington, to Mr. H. Yates-Thompson, to
Mr. G. H. Powell, and to others, for permission to reproduce
photographs, &c. : and to Mr. Noel Rooke and G. J. H. for
assistance with the illustrations and many other matters : I
should like, moreover, to acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr.
W. R. Lethaby and Mr. S. C. Cockerell for encouragement and
advice in years past. E. J.
xxii
 ADDENDA & CORRIGENDA

P. 51. Beginners practising large writing may Addenda &

more easily use a thin, or diluted, ink ; in Corrigenda
small writing this does not show up the
faults with sufficient clearness.
P. 59. Quills often have a sort of skin (which tends
to make a ragged nib), this should be
scraped off the back.
P. 63. Until the simple pen-stroke forms are
mastered, the pen should be used with-
out appreciable pressure. With practice
one gains sleight of hand (pp. 85, 311),
and slightly changing pressures & quick
movements on to the corners, or points,
of the nib are used. The forms in the
best MSS. shew such variations ; e.g. the
Uncials in fig. 5 appear to have been
made with varying pressure (perhaps
with a soft reed) & their fine finishing-
strokes with the nib-point (comp. forms
in fig. 146). Versah likewise shew vary-
ing, and sometimes uncertain, structures
that suggest a form consisting of strokes
other than definite pen strokes.
xxiii
I1 IGS. a to «, illustrating Addenda & Corrigenda.
P. 64. A nib may be sharpened several times, before Addenda &
it is re-cut, by paring it underneath (fig. a). Corrigenda
Pp. 73 & 8 1. The thin finishing-strokes of j, & >.
F, G, J, N, are made with the point of
the nib — see note p. 63 above.
P. 99. The plan of a paper scale is shewn in fig. b.
P. 109. The dots for lines were often pricked
through the edges of the book-sheets
which were cut off after ruling (fig. c).
P. 1 1 8. The spread or wedge-shaped thin stroke,
sometimes very strongly marked, is
common in early forms (fig. d).
P. 144. "ff & 1$ : better (pen) forms of these are
shewn in fig. e.
P. 208. Ornamental Letter forms may consist of
flourishes, patterns, leaves, flowers, &c.
(see fig./).
Pp. 215-217. Diapering generally means the
variegation, figuring, or flowering, of a
plain or patterned surface, with a finer
pattern (see fig. 191^). Some diagrams
of simple patterns (g-g2 from modern
cantagalli ware) are shewn in fig. g.
Note : the more solid penwork line-
fillings in figs. 87, 126, make effective
framing borders (see fig. h).
Pp. 219-220. Note : the principle of breaking
straight or long lines, mentioned in
regard to background edges (p. 190),
and illustrated in the line-finishings (fig.
126) and flourishes (fig. 79), is related
to branching out and is re-creative,
whereas the prolonged line is tiresome
(see figs. £, k\ & comp. P).
P. 249. The B & D should be round-shouldered —
see note p. 280 below.
XXV
Addenda & P. 260. It is sometimes better to make narrow forms
Corrigenda thantocombinewideones — examplefig./.

(founded on Caslon" Ol Tydpe)Face "

and
I The large types —
"Old French" (modern) respectively
— are used in these pages as refer-
ence or index letters (not as models).
P. 280. Generally round-shouldered letters have
finer and more stable forms than square-
shouldered, and generally emphasis
should be laid on the strong^ thick stroke
running obliquely down from left to right
(\), while the weak, thin stroke (/) is
rather to be avoided (see fig. m). The
writing used in the diagrams in this
book, considered as a formal hand,
shews a little too much of the thin
stroke (see p. 485).
P. 324. Commonly letters are made more slender in
proportion as they are made larger, and
it is generally not desirable (or possible)
in practical work to have exactly similar
proportions in large and small lettering.
P. 325. g from fig. 173 inaccurate — comp. fig. 173
& see fig. n.
P. 331. Ornamental letters — see note p. 208 above.
P. 481. A small writing is often the most practical
— in the matter of speed in reading and
less bulk in the MS., besides speed in
the writing of it— but it is more difficult
for the beginner to write it well and it
is apt to lose some of the virtues of
formal penmanship (see Fine-pen writing
PP- 59> 86> 3IJ> 324> 482).
P. 485. Oblique thin stroke — see note p. 280 above.
xxvi
 CONTENTS
PAGE Contents
EDITOR'S PREFACE » . • ;•• • • » • vii
AUTHOR'S PREFACE . • ^ • • . • • • xiii
ADDENDA & CORRIGENDA .»%.». xxiii

PART I

WRITING & ILLUMINATING

CHAPTER I

THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING . . . • 35

CHAPTER II

ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (l) TOOLS

Acquiring a Formal Hand : Tools, &c. — The Desk —

Paper & Ink—Pens: The Reed: The Quill— Of
Quills generally — Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c. . . 48
xxvii
 'AGK

Contents CHAPTER III

ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : (2) METHODS

Position of the Desk— The Writing Level — Use of the

Pen— Holding the Pen— Filling the Pen, &c. . . 61

CHAPTER IV

ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : (3) MODELS

Models— Notes on Construction : Script I. — Coupling

the Letters— Spacing : Letters, Words, & Lines —
Uncial Capitals: Script II. — Numerals & Punctua-
tion Marks— Of Copying MSS. Generally ... 70

CHAPTER V

ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE

Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a

Single Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose) —
Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) — Spacing &
Planning Manuscript 85

CHAPTER VI
MANUSCRIPT BOOKS

MS. Books : Tools & Materials — Methods & Propor-

tions — The Size & Shape of the Book — The
Widths of the Margins — The Size of the Writing,
&c.— Ruling— MS. Books : General Remarks . . 98
xxviii
 CHAPTER VII Contents
VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
PAGE

Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals —

Notes on Construction of Versals— Spacing & Ar-
rangement ofVersals 112

CHAPTER VIII
BLACK & RED

Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces &

Notes in Colour — Pages with Coloured Headings —
Page or Column Heading & Initial — Versals in
Column or Marginal Bands — Stanzas or Verses
marked by Versals — Music with Red Staves —
Tail-Pieces, Colophons, &c. — Rubricating : General
Remarks 127

CHAPTER IX
LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD

Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground— Laying the

Gold-Leaf — Burnishing the Gold — Remedying Faults
in Gilding— Gold Writing— Other Methods & Re-
cipes for Gilding — Appendix on Gilding (by Graily
Hewitt) 145

CHAPTER X
THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL
LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION

Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment,

"Vellum," & Pounce — Colours — Simple Colour
Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished Gold — Burnished
Gold Forms, & Outlines — Background Capitals —
Applying the Background — Ornament of Back-
grounds 172
xxix
Contents CHAPTER XI
A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION- PAGE

Illumination — " Barbaric, or Colour-Work, Illumination"

— " Filigree, or Pen- Work, Illumination " —
"Natural, or Limner's, Illumination" . . . 193

CHAPTER XII
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION

The Development of Illumination — Line-Finishings —

Initial Letters — Borders & Backgrounds . . . 204

CHAPTER XIII
"DESIGN" IN ILLUMINATION

" Design " — Elementary Patterns in Decoration — Scale

& Scope of Decoration — Of "Designing" Manu-
scripts, Generally . . . .... 214

PART II

LETTERING

CHAPTER XIV

GOOD LETTERING — SOME METHODS OF CON-

STRUCTION & ARRANGEMENT

Good Models — The Qualities of Good Lettering— Sim-

plicity— Distinctiveness — Proportion — Beauty of Form
— Beauty of Uniformity — Right Arrangement — Set-
ting Out & Fitting In — " Massed Writing" & " Fine
Writing "—Even Spacing xxx — Theory & Practice . . 237
 CHAPTER XV Contents

THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES

PAGE

The Roman Alphabet — Proportions of Letters : Widths —

Upper & Lower Parts — Essential or Structural Forms
— Characterisation of Forms — Built-Up Forms —
Simple- Written Capitals — Uncials — Capitals & Small-
Letters — Early, Round, Upright, Formal Hands —
Slanted-Pen Small-Letters — Roman Small-Letters—
— Italics — Semi-Formal Hands — Of Formal Writing
Generally — Decorative Contrasts — Ornamental
Letters .... , 268

APPENDIX A

CHAPTER XVI

SPECIAL SUBJECTS

Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding

MSS (with Note by Doiiglas Cockerel!)— Broadsides,
Wall Inscriptions, &c. — Illuminated Addresses, &c. —
Monograms & Devices — Title Pages — Lettering for
Reproduction — Printing — Inscriptions on Metal,
Stone, Wood, &c. — Of Inscriptions Generally —
Bibliography, &c 337
xxxi
Contents APPENDIX B
CHAPTER XVII

INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE

(By A. E. R. Gill) PAGE

Treatment & Arrangement — The Three Alphabets— Size

& Spacing— The Material — Setting Out — Tools —
A Right Use of the Chisel — Incised Letters &
Letters in Relief— The Sections of Letters — Work-
ing in situ 389

NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES . . . 407

THE COLLOTYPE PLATES 431
INDEX 489

xxxu
 PART I
WRITING & ILLUMINATING
*s
ROMAN CAPITALS
III ROMAN CAPITALS
;<> I -^ -pen (& &ru$A)| tM-d* JIK
ft I r ™ * 'L -m Ar

yen
ctlp
unaoils
rn
rr
| Small aothtc
l^romans
srnaU'italicf

Ornamental

34 FIG. i.
 PART I
WRITING & ILLUMINATING

CHAPTER I
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING

NEARLY every type of letter with which we are The

familiar is derived from the Roman Capitals, and has Develop-
Writing
come to us through the medium, or been modified ment of
by the influence, of the pen. And, therefore,
in trying to revive good Lettering, we cannot
do better than make a practical study of the
best pen-forms, and learn at the same time to
appreciate the forms of their magnificent arche-
types as preserved in the monumental Roman
inscriptions.
The development and the relations of the prin-
cipal types of letters are briefly set out in the
accompanying "family tree" — fig. I. When the
student has learnt to cut and handle a pen, he
can trace this development practically by trying
to copy a few words from each example given
below.

35
 The THE ROMAN ALPHABET.— The Alpha-
Develop- bet, as we know it, begins with the ROMAN
ment of CAPITALS 1 (see fig. 2). Their fine monumental
Writing forms were evolved by the use of the chisel —

FIG. 2.

probably under the influence of writing — and had

reached full development about 2000 years ago (see
Plates I., II., and Chapter XV.).
FORMAL WRITING— the "book-hand" or
professional writing of the scribes — comes of the
careful writing of the Roman Capitals (see also
footnote, p. 38, on the beginnings of fine penman-
ship). Itwas the —
"literary hand, used in the production of exactly
written MSS., and therefore a hand of comparatively
limited use. By its side, and of course of far more
extensive and general use, was the cursive hand of the

time"2
1 "The alphabet which we use at the present day has been
traced back, in all its essential forms, to the ancient hieratic
writing of Egypt of about the twenty-fifth century before
Christ. It is directly derived from the Roman alphabet ; the
Roman, from a local form of the Greek ; the Greek, from the
Phoenician ; the Phanician, from the Egyptian hieratic. . . .
We may without exaggeration . . . carry back the invention
of Egyptian writing to six or seven thousand years before
Christ." — Sir Ed-ward Maunde Thompson, " Greek and Latin Palxo-
graphy," pp. 1-2.
* Ibid., p. 196.

36
 The
In early cursive writing — the running-hand or Writing
Develop-
ordinary writing of the people — ment of
" The Letters are nothing more than the old Roman
letters written with speed, and thus undergoing certain
modifications in their forms, which eventually developed
into the minuscule hand" l (See fig. 3.)

R? Cumve
I. to V
Writirur
CtKt?
Caps.
MinuJ'-

A cu/< *
aaaa
E e
fX /

9 5 5 5
H H- h h h h FIG. 3.

Here it is sufficient to trace the history of the

formal Latin " hands," but the continual, modifying
influence exerted on them by the ordinary cursive
writing should be borne in mind. Notable results
of this influence are seen in Half- Uncials and Italics.
SQUARE CAPITALS were formal, pen-made
Roman Capitals, of the monumental type : they
were used (perhaps from the second] till about the
i "G. & L. Palaeography," p. 204. (Minuscules = "small
letters." Half-Uncials are sometimes distinguished as "round minus-
cules"— p. 302.) 37
 The end of the fifth century for important books (see
Develop- Plate III.).
ment of RUSTIC CAPITALS were probably a variety
Writing of the " Square Capitals," and were in use till about
the end of the fifth century (fig. 4 ; see also p. 297).

5CA1AUAUJIOV150.
DLJCVUVNIAUIAD

AiNLUAVAGNAdV
FIG. 4. — ^Eneid, on vellum, third or fourth century.
ROMAN UNCIALS were fully developed by
the fourth century, and were used from the fifth
till the eighth century for the finest books (fig. 5).
Uncials are true pen-forms 1— more quickly
written than the "Square," and clearer than the
" Rustic " Capitals — having the characteristic,
simple strokes and beautiful, rounded shapes which
flow from the rightly handled reed or quill. The
i It is possible that their forms were influenced by the use of
the brush in painting up public notices and the like. The
introduction of the use of vellum — a perfect writing material —
in the making of books, led to such a great advance in the
formality and finish of the book-hands (especially of the Uncial
character) that, practically, it may be said to mark the be-
ginning of penmanship as a " fine " art. This change may be
assigned to any time between the first and the third centuries
(palaeographical dates before the fifth century must generally
be regarded as approximate).

8
 The
Writing
Develop-
ment of

JUSTJTt
JUSTVFJCA
CUSTO
FIG. 5.— Psalter, fifth century.
39
 The typical Uncial letters are the round D, E, H, M, U
Develop- (or V), and A and Q (see p. 300).
ment of ' ROMAN HALF-UNCIALS— or Semi-Uncials
Writing — (fig. 6) were mixed Uncial and Cursive forms
adopted by the scribes for ease and quickness in
writing. Their evolution marks the formal change
from Capitals to " Small-Letters"

quir UIP i

cnxb eiM^i etc u Lifrrt

p ofu eiMJ i-rcr. M o M i
FIG. 6. — S. Augustine : probably French sixth century.

They were first used as a book-hand for the less

important books about the beginning of the sixth
century.
IRISH HALF-UNQIALS were founded on
the Roman Half-Uncials (probably brought to Ire-
land by Roman missionaries in the sixth century).
As a beautiful writing, they attained in the seventh
century a degree of perfection since unrivalled (see
Plate VI.).
They developed in the eighth and ninth centuries
into a " hand.
national pointed " writing, which became the Irish
ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS (fig. 7) were
modelled on the Irish Half -Uncials in the seventh

40
century. They also developed in the eighth and The
ninth centuries into a " pointed " writing. Develop-
ment of

lUdOSCOUOTOD Writing

FIG. 7. Durham Book " : Lindisfarne, about A.D. 700.

(See also Plate VII.)

CAROLINE (or CARL07INGIAN) WRIT-

ING. — While English and Irish writing thus came
from Roman Half-Uncial, the Continental hands
were much influenced by the rougher Roman
Cursive, and were, till near the end of the eighth
century, comparatively poor.
" The period of Charlemagne is an epoch in the history
of the handwritings of Western Europe. With the revival
of learning naturally came a reform of the writing in which
the works of literature were to be made known. A decree
of the year 789 called for the revision of church books;
and this work naturally brought with it a great activity in
the writing schools of the chief monastic centres of France.
And in none was there greater activity than at Tours,
where, under the rule of Alcuin of York, who was abbot
of
theSt.exact
Martin's
handfrom 796 has
which to 804, was specially
received the namedeveloped
of the
Caroline Minuscule." 1
" Greek and Latin Palseography," p. 233.
 The
Derclop-
mcnt of
Writing

** J

p d
IG. 8.— British Museum : Harl. MS. 2790.
Caroline MS. first halfofgtti century.
(See also fig. 171 & p. 305.)
 The influence of the Caroline hands (see fig. 8) The
presently spread throughout Europe. The letters Develop-
Writing
in our modern copy-books may be regarded as their ment of
direct, though degenerate, descendants.
SLANTED-PEN or TILTED WRITING.
— The forms of the letters in early writing indicate
an easily held pen — slanted away from the right
shoulder. The slanted pen naturally produced
oblique thick strokes and thin strokes, and the letters
were " tilted " (see fig. 9).
In the highly finished hands — used from the
sixth to the eighth centuries — such as the later
Uncials and the Roman, Irish, and English Half-
Uncials, the pen was manipulated or cut so that
the thin strokes were approximately horizontal,
and the thick strokes vertical (fig. 10). The
earlier and easier practice came into fashion again
in the eighth and ninth centuries, and the round
Irish and English hands became "pointed" as a
result of slanting the pen.
The alteration in widths and directions of pen
strokes, due to the use of the " slanted pen," had these
effects on the half-uncial forms (see fig. n) :—
1. The thin strokes taking an oblique (upward)
direction (a) (giving a sharp angle with the ver-
ticals (d,a)) led to angularity and narrower forms
(a1), and a marked contrast between thick and
thin strokes — due to the abrupt change from one
to the other (#2).
2. The thick strokes becoming oblique (b) caused a
thickening of the curves below on the left (bl),
and above on the right (bz), which gave heavy
shoulders and feet.
3. The horizontal strokes becoming thicker (c) 43 gave
stronger and less elegant forms.
 The
Develop-
ment of

HVST1C
Writing

UMOAl

O
en
planted
otno- o
strokes Stilted"
FIG. 9.
Utters.

romaM

Jiorirontal pen StrofNT"

thin civi ked,
upright
Utter5.
vertical thicks
FIG. 10.

44
 4- The vertical strokes becoming thinner (d) (with The
Writing
oblique or pointed ends — not square ended) in- Develop-
creased the tendency to narrow letters. ment of

a
narrow forms.

^^/

L A X
Sudden cKano!
thuk -fe *HTii :

rtcavy i
feet (b.) thick

qti£aiam FIG. ii.

It is to be noted that the Caroline letters —

though written with a "slanted pen" — kept the
open, round appearance of the earlier forms.
45
 The TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND TWELFTH
Develop- CENTURT WRITING.— The easy use of the
ment of slanted pen, and the lateral compression of the
Writing letters which naturally followed, resulted in a valu-
able economy of time and space in the making of
books. This lateral compression is strongly marked
in the tenth century (see fig. 12), and in the

rcdno^Komfuin

drio .'
FIG. 12. — Psalter: English tenth century.
(See also Plate VIII.)

eleventh and twelfth centuries it caused curves

to give place to angles, and writing to become
" Gothic " in character (see Plate XL).
THIRTEENTH, FOURTEENTH, AND
FIFTEENTH CENTURT WRITING.— The
tendency to compression continued, and a further
economy of space was effected in the thirteenth
and fourteenth centuries by the general use of
much smaller writing (see fig. 13). In the
fifteenth century writing grew larger and taller
again, but the letters had steadily become nar-

46
rower, more angular, and stiffer, till the written The
page consisted of rows of perpendicular thick strokes Develop-
with heads and feet connected by oblique hair-lines ment of
— which often look as if they had been dashed in Writing
after with a fine pen — all made with an almost
mechanical precision (see Plate XVII.).

qucmuoamir
Haomfcs tt-bflrttfm mnt cautd
t6 ufyotfftbttn
MtUKMttttDtttSttL
FIG. ^.—Colophon of English MS., dated 1254.

ITALIAN WRITING.— In Italy alone the

roundness of the earlier hands was preserved, and
though in course of time the letters were affected
by the "Gothic" tendency, they never lost the
curved forms or acquired the extreme angularity
which is seen in the writings of Northern Europe
(compare Plates X. and XL).
At the time of the Renaissance the Italian scribes
remodelled their " hands " on the beautiful Italian
writing of the eleventh and twelfth centuries (see
Plates X. and XVIIL, XIX., XX.). The early
Italian printers followed after the scribes and
modelled their types on these round clear letters.
And thus the fifteenth century Italian formal
writing became the foundation of the " Roman "
small letters, which have superseded all others47 for
the printing of books.
 The ITALICS.— The Roman Letters, together with
Develop- the cursive hand of the time, gave rise to " Italic "
ment of letters (see fig. i, & pp. 311, 316, 483).
Writing ORNAMENTAL LETTERS originated in
the simple written forms, which were developed
for special purposes, and were made larger or
written in colour (see VERSALS, &c., figs, i, 189).
Their first object was to mark important words,
or the beginnings of verses, chapters, or books.
As Initial Letters they were much modified and
embellished, and so gave rise to the art of Illumina-
tion (see pp. 113, 114).

CHAPTER II
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (i) TOOLS

Acquiring a Formal Hand : Tools, &c. — The Desk —

Paper & Ink— Pens : The Reed: The Quill— Of
Quills generally — Pen-knife, Cutting-slab, &c.

ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : TOOLS, &C.

Acquiring THE simplest way of learning how to make

a Formal letters is to acquire a fine formal hand. To this
Hand : end a legible and beautiful writing (see p. 70)
(i) Tools should be chosen, and be carefully copied with a
properly cut pen.
For learning to write, the following tools and
materials are required :—
Desk.
Writing-paper.
Ink and^//<?r.
Pens (Reed and Quill) with "springs."

48
 Pen-knife, sharpening-stone, and cutting-slab. Acquiring
Magnifying glass. a Formal
Two-foot (preferably three-foot) rule, and pencil. Hand :
Linen pen-wiper. (i) Tools

THE DESK

An ordinary desk or drawing-board can be used,

but the best desk is made by hinging a drawing-

FIG. 14.

board ("Imperial" size) to the edge of a table.

The board may be raised and supported at any
desired angle by a hinged support, or by a round
tin set under it (fig. 14).
D For a more portable
49
Acquiring desk two drawing-boards may be similarly hinged
a Formal together and placed
Hand: ^^N^^ on a table (fig. 15).
(i) Tools / ^^ A tape or string is
tightly stretched —
horizontally — across
the desk to hold the
writing-paper (which,
as a rule, is not pinned
on). The lower part
of the writing-paper
is held and protected

FIG. 15. bX a Piece of stout

paper or vellum fixed
tightly, with drawing-pins, across and over it
(fig. 1 6). Under the writing-paper there should

FIG. 1 6.

be a "writing-pad? consisting of one or two

50
sheets of blotting-paper, or some other suitable Acquiring
substance.1 a Formal
It is a good plan to have the lower, front edge Hand:
of the desk bevelled or rounded, so that the tail (i) Tools
part of a deep sheet, which may hang below the
table, does not become accidentally creased by
being pressed against it. A curved piece of card-
board fixed on the edge will answer the same
purpose.
PAPER & INK

For " practice " any smooth — not glazed — paper

will do. For careful work a smooth hand-made
paper is best (pp. 103, in).
A good, prepared, liquid (carbon) ink is best. It
should be as black as possible, without being too
thick. A jet-black ink will test the quality of the
writing by " showing up " all the faults ; " pale "
or " tinted " inks rather conceal the faults, and
lend a false appearance of excellence (p. 322). A
thin ink greatly adds to the ease of writing (see
Addenda^ p. 23). Waterproof inks, as a rule, are too
thick or gummy, and do not flow freely enough.
The ink-bottle is kept corked when not in use,
to keep the ink clean and prevent evaporation.
Thick or muddy ink should be put away : it is
not worth while trying to use it.
A small brush is used for filling the pen.
PENS

A Reed or Cane pen is best for very large

writing — over half an inch in height — and there-
1 Some Eastern scribes use a " pad " of fur. This, or a piece
of springy cloth, or other elastic substance, would probably be
helpful, and experiments should be made in this direction.
Acquiring fore it is of great
a Formal use in studying pen
Hand: strokes and forms.
(i) Tools A Quill is best
for smaller writing,
and is used for all
ordinary MS. work

(pp.The54-6o).
REED1 pen
should be about 8
inches long.
I. One end is cut
off obliquely (fig.
!?)•

II. The soft in-

side part is shaved
away by means of a
knife laid flat against
it, leaving the hard
outer shell (fig. 18).
III. The nib is
laid, back up, on
the slab (p. 61), and
— the knife - blade
being vertical — the
tip is cut off at
right (fig.
shaft angles
19).to the
IV. A short
longitudinal slit
(a-b) is made by
1 The ordinary " Reed pen" of the artists' colourman is
rather soft and weak for formal writing. The reeds used by
the native scribes in India and Egypt, and some of the harder
English reeds, are excellent. A fine, hollow cane also makes
a very good pen.

52
inserting the knife- Acquiring
blade in the middle a Formal
of the tip (fig. 20). Hand:
V. A pencil or
brush - handle is
held under the (i) Tools
nib, and is gently
twitched upwards
to lengthen the
slit (fig. 21). An
ordinary reed
should have a slit
about f inch long.
A very stiff pen
may have in addi-
tion a slit on either
side of the centre.
The left thumb
nail is pressed
against the back
of the pen — about
i inch from the
tip— to prevent it
splitting too far up V.
(see also fig. 27). FIG. 21.
VI. The nib is
laid, back up, on
the slab, and —
the knife - blade
being vertical — the
tip is cut off at an
angle of about 70°
to the shaft, remov-
ing the first rough 53
slit a-b (fig. 22).
Acquiring VII. A strip of thin metal (very thin tin, or
a Formal clock spring with the "temper" taken out by
Hand: heating and slowly cooling) is cut the width of
(i) Tools the nib and about
t I 2 inches long. This
is folded into a
"spring" (fig. 23).
VIII. The spring
is inserted into the
pen (fig. 24).
•a. The loop a be is
c.
" sprung " into place,
• and holds the spring
in the right position.
The loop cd, which
should be rather flat,
FIG. 24. holds the ink in the
pen. The point d
should be about \ inch from the end of the
nib.
THE QUILL.— A Turkey's Quill is strong, and
suitable for general writing. As supplied by the
stationers it consists of a complete wing-feather,
about 12 inches long, having the quill part cut for
% ordinary use. For
careful writing it
should be re-made
thusI. :—The quill
I should be cut down
FlG- 2$- to 7 or 8 inches
(fig. 25) ; the long feather if left is apt to be
in the way.
II. The " barbs " or filaments of the feather are
stripped off the shaft (fig. 26).
54
 III. The nib already has a slit usually about Acquiring
inch long. This is sufficient in a fairly pliant a Hand
Formal:

(i) Tools

FIG. 26.

FIG. 27.

pen ; in a very stiff pen (see p. 60) the slit may be

lengthened to f inch. This may be done with
care by holding a half-nib between the forefinger
55
and thumb of each hand, but the safest way is to
twitch the slit open (fig. 27), using the end of
another pen (or a brush-handle) as explained under
Reed, V. (see p. 53).
IV. The sides of the nib are pared till the width
across the tip is rather less than the width desired 1
(%. 28).

FIG. 28.

V. The nib is laid, back up, on the glass slab,

and the extreme tip is cut off obliquely to the slit,
the knife blade being slightly sloped, and its edge
forming an angle of about 70° with the line of
the shaft (fig. 29 ; see also fig. 36).
1 The width of the cut nib corresponds exactly with the
width of the thickest stroke which the pen will make in
writing.

56
 *\
The shaft rests lightly fcntfe blade (w Acquiring
in the left hand (not a Formal
gripped and not pressed Hand:
down on slab at all), and
the knife blade is entered Slab
(i) Tools
with a steady pressure.
If the nib is then not
wide enough it may be
cut again ; if too wide,
the sides may be pared
down.
Cut very little at a
time off the tip of the
nib ; a heavy cut is apt
to force the pen out of
shape and spoil the edge
of the nib.
VI. The nib should
then be examined with
the magnifying glass.
Hold the pen, back
down, over a sheet of
white paper, and see that
the ends of the two half-
nibs are in the same
straight line a-b (fig.
30).The nib should have
an oblique chisel-shaped
tip, very sharply cut
(%.A so-
magnifying glass is
necessary for examining
a fine pen ; a coarse pen
may be held up against
Acquiring the light from a window — a finger-tip being held
a Formal just over the nib to direct the eye (fig. 32).
Hand:
(i) Tools

"EE«c* typical nibsFIG.

recruiting
34. natttotf
FIG. 33.

A nib in which the slit does not quite close may be

bent down to bring the two parts together (fig. 33).

58
 Uneven or blunt nibs (fig. 34) must be carefully Acquiring
re-cut. a Formal
Hand:
VII. The Spring (see Reed, VII.) (about ^ inch
by ij inch) is placed so
that the point is about
TV inch from the end of (i) Tools
the nib. The long loop
should be made rather flat
to hold plenty of ink B.
(A, fig. 35) — neither too
much curved (B : this
holds only a drop), nor C.
quite flat (C : this draws
the ink up and away
from the nib).
OF QUILLS GENERALLY

For ordinary use the nib may be cut with a fairly

steep angle, as shown
(magnified) at (a) (fig.
For very £nc stroke* But it is better for fine,
the nib kos a si 36).
sharp writing that the
angle be made very
sharp : the knife blade
is laid back (much flatter
than is shown in fig.
29) and the quill is cut
quite thin ; the knife
blade is then held verti-
cal and the extreme tip
of the nib is cut off sharp
and true (£, fig. 36).
FlG- 36. For large writing,59the
curved inside of the quill is pared fiat (c, d, fig. 36)
to give full strokes. If the nib be left curved and
hollow underneath (^), it is apt to make hollow
strokes.
The pen may be made more pliant by scraping
it till it is thinner, or by cutting the " shoulder "
(a-b, fig. 29) longer, or stiffer by cutting the nib
back until the " shoulder " is short.
Goose and Crow Quills (see p. 172).
The main advantages of a quill over a metal pen
are, that the former may be shaped exactly as the
writer desires, and be re-cut when it becomes blunt.
A metal pen may be sharpened on an oilstone,
but the process takes so much longer that there is
no saving in time : it is not easily cut to the exact
shape, and it lacks the pleasant elasticity of the quill.
A gold pen is probably the best substitute for a
quill, and if it were possible to have a sharp,
" chisel-edged " iridium tip on the gold nib, it
would be an extremely convenient form of pen.
A " fountain pen " might be used with thin ink.
PEN-KNIFE, CUTTING-SLAB, &C.

THE KNIFE. — Quill makers use a special

knife. A surgical scalpel makes an excellent pen-
knife. The blade should be fairly stout, as the

FIG. 37.

edge of a thin blade is easily damaged. It should

be ground almost entirely on the right side of the
blade (fig. 37) and kept very sharp.
60
 THE SLAB. — A piece of glass (preferably Acquiring
white) may be used for fine quills ; hard wood, a Formal
bone, or celluloid for reed and cane pens. Hand :
SHARPENING STONE.— A "Turkey" (fine) (i ) Tools
or " Washita " (fine or coarse grained) stone.
MAGNIFYING GLASS.— A. magnifying glass
(about I inch in diameter) is necessary for examin-
ing fine pen nibs to see if they are " true." A
" pocket " glass is the most suitable for general use,
and for the analysis of small writing, &c.
R ULE. — A 2, or 3-foot wood rule having brass
strips let in to protect the edges, or a metal rule.
LINEN PEN-WIPER.— K piece of an old
linen handkerchief may be used to keep the pen
clean.

CHAPTER III
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (2) METHODS

Position of the Desk — The Writing Level — Use of the

Pen — Holding the Pen — Filling the Pen, &c.
POSITION OF THE DESK

Always write at a slope. This enables you to sit Acquiring

up comfortably at your work, and to see the MS. a Formal
clearly as though it were on an easel — and, by the Hand :
resulting horizontal position of the pen, the ink is (2) Methods
kept under control. It may be seen from ancient
pictures that this was the method of the scribes
(see Frontispiece). Never write on a flat table ; it
causes the writer to stoop, the MS. is seen fore-
shortened, and the ink flows out of the pen too
rapidly.
61
 Acquiring The slope of the desk may be about, or rather
a Hand:
Formal less than, 45° to begin with : as the hand becomes
accustomed to it, it may
(2) Method* be raised to about 60°
(%The 38). "heel" of the
right hand may be tired
at first, but it soon grows
used to the position. A
rest for the left arm, if
necessary, can be attached
to the left side of the
board.
Lighting. The desk is
placed very near to a win-
dow, so that a strong light
falls on it from the left.
Direct sunlight may be
cut off by fixing a sheet
of thin white paper in the
window. Careful work
FIG. 38. should be done by daylight.
Work done by artificial
light always appears faulty
and unsatisfactory when
viewed by day.

THE WRITING LEVEL

FIG. 39. Each penman will find

for himself the writing
level along which his
pen will move most naturally and conveni-
ently (see figs. 39 and 16). The paper guard
should be pinned on about I inch below the
62
writing level : the tape is fixed across about 3 Acquiring
inches above the guard. In the case of very a Formal
large writing the space between the tape and the Hand :
guard is greater, and in the case of a very small (2) Methods
MS. it is less.
The writing level is kept constant. When one
line has been written, the writing paper — which
is placed behind the tape and the guard — is pulled
up for another line.

USE OF THE PEN

For the practical study of pen-forms use a cane

or a reed pen — or a quill cut very broad — giving
a broad, firm, thick stroke. It is the chisel edge
(p. 57) of the nib which gives the "clean cut"
thick and thin strokes and the graduated curved
strokes characteristic of good writing (fig. 40).

63
FIG. 40.

Therefore, tet the nib glide about on the surface

with the least possible pressure, making natural
pen-strokes the thickness of which is only varied
 Acquiring by the different directions in which the nib
a Formal moves (see Addenda, p. 23).
Hand: It is very important that the nib be cut "sharp,"
(2) Methods and as often as its edge wears blunt it must be re-
sharpened. It is impossible to make " clean cut "
strokes with a blunt pen (see Addenda, p. 25).
When the nib is cut back, the "shoulder"
should be cut back to preserve the elasticity of
the pen (p. 60).

HOLDING THE PEN

THE HAND holds the pen lightly and easily.

A good method is to loop the thumb and fore-
finger over, and slightly gripping, the shaft of the
pen, and support the shaft from below with the
second finger. The third and fourth fingers are
tucked, out of the way, into the palm (figs. 41, 45).
The pen should be so lightly held that the act of
writing should draw the edge of the nib into perfect
contact with the paper, both the half-nibs touching the
surface. (To make sure that the contact is perfect,
make experimental thick strokes on a scrap of
paper — pinned at the right-hand side of the desk
— and see that they are "true," i.e. that they are
of even width, with " clean cut " edges and ends.)
The writer should be able to feel what the nib is
doing. If the pen be gripped stiffly the edge of
the nib cannot be felt on the paper ; and it will
inevitably be forced out of shape and prematurely
blunted.
A thin slip of bone — a " folder " or the handle
of the
64 pen-knife will do — is commonly held in the
left hand to keep the paper flat and steady (see
fig. 41).
 THE CUSTOM ART MANNER. — The Acquiring
ancient scribe probably held his pen in the manner a Formal
most convenient to himself; and we, in order to Hand:
write with freedom, should hold the pen in the (2) Methods
way to which, by long use, we have been accus-

ixlson,
houriti
Pos of" the
uiiKile

tomed ; provided that, for writing an upright round-

hand^ the pen be so manipulated and cut as to make fine
horizontal thin strokes and clean vertical thick strokes
(see fig. 40, & footnote, p. 304).
SLANTED SHAFT, &V.— Most people are
accustomed to holding a pen slanted away from
the right shoulder. The nib therefore is cut at
E 65
 Acquiring an oblique angle l to the shaft, so that, while the
a Formal shaft is slanted, the edge of the nib is parallel with the
Hand : horizontal line of the
(2) Methods Horizon ta£ line of PQ?<*~' paper, and will there-
fore produce a hori-
zontal thin stroke and
a vertical thick stroke.
For example : if the
shaft is held slanted at

an angle
the of 70° with
horizontal, the
NIB CUT AT ANCLE nib is cut at an angle
OF JO DECREE SHAFr
FIG. 42.
of 70° with the shaft
(fig. 42). The angle
of the nib with the
shaft may vary from
90° (at right angles)
to about 70°, accord-
ing to the slant at
which the shaft is held

(%•If 43)-
the writer pre-
fers an extremely
NIBS CUT AT VARIOUS ANGLES slanted shaft, to cut
FIG. 43. the nib correspond-
ingly obliquely would
weaken it, so it is better to counteract the slant by
slightly tilting the paper (fig. 44).
To produce the horizontal thin stroke, therefore :
The slant at which the shaft is held.
The angle at which the nib is cut, and
The tilt which may be given to the paper :
1 If the edge of the nib were cut at right angles to the shaft,
obviously the horizontal stroke would not be thin, and the true
thick and thin strokes would be oblique (see "slanted pen"
writing
66 — figs. 9 & n).
 Acquiring
must be so adjusted, one to another, that the chisel a Formal
edge of the nib is parallel to the horizontal line of Hand :
the paper. Before
writing, make trial
strokes on a scrap of (2) Method.
paper to see that this
is so : the vertical
thick strokes should
be square ended and
the full width of the
nib, the horizontal
strokes as fine as
TILTED PAPER,
FIG. 44. possible.
HORIZONTAL
SHAFT, &c.—The
pen shaft is held approximately horizontal. This will

desk is
67
shewn here, \vith
a, slope of about 4jf

FIG. 45.

be found the natural position for it when the slope

 Acquiring
a Formal of the desk is about 50° or 60°.control
It gives
of thecomplete
ink in
Hand : ^. .^-ssss*""" the Den, which
pen, townicn can
(2) Methods be made run faster
noniiAi or slower by slightly
elevating or depress-
ing the shaft (fig. 45).
(.*•)
The writing- board
board [wend- may be slightly lowered
or raised with the
pen tlevated. object of elevating
fa or depressing the pen
shaft (fig. 46 & p. 1 1 8).
The pen makes a con-
siderable angle with the
\>oard raised: writing surface, so that
>en depressed
the ink, which is held
in the hollow of the
FIG. 46. nib, comes in contact
with the paper at the
very extremity of the
nib, making very fine
strokes (a, fig. 47).
The spring is ad-
justed carefully, the tip
being approximately
-fa inch from the tip
of the nib. The
nearer the spring is
to the end of the
nib, the faster the ink
flows. The loop must
be kept flattish in
order to hold the ink
FIG. 47. well (see fig. 35).
68
 FILLING THE PEN, &C. Acquiring

It is convenient to stand the ink, &c., beside the Hand •

desk on the left, and for this purpose a little cup- /2\ Methods
shaped bracket or clip may be attached to the edge
of the writing-board. The filling-brush stands in
the ink-bottle (p. 51) or pot of colour (p. 176), and
is taken up in the left hand ; the pen, retained in
the right hand, being brought over to the left to be
filled.
The back of the nib is kept dry (a, fig. 48). A

Ink }<ept below can only (ol

low the fharp tub ancL<we
sharp sttvkes

Ink occurring on batk of nib

forms a drop_ with ink belw,
So that you write with a anTp
and, cannot maJ<e sharp stovk&.
FIG. 48.

very convenient and perfectly clean method, when

care is taken, of removing any ink on the back of
the pen is to draw it across the back of the left
fore-finger.
In careful work the pen should be tried, on a
 Acquiring scrap of paper, almost every time it is filled (to see
a Formal that it is not too full and that the ink is flowing
Hand : rightly).
(2) Methods The nib is kept clean. A carbon ink (p. 5 i), through
gradual evaporation, is apt to clog the nib (especi-
ally in hot weather) ; therefore every now and
then, while the nib is in use, the spring is taken
out and the whole thoroughly cleaned. It is im-
possible to write well with a dirty pen.

CHAPTER IV
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND : (3) MODELS

Models — Notes on Construction : Script I. — Coupling

the Letters — Spacing : Letters, Words, & Lines —
Uncial Capitals : Script II. — Numerals & Punctua-
tion Marks — Of Copying MSS. Generally.
MODELS

Acquiring THE best training is found in the practice of an

a Formal upright round-hand (p. 302). Having mastered such
Hand : a writing, the penman can acquire any other hands —
(3) Models sloping or angular — with comparative ease (p. 323).
The English Half-Uncial writing in Plate VII.
is an excellent model. Those who have sufficient
time to spare for the careful study of this, or any
other legible and beautiful round-hand, should
obtain access to the MSS. in a museum, or procure
good facsimiles (see Plates at end of Book, & p. 388).
Those who have not sufficient time for a careful
and thorough study of an early MS. will find it

70
 Acquiring
easier to begin with a simplified and modernised
writing, such as Script I. (fig. 49). a Formal
Hand:

(3) Models

Half-Uncial(I.).
FIG. 49.

Before copying a hand it is well to examine care-

fully the manuscript from which it is taken : observe
its general appearance : note the character and
mode of the ruling, and the sizes and relative pro-
*-

portions of page, text, margins, and ornaments.

With regard to the actual forms of the letters and
the mode of their arrangement, such a method of
analysis as the following will be found useful, as an
aid to accuracy in copying, and definiteness in self-
criticism.
 EXAMPLE: Analysis
Acquiring METHQD Qf ANALYSIS. of inScript I. (as
a Formal fig. 50).
Hand:
THE WRITING general character : Modernised Half-
Uncial.
(Ruling) Double or single Double lines (tee
lines, &c. (see fg>< 59. 65).
PP. 3°4> 3°5): round.
Letters round or angular :
upright or sloping :
coupled or separate :: coupled.
upright.
horizontal.
2. THIN STROKES: horizontal or ob-
10, 9):lique (see figs.
medium.
3. THICK STROKES: heary, medium, or
183): (see fig.
light

4. "HEADS" & character (see fig.

"FEET": 145): solid, triangular, Is'c.
medium.
5. STEMS (ascending short, medium, or
fcJ* descending): 183):
l°ng (see fig.

6. SPACING (Letters, close or wide (see fairly close (see figs.

Words, fig. 154):
Lines) : 54, 55)-
7. ARRANGEMENT: in mass (of equal in mass o equal lines
lines), or in (see Jig. 66).
column (of un-
equal lines) (see
fig. '54):
8. MEASUREMENTS width of thick I = about £s" -wide.
(\3 proportions see stroke (see p. 83):
pp. 324, 327) : height of o and d
(see pp. 82, 84) :
writing lines, dis-
d= ;; {\"Mgh\
tance apart (see Lines l" apart.
p. 8i):
9. COMPONENT number and forms a has 3 strok s.
PARTS: (see pp. 75, 81, b i, 3 »
84): f M 2 ,.
and so on (seeJig. 51).

72
 NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION — SCRIPT I.
Acquiring
a Formal
The pen generally is held so as to give approxi- Hand:
mately horizontal thin strokes (see p. 66), but in
making v (w, y) and x, parts of z, &c., it is
"slanted." In figs. 51 and 57 these forms are (3) Models
marked with a small diagonal cross X (see also p. 25).
Most of the strokes begin as down-strokes, but at
the end of a down-stroke, when the ink is flowing
freely, the stroke may be continued in an upward
direction (as in coupling-strokes , &c., the feet of
letters, the thin stroke of x, and, if preferred, in
making the last stroke of g", s, and y).
While the ink is still wet in a down-stroke, the
nib may be replaced on it and be pushed w^ward
and outward to form the round arch in b, h, m, n,
p, and r. This stroke, reversed, is also used for the
top of t.
The making of these UP-strokes is shown
diagrammatically in fig. 51.
NOTE. — The forms -foinx in fig. 51 contain
all the principal strokes in this alphabet, and are
therefore useful for early practice.

COUPLING THE LETTERS

The letters are joined together by means of

their coupling-strokes, which for this purpose may
be slightly drawn out, and forward, from the
naturally round forms of the letters (see c, e, &c.,
fig. 52 & fig. 59).
The coupling-strokes are finishing strokes — and as
such are akin to serifs (p. 244) — growing out of or
added to such stems as need "finishing."
Coupling enables one to write faster and with
73
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models

hjuklrriri
oporstn
VUJXLJZ&
FIG. 50.
74
 minx
CLce.ni
+ normal
ortnal po5iricm(S*fal#"' p6^ • m.& n.

UP
FIG. 51.
 liring more freedom, the concluding or " coupling " stroke
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models T rvrrl **Ki 1*1 rv^^-n « ft.ati)

* ......... Joul fr* front.

mnprvwxy
* i
Iff.
E anwtiiur-

speco

SF
l
thus&

,
ri#ht.rt. rr
COUPLING OF LETTERS
forreftxnce <m(y* •* ^
^•/* *v^ *f- f rC natuitdfy.
Shjorixur now me Utters of Script I. join mosr
FIG. 52.

not being slowed down^ but written with a dash,

which is covered by the first stroke of the succeed-

76
ing letter. It keeps the individual words more Acquiring
distinct, and therefore permits closer spacing of the a Formal
text. Coupling is for convenience and legibility, Hand :
and where it tends to interfere with legibility, we (3) Models
must be careful. The freer and more cursive the
hand, the greater is the tendency to join and run
letters together, as in ordinary writing.
It is preferable to couple letters below, if possible.
Couplings above are sometimes apt to confuse the
reading ; for example, the cross-bar of t (though
the most natural coupling for the scribe to use — see
petals, Plate VII.) should generally be made to
pass over or fall short of the succeeding letter (see
fig. 52).

SPACING : LETTERS, WORDS, & LINES

The letters of a word are fitted together so

that there is a general effect of evenness. This
evenness is only to be attained by practice : it is
characteristic of rapid skilful writing, and cannot
be produced satisfactorily by any system of measure-
ment while the writer's hand is still slow and
uncertain. It is worth noting, however, that the
white interspaces vary slightly, while the actual
distances between the letters vary considerably,
according to whether the adjacent strokes curve (or
slant) away or are perpendicular (figs. 53, 152).
It is sufficient for the beginner to take care that
two curved letters are made very near each other,
and that two straight strokes are spaced well apart.
If the curves are too far apart there will be spots
of light, and where several heavy stems are made
too close together, " blots " of dark, marring the
evenness of the page.
77
Acquiring Words are kept as close as is compatible with
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models Cjrutest distance: Less^. TWO
Straight ample* STRAIGHT
5TROKE5.

ID TO
Stmivht 1 Jtnuqht &
anwl&i JKairftd, CURVED
-fa curved. not coupled-
Least : Aist-
o^ve^.
THE 5PACWG OF SMAU LETTER*
only:
S(iavin<rfirnftrente
fiow the Sntatl Letters
are spaced nwst natumlly .
FIG. 53.

legibility. The average space between two words

is the width of the letter o (fig. 54).

78
 Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
FIG. 54.
(3) Models
The Lines in massed writing (see p. 262) are kept
as close together as is compatible with legibility.
The usual distance apart of the writing-lines is about
three times the height of the letter o (see also p. 327).
The descending strokes of the upper line must
" clear " the ascending strokes of the lower line.

distance
r '- apart

FIG. 55.

Interlocking of these strokes may be avoided by the

experimental placing of p over d (fig. 55).

UNCIAL CAPITALS : SCRIPT II.

These modernised Uncials (see fig. 56, & p. 300)

are intended to go with Script I., and their analysis
and mode of construction are almost identical with
those of Script I. (see pp. 72, 73).
79
 ABpbe
Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:
(3) Models

Fqbijk
LCDNO
RST
MCMIV.

80
Uncial*.

Wl
FIG. 56.
O4'^f tQl««W^^MA
G/ s
lJE
^ ^9± ^f Vv ^iJUJr^C ^iOI*tfl> TTl^V

•%;:»f!^Ut
/^ ^ ^* v^
Acquiring Grouping : Uncials have no coupling-strokes ; when
a Formal
Hand:
several are used together, they are not joined, but
evenly grouped, allowing as before for curves and
(3) Models straight strokes (see p. 77).
Spacing : (a) When used with Script /., Uncials are
written on the same lines, and
have to follow the same spacing
(in spite of their longer stems),
(b) When Uncials are used by themselves,
their spacing maybe wider (p. 297).
NOTE. — The height of Uncial o is about equal to
the height of the Half- Uncial d.
NUMERALS & PUNCTUATION MARKS
(See fig. 57.)

These are best made with a " slanted " pen (fig. 9).
When writing " Arabic numerals," I and 0 may
be made on the tine, 2468 ascending, and 3579 de-
scending.

OF COPYING MSS. GENERALLY

When copying a MS. it is best to choose a

complete page — or part of a page — to be copied in
facsimile.
Two or three lines are copied to begin with ;
then the composition of the individual letters and
words is studied by means of a large pen ; a'nd
finally the whole page is copied in facsimile. (Of
practising, see pp. 85, 86).
Make a general examination and analysis as
suggested at p. 71. Accurate measurements will
be found helpful.
Take the heights of the o and the d, and the
distance
82 apart of the writing-lines with dividers
The width of the thick stroke is best found by Acquiring
making experimental thick strokes — the fu// width a Formal
Hand:
of the pen nib — on a scrap of paper : cut the paper
in half across the thick strokes, and place the cut
edge on the thickest strokes in the original MS., you
will then find whether the pen nib should be cut (3) Models
wider or narrower.
The direction of the thickest strokes is approxi-
mately at right angles to the direction of the thin
strokes ; which commonly approaches the horizontal
in early round hands, and is oblique in other hands
(see figs. 9 and 10). The positions both of these
strokes in the model, and of your pen, determine the
angle of the nib. Therefore, cut the nib across at such
an angle to the shaft of the pen that, when you hold the
pen naturally, the direction of the thin strokes which it
makes on the writing paper will coincide with the direc-
tion ofthe thin strokes in the model ; but
(a) The way in which the shaft is held,
(b) The angle at which the nib is cut,
(c) The position of the writing paper,
may all be slightly varied, so that the direction of
the thin strokes can be followed exactly (see p. 66).
The writing paper is cut and ruled exactly in
accordance with the model ; and the heights of the
letters and the widths of the thick strokes in the
copy agree as nearly as possible with those in the
original. It is therefore a good test for accuracy
83
— when a few lines of writing have been copied — to
measure and compare their lengths. If they corre-
spond with their originals, it goes far to prove the
copy a good one.
Before copying more of the page, the construc-
tion of the letters should be carefully studied. The
number and the forms of pen-strokes in each letter
Acquiring are found by examination — with a magnifying glass
a Formal
Hand : if necessary — and by the experimental putting to-
gether of strokes, to form a similar letter. For this
(3) Models a large pen, such as a reed, is useful, and it is a good
plan to write individual letters and words exactly
two, three, or four times their height in the model :
both the pen nib and the individual letters are made
correspondingly two, three, or four times as wide as
in the original.
It is particularly important, in copying, to pre-
serve accurately the proportion of the thick stroke to
the height and width of a letter (see p. 324). These
are conveniently measured by the pen nib itself, or
by the estimated width of the thick stroke ; thus,
in the writing shown in fig. 50, the width of the o
is approximately fivey and the height approximately
four, times the width of the thick stroke.
Not only must the copier ascertain what the
forms are like and what are their proportions, but
he must try to find out how they were made. This
is of the greatest importance, for the manner of
making a letter, or even a single stroke, affects its
form and character with a definite tendency (see
p. 416 & fig. 172). And this becomes more marked
the faster the writing. An apparently right form
may yet be wrongly — if slowly — made ; but in
rapid writing, a wrong manner of handling the pen
will inevitably produce wrong forms. As the real
virtue of penmanship is attained only when we can
write quickly, it is well worth training the hand
from the beginning in the proper manner.
Patient and careful examination should be made
of the changing pen-strokes, and of the mode in
which they join — to form letters — and begin and end
— to form " heads " and " feet." This, accompanied
by practical experiments in cutting and handling the Acquiring
pen, will bring out details of the utmost technical a Formal
Hand:
value. A certain amount of legitimate " faking "
(p. 246), play of the pen, and sleight of hand (p. 311),
may be found, but, in the main, the regular, natural,
thick and thin strokes of the pen, and the orderly (3) Models
arrangement of the writing, give to a manuscript
its beauty and character.
Then having cut the nib rightly, you may, in a
sense, let the pen do the writing^ while you merely
follow the strokes of the model, and you will, in
course of time, have the pleasure of seeing the same
beautiful writing — in the very manner of the ancient
scribes — growing under your own hand.

CHAPTER V
ACQUIRING A FORMAL HAND: (4) PRACTICE

Practice — Scripts I. & II. — Arranging & Ruling a

Single Sheet — Problem I. (a Sheet of Prose)—
Problem II. (a Sheet of Poetry) — Spacing &
Planning Manuscript.
PRACTICE
85
IN acquiring a formal writing the penman should Acquiring
have two paper books constantly in hand : one for a Formal
the study of the forms of letters, the other for both Hand :
the letters and their arrangement. The first should (4) Practice
contain large and very carefully made writing —
with perhaps only one word to the line ; the second
 Acquiring should have smaller and quicker writing, neatly
a Formal arranged on the pages, with four or five words to
Hand : the line. (See MS. Books, Chap. VI.)
(4) Practice A broad nib is used in preference to a narrow
one, so that the characteristics of true pen-work
are brought out and the faults made clear. A fine,
light handwriting is often very pretty, but it is
certain to mislead the novice in penmanship (see
P- 324);
Having acquired a formal hand the penman may
modify and alter it, taking care that the changes
are compatible, and that they do not impair its
legibility or beauty. Such letters as are obsolete he
replaces by legible forms akin to them in feeling,
and, the style of the selected type becoming very
naturally and almost unconsciously modified by
personal use, he at length attains an appropriate
and modern Formal-Handwriting. The process of
" forming " a hand requires time andresembles
practice :theit

passage of
" Copy-book "
into " Run-
ning " hand,
familiar to us
all (see p. 323).

SCRIPTS I. & II.

^L^p %^
^^^ M the Having cut
nib of
FIG. 58. reed or large
quill to the
exact width required for the thick stroke, copy the
component strokes of the letter (X (Script I.), and
86
immediately make the complete letter : go through Acquiring
a Formal

z
A P"P>\ Hand :
f I \ (4) Practice

ICT
the whole alphabet in this way several times (fig.
58). Next join the letters together (see p. 73)
 Acquiring to form words — writing always between ruled lines
a Formal (fig. 59 & p. 414).
Hand : Script II. is similarly practised : the letters are
(4) Practice grouped (p. 82) to form words (fig. 60).
Next make a neat page of large writing, and,
if possible, write such a page every day. The more
definite and methodical practice is, the better.
"Practising" anyhow^ on scraps of paper, does
more harm than good.

TO the ratkmoL
anijrnaL the same
art Is axxrnrding'
to nature andL ac
to reason
FIG. 61.

ARRANGING & RULING A SINGLE SHEET

The size of an inscription is commonly settled

before the arrangement of the text is planned out,
being determined by considerations of its future
position and office, or by custom and use (see
pp. 100-103 & 351).
88
 The proportions of the writing, spacing, and Acquiring
margins will likewise properly settle themselves (see a Formal
pp. 265, 103, 107), but where the size of the sheet Hand:
only is fixed, we have, broadly speaking, to decide (4) Practice
between " large " writing with " small " margins
(fig. 61), and "small" writing with "large" margins
(fig. 62).

TO tke rational onirnxiL

the same act (0 ajxording
to nature
to reasoiv-M. according-""
ancL AntEmiruis.

FIG. 62.

Generally a compromise is arrived at and the

proportions are more evenly balanced (fig. 63).
Ruling (see also pp. 258, 99). — The mode of ruling
marginal lines and writing lines is shown in fig. 65.
The ruling should be light, but firm and accurate.
A fine pen, or hard pencil, or a blunt point may be
used. Where the writing lines are double (as for
round hands, p. 304), it is best to have a double
ruling point (see fig. 77). Two hard pencils firmly
 Acquiring lashed together make a convenient tool for large
a Formal work : the distance between the [points is easily
Hand: adjusted by means of aismall wedge.
(4) Practice

TO tKeTrcti0naL
animal the same
tx> is according-^
actnature and cue-
coixliruh to reason.
FIG. 63.

PROBLEM I. (A SHEET OF PROSE)

To write out the Pater noster (50 words) in a formal

round-hand (arranged in " mass " of equal lines) on a
sheet of "foolscap" (i.e. 17 inches high and 13 J inches
wide).
If the size of the writing be considered of the
first importance, a few words are written out in a
script chosen to suit the subject, the space, &c.,
and these are measured to find the area which the
whole text so written would occupy (fig. 64). The
size of the script is then modified, if necessary, to
suit the available area.

90
 Acquiring
a Formal
Hand:

(4) Practice

These f. *<m& take about IQSq.

inches:
wcm& of
a space
FIG. 64.
Si ** tt&*f%
A sheer I7.uidu>s high & 131 inches wufe.(&p)
£uied wim thirteen ^double) lines -J""
cUstxmce between

FIG. 65.
 I
Acquiring
quL es in_Ja Formal
Pater noster, « rf tv H Practice
: scarictijicetiir narn£;
rajnumj
.r-.
hint vo i o
in-coelo et in. tenxL
panem. nostnirn ouotLdi-j
iaiuinrL da nobis hodjue-^J
jGt dimilte nobis debitn, 1
iTiostrcL.sicut
1 * etTiosdinulj
timuus ddbilzmbiiB nostrlq
ne nos iiudiucas intEnLi
. SecL liLera HD9;
amalD. A CD 6 N
FIG. 66.
93
 Acquiring Frequently it is desirable first to determine the
a Formal sizes of the margins. These depend on various
Hand : considerations of the position and office of the MS.,
(4) Practice but more particularly on the size of the sheet and
the character of its future environment l (see p. 35 1).
The top and side margins may be of equal width
— or the top may be a little less (see #, fig. 70). Ample
space should be allowed for the foot margin, which
is generally about twice the width of the top, but
may vary in different cases, according as the text
falls short of or encroaches upon it (see pp. 352, 342).
For a plain foolscap sheet : sides (each) 2j inches,
top (approx.) 2 inches, and foot (approx.) 4 inches,
may be taken as suitable margins (fig. 65).
The width of the sheet (13^ inches) less the two
side margins (2j inches each) gives the length of the
writing lines (13^ — 5 = 8-^ inches). One or two
such lines are written experimentally in a suitable
script (say, T5-g- inch), and the average number of
words per line (four) is found.
The number of words in the complete text
(fifty) will determine the number of lines : an extra
line or so may be allowed for safety (^=12^, say,
thirteen). The spacing of these is calculated —
-^ in. writing requires about £ in. (close) spacing (p. 79) :
Thirteen lines at £ in. gives nf in. =depth of text :
I if in. from 17 in. leaves 5f in.2 for head and foot margins
— and if the space is not sufficient, the writing is
made a little smaller. If, on the other hand, the
1 For example, a framed sheet does not require such wide
margins as a similar sheet w/zframed.
2 Really about 6 inches, because the top line of writing will
not occupy its full |- inch, the unused part of which adds to
the top margin (see fig. 65).

94
marginal depth left over were excessive, the writing Acquiring
might be made a little larger in order to fill up the a Formal
space. Hand :

PROBLEM II. (A SHEET OF POETRY) (4) Practice

To write out " He that is down, needs fear no fall"

in a formal round-hand on a sheet of foolscap (i.e.
I y inches high X 13 J inches wide).
Here there are three verses of four lines each :
these with two space lines, left between the verses,
give a total of fourteen lines (fig. 67).
A poem has a given number of lines of various
lengths, and only very strong reason or necessity
can justify our altering its proper form (e.g. by
breaking up the lines) in order to make a mass of
equal lines. Such theoretical margins as are pos-
sible in the treatment of prose can therefore seldom
be observed in writing out a poem, and, unless the
height or the width of the sheet can be altered, there
is apt to be an excess of margin in one or the other
direction. When such excess margin is obviously
unavoidable, no objection can be made to its appear-
ance. Poetry may conveniently be treated as "fine
writing" (see p. 263).
If the size of the writing be considered of the
first importance, several of the longer lines (e.g. the
first and the eleventh in the poem given) are written
on a piece of paper in the size of writing preferred
(say, J inch). By laying this paper on the given
sheet, it is seen whether such lines would allow of
sufficient side margins. (If they would not, the
writing may be made smaller.)
The height of the writing (J inch) must allow of
the full number of lines (fourteen) being properly

95
Acquiring J-J e (j^Qj^ \Q douun, needs fear no
He that is louu, no prixle :
He that is humble, ever shalL
Have Cjod tr> be his quide .
"1
lam canten^uiitK-Ujhcitl have,
jLitde be it or rnujdi. : I crave
LarcL^ cantEntrnent stilL I
Becaiise thoa savest suich..

to suudv cuburdLan ie ,
That ^o art pilijrinuige :
re little, andL hereafter bliss ,
beet ifom axie « to axje
*j

96 FlG- 67-
spaced on the sheet (17 inches) with sufficient head Acquiring
and foot margins. This is calculated — a Formal
Hand:
£ in. writing requires approximately f in. spacing (p. 79) : / \ practice
Fourteen lines at £ in. gives 10^ in. = depth of text :
lo£ in. from 17 in. leaves 6£ in. for head and foot margins

— and if the space were not sufficient, the lines

might be made a little closer, or the writing a little
smaller (or, if necessary, the blank lines might be
left out between the verses ; p. 123).
The Sizes of the Margins. — It will be seen that
the above method is primarily for settling a length
of line which will allow of sufficient side margins.
The process can be reversed ; if necessary, the side
margins are made of a given width, thus deter-
mining the exact length of the line, the size of
writing which this line allows being found experi-
mentally.
NOTE. — The extra long lines may slightly en-
croach on the right-hand margin : the effect of
this is balanced by the falling short of other lines.

SPACING & PLANNING MANUSCRIPT

In penmanship great nicety of spacing and

arrangement is possible. The ascending and de-
scending strokes may be shortened or drawn out,
the spaces between letters and words may be
slightly increased or decreased, the lines may be
written near or far apart, and the letters may
be written with a broader or narrower nib.
Elaborate spacing and planning, however, should
not be attempted at first, and straightforward,
undesigned work is often the best. The student
is apt to waste time writing out an elaborate draft
G 97
 Acquiring in order to ascertain how to space the matter,
a Formal This is a mistake, because if written well, it is a
Hand : waste of good writing on a mere draft ; if written
(4) Practice i\\9 it is bad practice. The briefer experiments
and calculations are, the better, though the simplest
problem always requires for its solution a calcula-
tion or process of guess and trial (such as suggested in
the preceding pages). Practice will make people
very good guessers, and the best work of all is done
when the worker guesses rightly, and follows his
guesses with the actual work, itself the trial and
proof of accuracy.

CHAPTER VI

MANUSCRIPT BOOKS1

MS. Books: Tools & Materials— Methods & Propor-

tions—The Size & Shape of the Book— The Widths
of the Margins — The Size of the Writing, &c. —
Ruling — MS. Books: General Remarks.

MS. BOOKS : TOOLS & MATERIALS

Manuscript The making of manuscript books, based on a study

Books of the early MSS., offers the best training to the
scribe and illuminator in writing, lettering, rubricat-
ing, gilding, illuminating initials and borders, and
miniature painting, and is the best means of mas-
tering the foundations of Book Typography and
Decoration.
Materials, &c. for MS. Books ; Paper (see pp. 51,
103, ill, 317); Vellum and Parchment and Pounce
1 MS. Books are further considered in Chap. XVI.
(see pp. no, 167, 173-5). — Cut a small sheet the Manuscript
size of a page of the book, and clip the long edge Books
between two flat pieces of wood (holding it as it
would be if bound). If the page will bend over and
stay down by its own weight, it is thin enough
(R) fig. 68) ; if it stands up (W), it is too stiff.

R.

FIG. 68.

Cutting Sheets. — A frame or template (the size

of the sheet desired) is used by parchment makers.
It is useful for cutting out the sheets for a common
size of parchment book. They are cut on the end-
grain of wood, or on card or glass.
Folding. — A Folder •, as used by bookbinders (or
a bone paper-knife), is useful, and also a Set or
T-Square for testing right angles, &c. The fold
and the top edge of each book-sheet are commonly
squared by proper folding.
Ruling, &c. (see p. 343). — For marking distances
of lines, a carefully prepared paper * scale or pattern
(p. 25) and an awl (p. 109), or a "star-wheel" —
1 The direct use of a thick wood or metal scale may lead to
inaccuracy.
99
Manuscript having regular intervals between the spikes — may
Books be used. Or the ruling — of the writing lines —
may be simplified by using a stout card frame
(internally the size of the text-column) with strips
glued across it : for a common size of book this
might be made in stout tin or other metal. The
lines are commonly ruled with a ruling stylus (see
figs. 72, lines
rule six 77), at
or once.
a sort of "rake" may be made to
Meriting, Colouring^ Gilding, Binding (Chaps. II.,
X., IX., XVI.).

METHODS & PROPORTIONS

Having to make a manuscript book for a specific

purpose, the scribe formulates in his mind a general
plan of the work, and decides approximately the
respective sizes of page and of writing which seem
most suitable.
He endeavours to fashion the book in accord
with its use, and therefore allows the (most suitable)
material, the subject-matter and the office of the
book, and the way in which it will be read and
handled, to determine as far as is possible the pro-
. portions of its parts, and its treatment as a whole.
Its material may be vellum, parchment, or paper,
on which a variety of pens, brushes, and other tools,
with inks, colours, and metal foils, may be employed.
Its office may be " useful " or " ornamental " ; its
contents may be long or short, weighty or light,
and of greater or less worth ; it may be for public
or for private use ; and the book may be intended
to be placed on a lectern, to be held in the hand,
or to be carried in a coat pocket.
In following out such natural indications, the
100
practised craftsman relies greatly on his working Manuscript
methods, preferring a direct mode of treatment to Books
one which is too ingenious or subtle. In deciding
a doubtful point, a common-sense of proportion is
a sufficient guide, and one may generally assume
that great works are best "writ large," and that
large letters look best on an ample page, and vice
versa.
The main proportions which have to be con-
sidered are interdependent, and follow one another
in their natural order (see p. 256), thus —
1 . The size and shape of the book.
2. The widths of the margins.
3. The size of the writing^ &c.
And the methodical scribe makes his books of
certain definite and regular sizes, each size having
corresponding and regular proportions of margins
and writing. Though these may greatly depend
on individual taste and experience, it is suggested
that — like all good designs — they should be allowed
as far as possible to settle and arrange themselves.

THE SIZE & SHAPE OF THE BOOK

A book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an

open book, and the width and height of its pages
are chosen with a view to its convenient shape
and pleasant appearance when open. The most
economical sizes into which a suitable sheet of
paper can be folded (or a skin of parchment can
be cut) may commonly be allowed to decide these
proportions.
When a printer is about to print a book he
chooses a sheet of paper which will fold into a
suitable shape and size. If the sheet be folded
101
Manuscript once to form two leaves, the book is called a folio
Books (fig. 69) ; folded again to form a " section " of four

folio folding Quarto folding Octavo

a
•folio(section). Quarto section. Octavo setfum*.

"ovtnno'
jvtio "vvaiuy' FIG. 69.

leaves — a quarto (4*0) ; or folded a third time to

form a section of eight leaves — an octavo (Svo).1
1 The
sides two,sheet
of the four,before
eightit(or more) pages
is folded. Two areor printed on both
more sheets are
generally folded and put together to form a folio "section,"
IQ2
The book is made up of a number of sections Manuscript
sewn on to strings or tapes (see p. 347). Books
The penman will find that, besides saving time
and labour, it conduces to good work if he keep to
certain regular sizes for "large," "medium," and
" small " books ; and, if the ordinary sheets of
paper which he uses will fold in convenient folio,
quarto, and octavo sizes, it is well that he make
these his standards for paper books.
Paper being made in sheets of various dimen-
sions, byfolding a large or a small sheet, a "large "
or " small " folio — 4to, 8vo — can be obtained.
It may be noted that the length and the width
of sheets of paper 1 are very commonly about as 9 is
to 7. And therefore, when the sheet is folded for
folio or octavo, the proportions are roughly about
7 : 4j, which are very good proportions for a page
of a book. It is obvious that a narrow (" upright ")
book is easier to handle and more pleasant in appear-
ance (when open) than an album or "oblong" shape
of book (b and c, fig. 70).
THE WIDTHS OF THE MARGINS

Margins are necessary in order to isolate and

frame a text : thus they contribute to its legibility
and beauty. It is better that they be wide rather
than narrow (see p. 106, & NOTE, p. 265) ; but
excessively wide margins are often neither convenient
nor pleasing (see p. 222).
The "page" or column of text should be in 103
such proportion to the page of the book, and be
placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate
Such as Foolscap (I7"xi3i"),
" * 20"), &c. Crown (20" XI 5"), Demy
Manuscript margins on every side. A narrow column of text
Books is generally best, for short lines are easiest to write
and to read, and do not tire the hand, or the eye, in
passing from one line to the next. For this reason
the text is often divided into two or more columns

Sirt^fe Shtft (a) "UprMt'shaptof'Book (j>.)

Inter prowrtum* of WIDE MARGINS fcc.

Shop&f
Book (c.>
umn5:Sce
also &?.2d2
O
FIG. 70.

when the page is wide, or the writing is very small

in comparison.
The exact proportion of margin to text in a
given page depends on circumstances, and is largely
a matter
104 of taste (ex. fig. 7 1 & note 2, £, p. 256). But
just as it is advantageous generally to keep to certain
 Top margin approximately £ inch (measured to the
top of the -writing on the frst line — see also Jig. 65).

Inner
margin
§ inch.

FIG. X71. 7$
— Diagram 10
inches inches as showing the ruling book
for a manuscript of a (allowing
(Recto') page
five54}
or
six words to the Writing-line). There are fifteen Writing-
lines, the Line-space being ^ inch.
The proportions of large CAPITALS, shown above, are set
by the Line-space (footnote, p. 221).
The Foot margin is \\ inch.
Manuscript sizes of pages, it is well to keep to certain — corre-
Books spending — sizes of margins for regular use.
The proportions of the margins to each other follow
a sort of tradition (see fig. 70), the foot margin (4)
usually being twice as wide as that at the top (2),
the side margins generally greater than the top and
less than the foot. The two pages of an opening
may be viewed as one sheet having two columns of
text ; and the two inner margins, which combine
to form an interspace, are therefore made narrow
(about ij each), so that together they are about
equal to one side margin (fig. 70). These propor-
tions (\\ : 2 : 3 14) approximate to the proportions
common in early MSS.
Sufficient and proportional margins add greatly
to the usefulness and beauty of a book. That the
writers and illuminators used them when books
were read and valued in a way we can scarcely
realise now, shows that such things are not, as
some might suppose, a matter of affectation. Be-
sides the natural fitness of the common proportions
commends them : a deep foot margin is a founda-
tion to the whole, and gives a spare piece for the
reader to hold,1 and wide side margins rest the eyes
and keep the text from " running off the page " at
the end of each line ; and (the two) narrow inner
margins combine to separate the pages sufficiently,
but not too far, so that they form two " columns "
together, framed by the outer margins of the open
book.
When books are meant to be bound, from TV inch
to -J- inch extra margin should be allowed all round
the page for the cutting down and binding. The
1 In Oriental books, which are sometimes held by their top
margins, the top is deepest.
106
binding is apt to encroach on the inner margins, Manuscript
especially in vellum books, which do not open Books
fully; in order, therefore, that the inner margins
may keep their proper width, an extra width of
£ to | inch (according to the stiffness of the material)
is allowed.

THE SIZE OF THE WRITING, &C.

The shape, size, and margins of the page (already

settled) together determine the length of the writing-
line (see fig. 71) ; and the size of the writing should
be such as will allow a reasonable number of words
to that line.1
Eight or nine words to the line is a common
proportion in ordinary printed books, and may be
taken by the scribe as his ordinary maximum.
Lines having very many words are difficult to
read.
On the other hand, lines of only two or three
words each are generally tiresome, though they
may be allowed in special cases of fine writing (see
p. 262), where it is less necessary to economise space
or time, and the effect of an even mass is not
desired. But in any case where there is an attempt
to make the right-hand edge of the text approxi-
mately even, at least four or five words to the line
are necessary ; the scribe may therefore take four
words per line as his ordinary minimum.
We may say generally, then, that an ordinary
manuscript book should contain between four and eight I07
words (or between 25 and 50 letter-spaces) to the line.
1 If the average number of words be previously fixed — as in a
poem (see p. 95) — that will practically determine the size of the
writing.
Manuscript The exact size of the writing allowed in a given
Books case may be found by a process of guess and trial,
but this is seldom necessary for the practical scribe
who uses regular sizes for regular occasions.
The line spacing. — The size of the letter deter-
mines approximately the distance apart of the
writing-lines (see pp. 79, 327). Much depends on
whether the ascending and descending letters are long
or short (see fig. 154).
The number of writing-lines to the page equals the
number of times that the line-space is contained in
the text-column (i.e. the height of the page less the
top and foot margins) — allowing for the top line
not requiring a full space (see fig. 71). Any frac-
tional space left over may be added to the foot
margin, or, if nearly equal to one line-space, a little
may be taken from the margins to complete it.
The Large Capitals are commonly one, two, or
more of the line-spaces in height (fig. 71, & p. 128).

RULING

Having folded and cut the large sheet of paper

into small (book) sheets of the size determined on,
take one of these as a pattern and rule it through-
out as if it were to be
used in the book.
The ruling stylus has
a blunt point, which in-
dents the paper, but does
not scratch it. A stout
pin bent to a claw shape
and held in a piece of
FIG. 72. wood does very well
108 (fig. 72).
 Manuscript
Under the writing paper there should be a " pad " Books
of ordinary paper (or blotting paper).
The marginal lines are ruled from head to foot
of each leaf (a, fig. 73). Besides being a guide for
the writing, they give an appearance of straightness
and strength to the written page.1

FIG. 73.

The writing lines are ruled across, between the

marginal lines, their places
having been indicated by
equidistant dots (b, fig. 73).
A dozen or more of the
small sheets of the book are
piled together on a board
with their top edges exactly
coinciding, and the pattern
sheet is accurately placed on
the top of the pile. The pile
of sheets may be fixed by a
narrow piece of wood placed
across and screwed down (fig. FIG. 74-
74). (See Addenda, p. 25.)
The writing line dots are

1 They are often ruled double (see p. 343), and sometimes the
top and foot lines are ruled from edge to edge of the sheet.
Manuscript pricked through all the sheets by means of a fine
Books

FIG. 75. FIG. 76.

awl or needle set in a wooden handle (fig. 75).

The writing lines are ruled
as in fig. 76 (sometimes across
the narrow inner margins).
For double writing lines a
double-ruling stylus may be
made of two pins fixed in a
wooden handle at the exact
FIG. 77.
width of the writing gauge
(%• 77).
MS. BOOKS GENERAL REMARKS

Sections (p. 102). — A section, or "gathering" com-

monly consists of four book-sheets, folded in half
into eight leaves (i.e. sixteen pages), but three or
even two sheets are sufficient when they are extra
thick, and five or six may be used when extra
thin. Parchment sheets should have their smooth
sides so placed together that each "opening" of the
book has both its pages rough or both smooth and
the pages are pounced after they are ruled (see p. 1 74).
Before the writing is begun the pages of the
section are numbered on the inner marginal line,
no
about | inch or so below the footline. This will Manuscript
prevent mistakes. Books
Fly-leaves. — One or more leaves of the first and
last sections in a book are left blank (besides the
extra sheet or section (p. 346) which is used in
the binding — attached to the cover). A book of
any size or importance ought to have at least
three fly-leaves at the beginning, and three or
four at the end. These extra leaves protect
the manuscript, and, in a sense, constitute mar-
gins for the whole body of the text. They
may also be used to make thin books thicker,
for the sake of the binding. At the end of
Service books, or other books likely to be of per-
manent interest, additional fly-leaves should be pro-
vided for notes and annotations (see pp. 344, 346).
Rough or Smooth Edges. — The rough "Deckle"
edges of hand-made paper are inconvenient in a
book of any thickness, and should be trimmed off
after folding, though they may be left in the case
of very thin books. The deckle edge should not
occur at the top of the page, as it would there be
a trap for dust, and because it is important that
the tops of pages should all be level. The top
edge or head of a book is often cut and gilt in
order to keep out the dust — this is called "Library
gilt." It is more suitable, however, that all the
edges be gilt.
The Top Margins throughout the book are kept
quite level. Any irregularity at the top of a page
catches the eye at once, while slight differences
at the side, or considerable differences at the foot,
may occur without spoiling the appearance of the
margins. All measurements for marginal and
writing lines, &c., are therefore made fromin the
Manuscript fold of the book-sheet and from the top edge,
Books which is cut at right angles to the fold.
Regular Writing. — In writing one page it is a
good plan to have its fellow page, or a similarly
written one, fixed on the desk beside it as a pattern.
This will save the beginner from a very common
error — writing larger or smaller (which of course
spoils the look of the pages).
Initial Page. — The text of a book commonly
begins on a recto, or right hand, page (see p. 365).

CHAPTER VII
VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS

Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals —

Notes on Construction of Versals — Spacing & Ar-
rangement ofVersals.
DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS

Versal THE earliest books consisted of a number of lines

Letters & of continuous writing in capital letters. There
Coloured were seldom any divisions of the text — into para-
Capitals graphs, chapters, or the like — or even of one word
from another ; nor were important words distin-
guished bylarger initials. The first division of
paragraphs was made by a slight break in the text
and a mark ; later, the first letter of the first com-
plete line of the new paragraph was placed in the
margin and written larger. When " small-letters "
were evolved, capitals ceased to be used for the body
of the text, and became distinguishing letters for
headings
112 and important words.
 The capitals written at the beginnings of books, Versal
chapters, and paragraphs grew larger and more Letters &
ornamental, and at length were made in colour and Coloured
decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters, used to
mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., were Capitals
called "Versals."1
In modern printing and ordinary writing the first
line of a paragraph is generally indented (ay fig. 78),

c*
FIG. 78.

but the earlier method of employing a special mark

or letter (b or c) is more effective, and it might very
well be used, even in modern printed books, for
fine editions. Affording a legitimate opening for
illumination and book-ornament, it was (and is) the
natural method for the penman, who, starting with
these useful capitals, by flourishing them — in their

1 Though Versals may generally be regarded as paragraph

marking letters, it is convenient to apply the term to the Versal
type of letter — e.g. "a heading in Versal letters " (see fig. 91).
H 113
 Versal own colour, or by
Letters &
tnanumielncgatu
dotting, outlining, or
Coloured ornamenting them,
Capitals with a contrasting
colour (see fig. 79,
from an old MS.),
evolved the Illumi-
nated Initial.
almfcdb initiator
ctmtumcffe.rmw Type
Lett J^ersal:
of ples
erss (exam
Plates IX., X., XI.,
XII., and figs. I, 78
nitf amps • nnuf < to 94, 150, 161, 165,
1 66, 189). — The
earlier Versals had
very simple and
beautiful pen shapes,
tnnttaCparetfingp and are the best
tzmctnn.fiuo ouj^n modelsforthemodern
penman to follow.
After the fourteenth
century they were
often fattened and
vulgarised and over-
done with ornam ent.
In this way they
not only lost their
typical forms ; but
their " essential
forms " — as letters
derived from the
Roman Alphabet —
became much dis-
and confound-
ed (seeguised
fig. 128).
 GENERAL ANALYSIS OF VERSALS Versal
Letters &
i. THE LETTERS: (Pen - made), Built - up, Orna-
Coloured
mental (coloured), "Gothic" ^r]
forms). Capitals
Capitals (Round and Square

i. HORIZONTALS—
STRAIGHT: Medium — commonly the width of
the nib.
CURBED: Thin — the thin stroke of the pen.

3. PERPENDICULARS: Built-up, slightly curved in on

either side.

4. SERIFS: Long, thin, slightly curved.

5. LONG STEMS: Various (see p. 1 19, & figs. 84, 90).

6. SPACING—
Letters & Words: Various (see figs. 89, 92, 166).
Lines : Usually one or more of the line
spaces apart (see pp. 126, 128).

7. ARRANGEMENT: Singly: set in text or margin, or

part in both (fig. 86).
Grouped: after large initials (fig.

In 92).
Lines : wide or close, often one
word to the line (fig. 89).

8. MEASUREMENTS: Stem •width : commonly two or

three widths-of-nib across thin-
nest part (fig. 165).
O height: commonly one, two, or
more of the line-spaces.

9. COMPONENT PARTS : A has approx.io strokes & filling.

» 99 99
C
BO
7
and so on (see fig. 81).
 Versal
Letters &
Coloured
Capitals

MMNOPD
'<Wfo£

Xl*Xl f* cLwL~X\ 1 1
J[ K.CCI WY y o/r rruide to matzfi
For fzicstmius see plates ix,x,xi,& xfl
116 FIG. 80.
 TXsmall
Versal
Letters &
Coloured

j/A\
Capitals

(DIM 3 lo
y^V/^OTvv if f ^/^ |i -r^

(7 ompcnait parts or pen strokes

'
First—

FIG. 81. ii
 Versal NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION OF VERSALS
Letters &
Coloured
(See figs. 80, 81, 85, 165)
Capitals Versal Letters are properly built-up (p. 291) with
true pen-strokes (£, fig. 81). Drawn or painted,
they acquire a different character (p. 292). Their
office being to mark important parts of the text,
they are generally distinguished by colour and
freedom of form — tending to curves and flourishes.
The pen has an extra long slit (-J- inch to £ inch),
and the writing-board may be lowered (see fig. 46, b)
to permit of the thick, liquid colour running out
freely. The nib is of the ordinary shape (but
not too oblique), and generally rather less in width
than the nib used for the accompanying text (ay
fig. 8 1).
The outlining strokes are quickly written and
immediately filled in, each letter being loaded well
with the colour, which thereafter dries evenly,
with a slightly raised "flat" surface. The liquid
colour should be fairly thick (see colour, p. 176).
" Gothic lettering " is a term used for " Black-
letter " and related types, as distinguished from
" Roman " types. " Gothic " capitals tend to
roundness, the small-letters to angularity, but in
each the abrupt change from thick to thin strokes,
and the resulting contrast of stroke, are character-
istics— the result of pen work.1 In Versals this
contrast is marked ; the ends of the thinner strokes
spread (see Addenda, p. 25, & cross-bar of A, fig. 71),
and the heavy parts are crossed by thin serifs. Versals
may retain their pen character and yet approach

1 In "Roman" letters the thicks and thins are not neces-

sarily strongly marked, though their pen-forms have often a
natural " Gothic " tendency.
118
the " Roman Letter " (p. 294), or be changed into Versal
Letters &
the ornate " Lombardic " (p. 34). They are
capable of great variety, and the "round" or Coloured
"square" D, E, H, M, and W Capitals
may be used at pleasure.

The side. curve in slightly on

Stems When
I £. either they are very
tall the mid part may be quite
straight, imperceptibly curving out
towards the ends (£, fig. 82). This
gives an effect of curvature through-
out the length, while keeping the
letter graceful and straight. The
head of a stem (especially of an

\
ascender) should be slightly wider
than the foot (fig. 83). This applies
• generally to every sort of built-up
• capitals.

FIG. 83.

The stem width may be nearly

FIG. 82. the same in Versals of different
119
heights (a, fig. 84) : generally the
letters tend to become more slender in proportion as
the letters grow taller (b\ Very large Versals (or
initials) are often made with a hollow stem to avoid
a heavy appearance (L, fig. 84).
 Versal
Letters &
Coloured
Capitals

FIG. 84

The Serifs are long and slightly curved in orna-

mental forms (fig. 79) : shorter, and nearly straight
in stiffer forms (fig. 166). In many cases the serifs
appear to have been written first, the stems being
added between them (/, fig. 81) — in old MSS.
the stems often show ragged ends crossing the
serifs. Sometimes the serif appears to have been
added to the stem in two pieces, half on either side
springing from the corners of the stem (g). The
safest way seems to be the complete finishing stroke
added to, and forming sharp angles with, the stem (h).
Arms or Branches. — Width of nib at start, and
built-up at free end. (Pen horizontal, figs, 81, 165).
120
 The Bows or Curves of Fersals (and of built-up Versal
letters generally) are begun with the inside stroke Letters &
Coloured

Capitals

111
cufrivaet

Cmstructum of "lows" (a..)

wrmaL

OO
fr.of-
(Complete)"A-"way
O
P<-K Another
FIG. 85.
— a rather flat curve : and finished with the outer
stroke — a pronounced curve (#, fig. 85). This pre-
121
 Versal serves the continuity of the interior curve, together
Letters & with the clean contrast of the thick and thin strokes
Coloured (see inside shapes, p. 253). The normal form may be
Capitals flattened or curved a little (£), but exaggeration in
either direction produces a degraded form. Part
round letters, as D, P, and (J, may be begun with
a complete inner oval, or a nearly completed O (to
which the stem is added) ; this preserves their
interior symmetry (c).
The beauty and quality of Versal letters depends
very much on their freedom ; touching-up or trim-
ming after they are made is apt to spoil them ; and
when good letters are made with a free hand,
minute roughnesses, which are due to their quick
construction, may be regarded as shewing a good
rather than a bad form of care-less workmanship
(see (c) fig. 164).

SPACING & ARRANGEMENT OF VERSALS

(Allowing for the special treatment of Versals called for by

the extreme freedom and elasticity of their pen forms, the fol-
lowing remarks apply generally to the spacing and arrangement of
coloured capitals in -written pages)

Versah accompanying Small Text are generally

dropped below the writing-line, so that their tops
are level with the tops of the small letters (fig. 86).
Sizes of Versah. — Letters which are of the same
importance — i.e. serve the same purpose — are
usually of like size and form throughout ; and
the more important a letter, the more it tends to be
elaborated and decorated (see figs. 90, 92).
Special words in Text marked by Versah. — Where
coloured capitals are used throughout the text (fig.
92), the colours are usually varied (pp. 134, 185).
122
 Line beginnings marked by Versa Is.— Where every Versal
line on a page begins with a coloured capital, the Letters &
majority of the forms are kept rather plain (see (5) Coloured
p. 136). They may be effectively treated as a band
of simple or variegated colour (p. 136). This is a Capitals
common treatment for a list of names or a poem ;
sometimes, especially if there are many lines, simple-
written capitals (p. 297) may be used instead of
Versals.
Verses or Paragraphs may be marked by Versals
set in the text (#), or part in margin, part in text (b)y
or wholly in the margin (c, fig. 86). The marginal
capital is the simplest, and it has the advantage
of leaving the page of text entire ; it may, how-
ever, sometimes be desirable to break the continuity
by an inset capital, especially in cases of closely
written text, or of stanzas not spaced apart (see
p. 138).
The first word of a paragraph, which is begun
with a Versal, is often completed in simple-
written capitals of the same colour as the text
(«, fig-. 86)-
Various ways of marking Paragraphs. — (a) The
paragraph marks C> ^> preferably coloured, may
be used instead of (or even with) Versals (comp.
fig. 95) ; (b) by one word or line (or several words
or lines) of simple-written (or built-up) capitals in
black or colour (see fig. 93) ; (c) by some suitable
ornament (see fig. 87) ; (d) in many cases it is
well to have spaces between the paragraphs or
verses (see p. 138). I23
Line - Finishings at the ends of Verses, &c.
(pp. 205, 425), may be made with the Versal pens
and colours.
 jVcrsal set in
vcrsals are buxje :!
say three Line =
Spaces of more in height
set pardy in toed

are convcnei
bl
•
Versale in nutmn'.
'ftea used uhcn, me
vocals are 9mall:
uitxble for corn-:
iruunercois
• c.
capitals!
124
FIG. 86.
tkeendofoneparairraph.
THE NEXT PARACTAPH
may be marked by a line—
of vvrtttcn capitate in black
or colour(on or

Or a band of suitibler-'
merit lly
(usua be ude) orn&
ma pen-n

FIG. 87.

T<? mark Chapters (or even Books), extra large

Versals (fig. 88) may be used, in lieu of more elabor-
ate initials. Smaller Versals may be grouped round
about, beside or inside initials (p. 208 & fig. 92).
Headings and Pages in Capitals (see also pp. 128,
132). — Each line of capitals is generally kept uni-
form throughout its length,1 though different lines
vary in size and colour (see fig. 89). If it be
possible it is well to keep the individual word entire
125
1 The mediseval scribes often made the first line of a chapter
or book in uniform capitals (excepting the initial letter). The
succeeding line generally was smaller, and of a different colour
and type — even when a divided word was carried over into it.
 Versal and to let the heading or page contain the complete
Letters & initial phrase or sentence (see fig. 91).
Coloured Generally the greater the number of capitals the
Capitals plainer their forms are kept, and the closer their
spacing. It is best to keep to the regular method
of spacing the lines of Versah one of the writing-line
spaces (or more] apart — though in special cases the
Versals may be independent of the writing-lines.

books are marked \y

an initial letter. A,
Urq£ versal ~ tHnee or
is cjuitemcnxl inexve -spaa
etftct & s s'
FIG. 88.

Spacing Out. — Coloured letters and ornaments are

usually put in after the plain MS. has been written.
A very little practice enables the scribe accurately
to guess the amount of space which he should leave
for the Versals, &c., whether it is designed to have
several lines of them, or a single letter only on the
page. A few pencil marks may be used to settle a
doubtful point, but an elaborate sketching or setting
out in pencil spoils the freedom of the work.

126
 CHAPTER VIII
BLACK & RED

Rubricating — Initial Pages or Title Pages — Prefaces &

Notes in Colour — Pages with Coloured Headings —
Page or Column Heading & Initial — Versals in
Column or Marginal Bands — Stanzas or Verses
marked by Versals — Music with Red Staves —
Tail- Pieces, Colophons, &c. — Rubricating : General
Remarks.
RUBRICATING

" Red, either in the form of a pigment or fluid ink, is of very Black
ancient and common use. It is seen on the early Egyptian & Red
papyri ; and it appears in the earliest extant •vellum MSS.,
either in titles or the first lines of columns or chapters.
The Greek term 'was /zeAavtov KOKKLVOV ; Latin minium,1
rubrica."— (Thompson's " G. & L . Palaeography," p. 5 1 .)
Rubricating, or the adding of Red, or other coloured,
letters, line-finishings, or signs, to a MS. or Book,
in which the main body of the text is already
completed in black, constitutes in itself a very use-
ful and effective form of decoration. It is, moreover,
a connecting link between plain writing and illumi-
nation proper ; and we may safely assume that the
artists who made the beautiful illuminations of the
Middle Ages were trained as scribes and rubricatorsr
INITIAL PAGES OR TITLE PAGES
127
Fig. 89 represents an Initial Page in Red Capitals.
(The same arrangement may of course be used
1 Minium = red-lead, used in early times for " rubrics " and
drawings, hence is derived the word "Miniature"
 Black with a variety of colours and with gold : see Note (4)
& Red below). Such a page is, as it were, an " illumina-
tion "to a II the pages, following it in black text.
Title Pages came into fashion after printing was
introduced. Early MSS. commonly began with
the opening words written in large, decorated capitals,
the title sometimes being written quite small, near
the top of the page : other details were commonly
put in the colophon in early books (see p. 142).
When the title is more important, in a literary
sense, than the opening sentence, it may be well
to follow the modern fashion. But when there is
a finely worded opening sentence — perhaps the
key-note to the rest of the text — while the title is
merely for reference, it seems reasonable to magnify
and illuminate the actual beginning of the book
rather than the mere name of it (see p. 365).
NOTE (i). — In fig. 89 the title — (JES U
CHRISTI) Evangelium Secundum Joannem — is
written in as a decoration of the initial word ;
the old form "IHV XPf" is used for "Jesu
Christi " (these letters, it will be noticed, are here
employed to lighten the large capitals, see p. 208).
(2) Where IN is an initial word, to enforce
narrow initial I, both letters may be magnified.
(3) The scale of the lettering corresponds with
that of the ruled lines (these do not show in the
figure) : the letters and the interlinear spaces are each
one line high ; the initial word is four lines high.
Such a mode of spacing is very simple and effective,
and will save the rubricator much unnecessary
trouble and fruitless planning (see footnote, p. 221).
(4) Other Colour Schemes. — All Burnished Gold (or
with Title in red) ; or IN gold, with smaller capitals
Red (or in Blue and Red lines alternately — or Blue,
Red, Green, Red: see p. 181).
128
 Black
&Red

CIPIO

VERBUM
6 RA T" 129

FIG. 89.
I
Black PREFACES & NOTES IN COLOUR
& Red _.
Fig. 90 represents a preface, or note, written in
red.
It was a frequent practice in old MSS., where
there were prefaces, or prologues, or notes — not
actually part of the text — to keep these distinct by
writing them in red. A somewhat similar usage
still exists in modern typography, where such parts
are sometimes distinguished by Italic type (see p.
315).
The distinction of a preface, " rubric," or note
from the main body of the text makes a book more
readable, and, as a page of red (or blue) writing is
very pleasant and effective, we may certainly take
advantage of such a reasonable excuse for intro-
ducing it. Entire books have been written in red,,
but this is a questionable mode, as too much red
text would tire the eye.
NOTE (i). — The writing is founded on the tenth-
century English hand given in Plate VIII.
(2) The flourishes on s and e fill gaps at the
ends of the lines, and the spread out A M E N
fills the last line.
(3) The Headline is in simple written capitals.
(4) The effect of colour contrast of the built-up
Ps with the simple writing : the solid Ps (though
really the same colour) appear to be a much deeper
red than the writing, which is lightened by the in-
termingled white of the paper.
(5) Other Colour Schemes. — The Versah (Pp) in
burnished gold ; the rest in red or blue.

130
 XTER
» »
FOSTE« «R *. S
CSUV
nomen
re
lunus tia,, Statt in
vo-
nostrum <ju£
ti4ixnum J" **
Hodk.
tu>Ks ddnta
$icut ct nos dimif -
nostris. 6t ne np5 i
ducas in teatation-
cm. SolUberano^a
tt\3ilo. \ CO 6

FIG. 90.

131
Black PAGES WITH COLOURED HEADINGS

Fig. 91 represents the first page of a chapter (or

a book) with a Heading in red capitals.
It is convenient in practice clearly to distinguish
between the two modes of beginning —
(a) with an illuminated Initial-Prf^ (see fig. 89), or,
(h) with an illuminated Heading (see fig. 91).
The former may be treated as though it were a
decoration to the whole book. The latter is in-
tended more particularly to decorate its own page.
The Heading should therefore be proportionate
to the body of the text below it. About one-third
Heading and two-thirds text make a good pro-
portion. A " Heading " occupying half, or more
than half, of the page is apt to look disproportionate,
and it would be preferable to this to have a com-
plete, or nearly complete,1 Page of coloured capitals.
NOTE (i). — The full effect of black and red is
obtained by an arrangement of the two colours in
marked contrast.
(2) The lines are used as a scale for the Head-
ing, the red capitals and interspaces each being one
line high. If a Heading so spaced appear too close
to the first line of black writing, another line space
may be left.
(3) The round Es are used to fill out the
second line, and the square, narrow E to relieve
the crowded third line.
(4) Other Colour Schemes. — The entire heading,
or the letters W, H, B, O, R, in burnished gold ;
or the whole variegated (see p. 180).
1 An illuminated Page will allow of a few lines of black text
at the foot (an arrangement very common in the elaborate
Initial Pages of the fifteenth century), but these should be quite
subordinate to the " Illumination."
132
WHO HATH
Black
&Red

OUR REPORT
and to whom HxtK die arm of
die Lord been revealed ? porKe
qrew up before 1urrt as a tender
aix>ot out of a clry

itnnrt nor-
comeliness; <3C wKcn we see Kim,
tkerc is no beau^ ttat
im. He was despise^ d
op rricn; a inan of scrr-
TOWS,
& as one from wKommen Hide,
133
tkcir face He was despised,
\ve esteemed Kim rurtr:
FIG. 91.
Black PAGE OR COLUMN HEADING & INITIAL
& Red
Fig. 92 represents the first page of a book or
chapter in two columns, beginning with a rather
ornate Heading, in which the Initial is made the
principal feature, and having coloured Versals and
line-finishings throughout the text.
It is more difficult to get a good effect in this way
than by means of a marked colour contrast (see
p. 144), or variegated colour, and gold (see Note 7).
NOTE (i). — The lines bounding the text would
naturally be indented, or pale (not black as in the
block), and ruled from head to foot of the page
(see Note (2) on the next figure).
(2) The red ornamental line-finishings (see p.
205) would be more effective if variegated.
(3) The Versals in the text are made about a
line high, but are dropped below the line (p. 122).
(4) The Versals in the Heading are made
one line high, with one-line spacing — between O
and D increased to two lines (partly filled by a
flourish from the D), in order to fit the U, O, and D
in evenly beside the Initial.
(5) The Initial Q should project slightly up and
out — beyond the bounding lines — to mark the top,
left corner more strongly (see. footnote, p. 211).
(6) All the rubricating on this page is done with
the same pen (see pp. 205, 218).
(7) Other Colour Schemes. « QUOD FUIT
AB INITIO," the filigree ornament and the
V V in burnished gold (or the Q and VV in
gold), the rest of the Versals and line-finishings in
Red and Blue, or Red and Green, or Red, Blue, and
134
Green (see pp. 181, 185).
 O! ct apparuit
Black
&Red
>UOD vulimuG crj
JCtvunus, annuncix
mus vobis, ur ct vos I
Societitem hibeatis no
cum^ ct socictxs ru>5
patre/et- '
tni sit cum CJU6J65U
cumpiUo
AB Thaxc
fNTITlO, nt ^oulcuxs, et|
vcatnun sit
- + AUDIVICDUS
OD * '•* * |
UOD VIDIMUS
LlS J40STR1S XNMUMCIAT1O
ovum aaxcUvvmus ib
aruvancxraus
HOSTKA6 COI"
cr
Sunt ulbie
1 duccrurius
Vtfci Socctaitcm
:,ct cunx co ct in.
jtanutr ct ajiruuixurrui
vttun aeternam; mcntimur^ ct y crvOt135
-miae cm rum

FIG. 92.
Black VERSALS IN COLUMN OR MARGINAL BANDS

Fig. 93 represents two columns of black text,

consisting of short verses, &c., which are marked
by coloured capitals — forming bands of colour —
in the margins.
NOTE (i). — The coloured capitals in the figure
are made rather larger than usual, to enforce the
effect of the two lines of red and mark their con-
trast with the columns of black text. In practice,
however, they would be better and more distinct
if rather smaller.
(2) The lines bounding the text would natur-
ally be faint, or grooved (p. 343) ; but, ruled from
head to foot of the page, they would be suffi-
ciently apparent to add materially to the general
effect of orderly arrangement. (Lines are printed
here to show clearly the way the two columns are
ruled and to suggest this effect, though the process
block necessarily gives a false impression in making
them appear too short and too heavy).
(3) Extra width between the columns (and also in
the margin) may be allowed for the coloured capitals
(compare fig. 92).
(4) Words in simple written capitals are used to
mark slight divisions, or changes of sense, in the
text.
(5) A stiff Versal of a rather " Roman " type is
used, partly because of the number of the capitals
(see p. 126).
(6) Other Colour Schemes. — The larger capitals
might be in burnished gold, the rest in red (or
in red, blue, and green) ; or all might be in red,
blue, and green.

136
 L Y ETHER S pORTUEARTl-
SU IRS E
A M I N outof it cometh Black
&Red
S I L V E PU bread:
pli nd underneath if;
Andhicah plahceey fcerfigne!
w t r is turned up as it
r o n i s t a C e n outr were by five .
I
of the earth, fhe stones thereof
Anden bruatss fIs henvoltont e ' are the place of-'
t o o t s sapphires^
n
Til' an settedia end
And tt hath dustr"
of gold.
And seardketh out
OP THPREY
BIRD PA WO
bo thed furthest-"
to un AT
THKN OWETH,

TheH;»rkn£A<;
Stones and
of thu:k"XJeither
of I * ^1 falconshath
eye the
seen It:

H
the Shadow of dath.JT"he proud beasts j
E BREAKETH | • Kave not trodden it
a shaft away '^J01* luth the fierce
m wKere men L ^ lion passed thi
Sojourn; E PUTTETH
Kls Uand upon [
*TTI hey are foot
fSrg>tten
H
of die the
oassethby;
Tlxeymen,hanjtlveyafar
Swincr n>ots.ns
mountai
from1 • tKe th£
to and fro E'CUTTETHovrt:

FIG. 93-
Black STANZAS OR VERSES MARKED BY VERSALS
& Red ,.,.
rig. 94 represents a poem in two verses which
are distinguished by interspaces and by coloured
capitals — a brief introductory line also being in
colour. (It is supposed that the poem occurs
in a book — mainly in prose — written in Roman
small-letters.)
It is generally best to distinguish the verses of
poems by one-line interspaces. When this is done,
coloured initials are not so necessary, and their
value become chiefly decorative (see 123).
NOTE (i). — The writing is founded on "Italic"
(see Plate XXL), and (it is supposed that) it would
be used here wherever the songs occurred ; firstly,
to distinguish them from the rest of the text, and
secondly, to keep the lines of the poem entire —
Italics occupying less room than ordinary, round Small-
Letters (see p. 315).
(2) The story opens with the first line, which
may in this case be regarded either as a Title or as
a prefatory note in red.
(3) The two red capitals are made of a rather
" Roman " type to match the Italic (and the small
Roman text of the book). The difference in
height made between the W and the S is intended
to balance the difference in width, and to give
them an appearance of equal weight. This may
be permitted where there are only a few capitals ;
where there are many, their heights are generally
kept more uniform.
(4) Another Colour Scheme. — W and S would look
better in burnished gold.

138
'Tis of Aucassin and TvlicoUtt

VV/HO would list to thtoood laf

W C ladnts&ofthc catrtiveerey ?
T is how two J Vounc
h*uca$$vn and IN

Of the pains the

A nd tht Sorrows he outwore,
for the qvodness and theornctj
Of his L°ve,Sojrurof(ace.

SWEE Ttht son<r,thc story sweet,

There is vio man hear^en^ if,
"M0 man living ntatfi die Sun,
S^ (nifaveaneb, so firedone ,
jick^and wofid^ worn and Sab,
if heated, but is dad
so sweet.

/
FIG. 94. 139
Black MUSIC WITH RED STAVES
. . . . .
Fig. 95 is a reproduction, in facsimile, showing
quarter of a page of a folio Service Book (probably
French, early sixteenth century). The page consists
of two columns of ten staves each, and is headed
C In vigi (lia), natiuitatis dnl. The book is printed
on vellum in red and black ; the columns of music
have faint red bounding lines ruled by hand (not
shown in the figure).
The red stave is very effective, and it was com-
monly used in early MSS. and printed books.
There appears to be some doubt, however, as to
its practical value, and I have been advised that it
is not so legible as the black line stave, and also
that, in Church Service Booh (see p. 345), in order
to make »n absolutely clear distinction, red should
be reserved entirely for the rubrics.
The " plain-song " chant, with its four-line stave,
has a simpler and finer appearance than the more
modern and elaborate five-lined stave and tailed
notes. The latter, however, may yet be treated
very effectively.
NOTE I. — The mark C and the capitals £&, 315,
and £D were blotted — it can scarcely be called
" painted " — with yellow. Yellow or red were
often used in this way to mark the small black
capitals in printed books (p. 428, & comp. p. 302).
It is a questionable method. (These blots have
been removed from the figure — except, by an over-
sight, in the case of £&).
(2) Other Colour Schemes. — (a) The title, or (b)
the text and the notes, might be in burnished gold
(the other parts in either case remaining in red
and black).
140
 Black
&Red

atttem Ojerwft faimon.

mon autcm genutt

ae ra ab« 015003 atitcm

mitt opctt) cy rtttf).

• •
£>bet() autcrn irE
J3" "dgmutt
FIG. 95- 141
Black TAIL-PIECES, COLOPHONS, &C.
& Red .,. , j -r- -1 •
r ig. 90 represents a coloured 1 ail - piece or
decorative finish at the end of a book (or chapter).
The Colophon (see p. 128 & figs. 13, 191), generally
distinguished from the text by a smaller or different
hand, and — especially in early printed books — by
colour or other decorative treatment, occurs at the
end of a book, where it is the traditional right of
the penman and the printer to add a statement or
a symbolical device. The Name (of craftsman and
assistants), Time, and Place are commonly stated —
preferably quite simply — e.g. " This book, written
out by me, A.B., in LONDON, was finished on the
T^ist day of DECEMBER 1900." Any reasonable
matter of interest concerning the text, the materials,
methods, lettering, or ornament, and an account of the
number of leaves and their size, &c., may be added.
But the craftsman, properly and modestly keeping
his name off the title-page, is at liberty to exercise
his right, marking the end of, and signing his work
in any way he chooses — even in a speech or a
sentiment — provided the form of the colophon be
unobtrusive and its language natural. Printer's
devices or book-marks, consisting of symbols, mono-
grams, &c. (p. 362), were likewise used.
The opportunity generally provided by the final
margin, and the natural wish to close the book
with a fitting ornament, also led to the use of colour
or capitals in the concluding lines ; and sometimes
the " tail " of the text was given a triangular form,
the lines becoming shorter and shorter
till they ended in a single
word, or even one
letter.
142
But I have not finished
the five acts^ but only'
three of them" — - Thou,
safest well, but in lifer
the three acts ire ther
whole dramx; lor whit
shall be a complete- dra-
mx is dettrrruncb by Kim
-who was once the cause
of its composition, and
now of its dissolution:
but thou, art the cause
of neither — — '
Depart then sattstua,
for he also who rc^
leases thee is satisfteo.

FIG. 96.
us
Black RUBRICATING : GENERAL REMARKS

Contrast of Red and Black. — The most effective

arrangement of red lettering with black text
involves a sharp contrast, and, as a rule, the con-
centration ofthe red in a line or mass (see figs. 91,
93, and 96, where the red lettering is massed at
the head, side, and foot of the black). Too many
red capitals scattered through a page lose their
effect, and appear as though they were brown-red
rather than bright red (see pp. 134, 185). Printed
title-pages, &c., may be seen with promiscuous lines
of black and red, in which the fine effects obtainable
by the use of bright colour is dispersed and lost ;
while the same, or even a less, amount of red,
massed in one or two places in the page, would
show to great advantage.
Notes in Red in Margins. — Red lettering, and
particularly small red writing, may be used freely
in the margins ; being much lighter than black,
it appears there as a marginal decoration, not inter-
fering with the regular look of the page. Indeed,
red may be used more freely, and I think its decora-
tive effect is greater, in the form of rubrics, than in
any other simple form of ornament (see Red in
Church Service Books (pp. 140, 345) and Red sub-
stituted forItalics (p. 315)).
Paragraph and other Marks. — Various symbols,
numerals, and marks (such as |^" If C * t J §
*J« ^ 1$— Addenda, p. 25) may be made in red.
Red Lines. — Lines made to divide, or outline,
pages (" rules " or " rule borders ") should be spar-
ingly used, and then rather in black than in red
(see p. 364). If in red, particularly between lines
of 1writing,
44 colour.these should be "ruled feint" with
diluted
 Red for Ornaments. — Red may be used pretty Black
freely with other colours (blue, green, and gold), & Red
but by itself more sparingly.
OTHER COLOURS.— The foregoing remarks
refer mainly to contrasts of black and red, but
apply, to a certain extent, to black with any bright
colour (or gold) (see " Other Co/our Schemes " given
above, and p. 180).

CHAPTER IX
LAYING & BURNISHING GOLD

Tools & Materials — Laying the Ground — Laying the

Gold-Leaf — Burnishing the Gold — Remedying
Faults in Gilding — Gold Writing — Other Methods
& Recipes for Gilding — Appendix on Gilding (by
Graily ffewitt).
TOOLS & MATERIALS

THESE should be kept together in a convenient box, Laying &

as it is important that the process should not be Burnishing
interrupted by a search for a missing tool. Gold
Tools and Jbfaterials. Summary of Procitt,
HARD LEAD PENCIL. For drawing forms if necessary.
POUNCE. For preparing surface:
" pouncing."
« SIZE " OR RAISING PRE-
PARATION. For raising and backing leaf.
SMALL SAUCER. For mixing size in.
NEEDLE SET IN HANDLE. For bursting bubbles, &c.
QUILL PEN. For " laying " the size.
KNIFE. For trimming size, &c.
GOLD-LEAF. For gilding.
K 145
Laving & Tools and Materials. Summary of Process.
Burnishing SCISSORS. For cutting gold-leaf.
QOJ(J BURNISHING-SLAB. For backing the parchment or
paper while under pressure.
BREATHING-TUBE. For damping size.
RUBBING-PAPER. For pressing leaf on to size.
CHALK OR SOFT LEAD For marking form on rubbing-
PENCIL. paper.
BURNISHER, TOOTH For (i) pressing down, and (2)
SHAPE. burnishing gold-leaf.
FEATHER (BRUSH, &c.). For dusting off the pounce.
BRUSH. Forment.)
brushing off waste leaf.
(HARD INDIARUBBER. ) (For removing gold from parch-

(POWDER GOLD & FINE (For "mending" in certain

BRUSH.) cases.)

LAYING THE GROUND

Drawing the Form. — Elaborate letters or orna-

ments may be drawn with a hard pencil, which will
leave slight indentations in the surface of the page
when the marks of the lead have been removed
with indiarubber. In the case of free lettering or
gold writing, however, the forms should be made
directly with the pen (see pp. 148, 164).
Preparing the Surface : Pouncing. — The surface is
thoroughly cleaned and prepared with powdered
pumice stone, or other suitable " pounce " (see pp.
167, 174). This being rubbed well into the actual
part which is to take the size absorbs grease and
slightly roughens1 the surface. The surrounding
parts are also pounced to prevent the gold-leaf from
sticking to them later.
Composition of the Ground or Size. The chief
1 The surface of horny or greasy parchment may be slightly
roughened with a pen-knife till little hairs are raised which
will hold the size, care being taken that this roughening does
not extend beyond the actual parts which are to be covered
with size. (Oxgall: see footnote, p. 175.)
146
substance in a " size " or raising preparation is Laying &
generally some kind of earthy matter, to give it Burnishing
body. Other substances, having toughness and Gold
stickiness, are used to bind the earthy matter and
prevent its breaking when the page is turned over
or bent, and also to make the size adhere to the
page and the gold-leaf stick to the size. Yellow
or red colouring matter is often added. A preser-
vative, such as oil of cloves — in a minute quantity
— may be present : this will permit of the size being
kept in a semi-liquid condition, in a closed jar.
The following recipe was given to me by Mr.
G. Loumyer :—
" Chalk (Whiting).
Oxide of Iron — \ grain.
Glue (Carpenter's) — 4 grains.
Gum Arabic — 2 grains.
Water — 50 grains.
Melt the gum and the glue together in the water,
then add the oxide of iron, and lastly put in enough
chalk to make the whole a rather liquid paste. Apply
to the parchment^ which you have previously well
rubbed with whiting, and, when dry, apply the gold-
leaf with alcohol"
Mixing the Size with Water. — A little of the
size, taken from the jar (see above), is put in the
saucer with a few drops of water to soak for an
hour or two. It is then rubbed down with a
finger-tip, care being taken to mix it very thor-
oughly and to avoid making bubbles. The right
consistency is judged by experience — it should 14be 7
thick rather than thin.
It is essential that all the ingredients be present
in their right proportions, and the mixture should
be stirred every now and then. Otherwise the earthy
Laying & matter settles down, and the sticky parts, remaining
Burnishing in solution above, are liable to be used up. What
Gold is left in the saucer after use is apt to be deficient
in its sticky parts, and it is best thrown away.
Take out of the jar only what is required at the
time, and mix a fresh lot the next time.
Bubbles, formed in the mixture, may be burst by a
needle, or by adding a minute drop of oil of cloves.
Methods of Laying the Size. — The parchment or
paper is laid flat on a table ; if on a slope, the size
would run down and lie unevenly. A quill pen
with a finely cut nib and an extra long slit (about
| inch) is used for laying the size. It is filled
pretty full by means of a quill or a brush ; if by the
latter, special care must be taken to avoid bubbles.
Experiments should be made in various methods.
I. Perhaps the best way of laying the size, so
that it may set properly and that the burnish may
retain its brilliance, is to put on a thin coat with
a pen — in the direct manner in which coloured
Versals are made (q.v.} — and afterwards add two
or three thin coats, allowing each coat to dry
thoroughly. This requires considerable patience
and skill, as it takes a long time, and there is a
danger, in adding several coats, of spoiling the
form by going over the edges.
II. The simplest method for ordinary gold
letters is to make them with one extra thick coat1
of size, exactly like coloured Versals — first a natural
pen outline, and then the filling in (see fig. 81).
This requires some practice to do well, as the
thicker size is more difficult to manage than the
1 As this is usually allowed to dry for twenty-four hours, make
sure, before laying the size, that you will be able to lay the
gold-leaf on it at or near the same time on the next day.
148
colour.1 Very narrow parts — such as the thin Laying &
Burnishing
strokes — are apt to be deficient in size, and there-
fore, while they are still wet, the pen — held nearly Gold
vertical with the nib in contact with the surface of
the size — is moved slowly along it until the stroke
has received sufficient size and is properly filled
out.
III. A method that may be found more con-
venient for heavy forms, is to hold the pen across
the form to be gilded (which has previously been
marked on the parchment) with its nib resting on
the further outline (a, fig. 97). The nib being

FIG. 97.

moved along that line, by contact with the parch-

ment restrains the size from passing beyond it,
while allowing it to flow out freely behind and
below (#, 2). The opposite side is similarly treated,
and, if the form be narrow, the size as it flows
out blends with that already laid (b}. The ends of
the form are finished in like manner (c). I49

i Should a drop fall on the page it can be removed quickly

with the knife, but it is safer to allow it to dry and then to
pick it off carefully. Size which has flowed beyond the bounds
of the form may be trimmed away when it has set.
 Laying & The angle of the pen with the parchment is less
Burnishing for a wider form (£, fig. 98).
Gold

4 FIG. 98.
As a general rule the size should stand pretty
high when wet ; it shrinks in drying, and, if it forms
too thin a coat, it will neither hold the gold-leaf fast
nor burnish well. While the size is still wet it is
easy to raise it to any height desired by running
more size into the form in the manner described
above. It is well, however, not to raise the size
too high, as burnished gold too much raised looks
out of place on a page and has a heavy and vulgar
appearance (p. 1 84). Very high raising also does not
dry so well, and when dry it is more liable to chip.
The work of laying the size should be carried
out as quickly as possible. If one part of the form
is left any appreciable time before the remaining
parts are sized, the first part will begin to settle
and dry, and the different layings will not blend or
lie evenly. Though the size is thick and awkward
to use at first, a little skill will coax it quickly and
evenly out of the pen, and it will all blend and dry
with an even surface.
When it is sized, put the work away to dry in a
150
drawer or safe place where it cannot be smudged Laying &
or get dusty. Burnishing
Drying the Size. — The average time allowed is Gold
twenty-four hours, but it varies with the weather
and the temperature ; damp weather may make a
longer time necessary, and dry weather or heat will
shorten the time. The thickness of the raising
affects the time very much ; a very thin coat will
dry in an hour or two, while an extra thick coat
may take several days. Size not dry enough is too
sticky to burnish ; if too dry, it is so absorbent that
it sucks up all the moisture which is breathed on
it. To ensure the gold-leaf's sticking thoroughly,
it is safer on the whole to gild the size while it is still
slightly damp, and delay the burnishing till it is drier.
The time to allow and the right condition of the
size for gilding can only be accurately judged by
experience.

LAYING THE GOLD-LEAF

NOTE. — In illuminated MSS., In order to avoid

risk of injury to the gold it may be laid last of all
(see pp. 170—1). The inexperienced illuminator^ how-
ever,may find it better to follow the easier method of
finishing the gold before applying the colours.
The process of gold-laying must be carried out
steadily and quickly ; all the necessary tools, &c.,
should be ready to hand (see p. 145).
The Gold-Leaf. — This is sold in books of twenty-
five leaves. The ordinary leaf, about 3^ inches
square, consisting of gold and alloy, is said to be
beaten out to less than — !^ inch in thickness. As
gold sticks readily to gold, especially when very thin
and liable to wrinkle and fold over, or to paper, red
 Laying & bole or ochre is scattered between the leaves of
Burnishing the ordinary book. This powder will come off on
Gold the work and give it an ugly colour, when burnish-
ing, unless it is dusted off very carefully.
It is better to get gold "double" (or "quadruple")
the ordinary thickness, specially prepared for fine
work such as illuminating, quite pure, and put up
in white books (without bole).
Cutting the Leaf. — With the scissors, which must
be quite clean and sharp (or else the gold will stick
to them and tear), cut a whole or half leaf of gold,
together with the paper leaf on which it lies, out
of the book.
The gold is cut on one paper (fig. 99) (not

FIG. 99.

between papers, for then it would stick and tear),

and the cut edges of the paper and the gold stick
together slightly. If the edge of the gold is any-
where loose and apt to flap about, it and the corre-
sponding paper edge can be nicked together with
the scissors (fig. 100). The gold-leaf being lightly
held to the paper in this way is easily handled.
A piece of gold, about £ inch larger all round than
the form to be gilded, is cut from the leaf in the
manner described above (a, b, fig. 100). Except in
the case of a very large form, it is not worth trying
152
to save gold by cutting it out in the same shape. Laying &
Burnishing
Square, oblong, and triangular shaped pieces are
suitable for ordinary Gold
use ; these are laid in a
convenient place — the
edge of a book cover
will do very well (fig.
101) — ready to be
picked up at the right
moment.
The burnishing slab
(a flat piece of vul-
canite, celluloid, or
metal) is placed under
the page to give it a
hard, firm back, which
will make the pushing
and rubbing of the FIG. 100.
burnisher effective.
Preparing the Size. — If the size has dried rough,
it may be lightly scraped with the pen-knife —

FIG. 101. 153

removing as little as possible of the surface, in
which the essential stickiness frequently seems to
be concentrated.
 Laying & Ordinarily a form should not require trimming,
Burnishing though if its edges have accidental roughnesses,
Gold these may be trimmed a little with the pen-knife.
Damping the Size. — The breathing tube is about
\ inch (or less) in diameter, and 6 inches or more
in length ; it may be made of paper or cane. One
end of the tube being lightly held between the lips,
the other is moved about over the size, which is
gently breathed upon (fig. 102). The breath con-

rth€ size plimacme -

dion
ately after breaed
thin g
FIG. 102.

densing on the surface of the size, moistens it and

renders it sticky. The amount of moistening re-
quired depends on the condition of the size.
Care has to be taken that the breath does not
condense in the tube and drcp on to the work.
Laying the Gold-Leaf. — Immediately that the size
has 15been
4 sufficiently breathed upon, the piece of
paper with gold-leaf adhering (held ready in the right
hand) is placed upon it, gold-leaf downwards, care Laying &
Burnishing
being taken to place it steadily down, and not drag
it across the size (fig. 103). Gold

FIG. 103.

The Rubbing Paper — a convenient piece of thin

but tough paper (held ready in the left hand) — is
immediately laid above the gold-leaf paper, and is
then rubbed over firmly with the finger-tip, in
order at once to attach the leaf to the size (fig.
104). It is then quickly rubbed with the soft pencil
op

^ * he burnisher is yi^wn 1^55

ftcre -held in the ndtt hand- ready far die
next apem&cm. , See Fi4s.io6.& 107.
FIG. 104.
 Laying & or chalk till the raised form underneath is indicated
Burnishing on the surface of the paper (fig. 105).
Gold These two operations may be combined by
having a little blue chalk either on the finger-tip
or on the upper surface of the rubbing paper.
Round the outline of this form the point of the
burnisher * is worked, pressing the gold-leaf firmly
— through both the papers — against the size, in the
angle formed by the size
and the surface of the
parchment (fig. 106).
The fore part of the
burnisher is then passed
rapidly all over the rub-
bing paper with a firm
pressure (fig. 107).
The rubbing paper and
the other paper are picked
off, and an experienced
eye can usually tell if the
gold is sticking properly by
a peculiar, smooth appear-
ance which it then has.
FIG. 105. Several Letters or Forms
which are close together
may be gilded simultaneously — with one piece of
gold-leaf — as if they were one complex form. This
saves time, but if too many forms are gilded to-
gether, some of them are liable to be less thoroughly
and effectually treated.
Small Scattered Forms (dots, &c.). — For these the
gold-leaf may be cut into a sufficient number of
little pieces, which are allowed to fall (gold side
downwards) on a sheet placed to receive them.
1 A finer metal or ivory point may also be used.
156
They are picked up separately by means of a needle Laying &
Burnishing
stuck into their backing-paper.
Additional Coats of Gold-Leaf. — A second leaf of Gold
gold may be laid on immediately on the top of the
first ; this will ensure richness and facilitate bur-
nishing. Additional leaves may be laid after bur-
nishing, but, unless the first gilding is absolutely
clean, there is a risk of the second leaf peeling off
when re-burnished.

* jpressirur the ovLi leaf tn&

arufle (vrm&L fy the size & parchment.

dia^rcurraf
above

FIG. 106.
157
Laying &
Burnishing
Gold

N<?te: The ru&lnng-- paper

15 hdd steadily by the
lift hand and net <d-
Ijnved to shin:
theti
IS fc«/wr pressed en

zt- See. *~'

106.
th&si

FIG. 107.

BURNISHING THE GOLD

The Burnisher. — A tooth-shaped agate burnisher

(fig. 1 08) is commonly used.
The point is used for pushing the leaf into angles
and for burnishing angles (a).
The fore-part for general burnishing (£).
The bend for cross-burnishing and for angles (c).
The side for very gentle and light burnishing (d).
The burnisher is kept scrupulously clean, and to
ensure this it is frequently rubbed on a cloth.
Dusting off the Pounce. — The edge of the parch-
ment may be tapped smartly on the desk to shake
off the pounce, and a feather or a soft handkerchief
may be used, care being taken not to brush the
158
pounce over the gold.
 Brushing off Waste Leaf. — The superfluous gold Laying &
Burnishing
round the edge of the gilded form may be lightly
brushed off with the tip of the brush. This may Gold
be done after or before
the burnishing — pre-
ferably after(see p. 1 70).
Any gold which may
have stuck to the sur-
rounding parchment, in
spite of the pouncing,
may be removed with
the knife or with the
hard indiarubber point,
great care being taken
not to touch the gilded
size.
Burnishing the Gold.
— The gold-leaf may
be burnished immedi-
ately after laying when
the size is very dry,
but it is safer to wait
for a quarter of an
hour — or longer, if
the size is at all damp
(see Drying,?. 151).
The slab is again put
under the work, and
the burnishing is be- FIG. 108.
gun very gently and
cautiously : should the burnisher stick in the very
least, it is instantly stopped (or else the gold will
be scratched off), examined, and cleaned.
The first strokes of the burnisher are generally
carried all over the work, very lightly and with a
Laying & circular movement (fig. 109), till the gold begins to
Burnishing feel smooth^ and the matt surface gives place to a
Gold dull polish.
As the gold gets smoother a little more pressure
is used, and the burnisher is moved in straight lines
in every direction across the gold (fig. no). At

FIG. 109. FIG. no.

this point the gold should have a peculiar and agree-

able feeling of smoothness under the burnisher, an
unmistakable sign that all is going well.
A rapid light polish with the bend of the bur-
nisher across a gold stem will give a very good finish
(', fig- i°8).
Properly burnished gold in a right light is at first
as bright as a mirror, and in some lights may look
1 60
quite dark by reason of its smoothness. A piece Laying &
Burnishing
of white paper may be held at such an angle that
the white light from it is reflected by the gold ; Gold
this will show the quality of the burnish, and also
show up any brown spots which the leaf may have
failed to cover. It is helpful, moreover, during
the actual process of burnishing to have a reflecting
paper folded and standing beside the work (fig.
in).

FIG. in.

At first the size under the burnished gold is not

thoroughly hardened, and great care should be taken
of it (not to breathe on nor finger the gold in any
way, nor allow it to lie about and get dusty). It is
best to put it away safely in a drawer for a week or
two.
After a week or fortnight, when the size has
set a little more, it may be very gently re-burnished,
and this may be done again at the end of another
L 161
Laying & fortnight. This final burnishing, when the size is
Burnishing nearly hard, will give it a very lasting polish. It is
Gold well, however, to take every care of burnished gold,
and to secure it from risk of damage as soon as may
be. Illuminated miniatures were often protected
by a piece of silk between the leaves — and this
should be done now, in the case of fine work.
That a bound volume protects the burnished gold
within it is proved by the large number of MSS. in
which the gold, laid and burnished 500 years ago,
is in perfect and brilliant preservation.

REMEDYING FAULTS IN GILDING

To lay and burnish gold satisfactorily requires

considerable experience. Careful practice with a
good " size " will overcome the chief difficulties :
these, and their probable causes, are here sum-
marise—d :

To take the Size stick to the Probablt Causes of Size not sticking
Surface, to Parchment or Paper,

Clean and pounce thoroughly :

roughen if necessary (pp. Dirty -I
146, 167).
Non-porous J
Ho"? or Surface.
off)
Procure or make a proper com- enough
Size not sticky ' due to faulty
position, mix thoroughly
always, and stir frequently Size not tough
composition,
when in use. If composition enough (and or mixing.
crumbling
is at fault, add —
a. Sticky matter.
b. Toughening matter
(pp. 147, 166, and Appendix)
l62
 To mate the Gold-leaf stick to Probable Causes of Gold-leaf not Laying &
the Size. sticking to Size. Burnishing
Breathe on thoroughly and \ due to insufficient
avoid delay in laying the Size not I breathing on, or Gold
gold (p. 154). damped > too absorbent nat-
Do not allow size to dry too enough I ure or condition of,
long (p. 15 i).
) size.
More, and more careful, rub- Not sufficient rubbing and
bing and pressure (p. 156). pressing on of gold.
(See above.) Size not sticky enough.
Raise the size sufficiently (p. Not enough size, particularly
150). If not enough when in thin lines and edges.
dry, roughen surface and add
another coat.
Try re-gilding (p. 157), or, if The gold may refuse to stick in
spots persist, scrape them spots with no apparent reason,
gently and try again : failing but probably from one or
that, gently scrape off all the other of the above causes.
gold and try white of egg Or the size may have been
(dilute), or a slight re-sizing touched accidentally and
(as above). have become greasy or dirty.
If the spots are very small and
there is not time to spare
for re-gilding, they may be
touched with powder gold
and dilute white of egg, and
burnished when dry.

To make the Gold-leaf smooth

and bright. Probableburnishing
Causes of'Gold-leaf "' 's not
properly.

} Allow longer time (p. Due to—

151). a. Damp weather.
Remove size and re-size with Size b. Insufficient time
ing.
allowed for dry-
proper composition. sticky.
too

Sometimes this difficulty may c. Too much sticky

be overcome by using several matter in size.
coats of gold-leaf (p. 157).

I63
Scrape smooth with sharp knife. Size rough surfaced.
(Sometimes the size itself is
burnished before the gold-
leaf is laid.)
Clean burnisher frequently. Burnisher becoming dirty.
Laying & Both paper and parchment when much wet with
Burnishing size are apt to cockle. Generally it is not possible,
Gold or desirable (see p. 174), to guard against this by
first stretching the material, but the size may be
used with less water, so that it will dry sooner. In
cases where there is a gold background it may often
be divided into small parts (to be sized at different
times) by the pattern (see p. 191). For large un-
broken patches of gold several thin coats may be put
on, one after the other.
Some sizes have a tendency to crack : this is
difficult to guard against. But, if the cracks are
very minute — such as may be seen in many in-
stances in the best early MSS. — they do not
constitute a serious blemish.
Burnished gold is often damaged by careless
handling or insufficient protection.

GOLD WRITING

The page (having been ruled as for ordinary

writing) is thoroughly pounced all over.
The pen has an extra long slit, and the size
is made a little more fluid than usual to allow
of its flowing freely and making true pen-strokes
(p.The63). desk is lowered (fig. 46, />), or flat, so that
the size may flow freely.
The nib sometimes makes only a wet down-
stroke on the parchment, but, by lightly pushing
the pen up again, the stroke will be filled by the
size which flows out from under the nib. Simple
pen-strokes in small writing hold but little, and so
ought
164 to be filled as full of size as possible (pp. 1 50,
184). They will be found to dry much more
quickly than larger forms, and may be gilded Laying &
within a few hours of writing. Half-a-dozen or Burnishing
more letters are gilded together (see p. 156). Gold

OTHER METHODS & RECIPES FOR GILDING

Gold-leaf may be cut with a " gilder 's knife" on

a "gilder's cushion" and picked up with a "gilder's
p:'
tiWater, white of egg, or alcohol may be used to
make the gold-leaf adhere to the size.
" Transfer gold-leaf" is convenient, but the
greasiness of the transfer paper is apt to dim the
gilding.
Gold-leaf is made in many shades, from " red "
(gold -|- copper) to "green" (gold -f silver) ; though
these may be used very effectively, they are liable
to tarnish, and it is best to begin with pure gold
(see pp. 152, 169).
Silver-leaf oxidises and turns black ; platinum (a
good substitute) costs about 2s. 6d., and aluminium
(not so good) about 6d. per book.
" Gold Ink" has been made with powdered gold:
its effect is inferior to raised and burnished writing.
The following is from " The Book of the Art
of Cennino Cennini " (written about the beginning
of the fifteenth Century) : Translated by Christiana
J. Herringham, 1899 :—

"Chap. 157* — How you must do miniature-painting

and put gold on parchment.
165
** First, if you would paint miniatures you must draw
with a leaden style figures, foliage, letters, or whatever
you please, on parchment, that is to say, in books :
then with a pen you must make the delicate permanent
Laying & outline of what you have designed. Then you must have
Burnishing a paint that is a sort of gesso, called asiso, and it is made
Gold in this rnanner ; namely, a little gesso sottile [see chap.
1 1 6, below]], and a little biacca [whiteleadj, never more
of this than equals a third part of the gesso ; then take a
little candy, less than the biacca ; grind these ingredients
very finely with clear water, collect them together, and
let them dry without sun. When you wish to use some
to put on gold, cut off a piece as large as you have need
of, and temper it with the white of an egg, well beaten,
as I have taught you. [The froth is allowed to stand for
one night to clear itself ,] Temper this mixture with it ; let
it dry ; then take your gold, and either breathing on it or
not, as you please, you can put it on ; and the gold being
laid on, take the tooth or burnishing-stone and burnish it,
but hold under the parchment a firm tablet of good wood,
very smooth. And you must know that you may write
letters with a pen and this asiso, or lay a ground of it, or
whatever you please — it is most excellent. But before
you lay the gold on it, see whether it is needful to scrape
or level it with the point of a knife, or clean it in any
way, for your brush sometimes puts more on in one place
than in another. Always beware of this."

"Chap. 1 1 6. — Honv to prepare gesso sottile {slaked

plaster of Paris} for grounding panels.

" You must now prepare a plaster for fine grounds, called
gesso sottile. This is made from the same plaster [plaster
of Paris ] as the last, but it must be well purified (pur-
gata), and kept moist in a large tub for at least a month ;
renew the water every day until it almost rots, and is
completely slaked, and all fiery heat goes out of it, and it
becomes as soft as silk. Throw away the water, make
it into cakes, and let it dry ; and this gesso is sold by the
druggists to our painters. It is used for grounding, for
gilding, for working in relief, and other fine works."

1 66
 APPENDIX: ON GILDING

(By Graify Hewitt)

Success with raised gilding can only be expected when Laying &
practice has rendered attention to the details of the process Burnishing
automatic and there is no need to pause and think. Even Gold
then the results must be somewhat uncertain and experi-
mental. For our own preparations of size are usually
unsatisfactory, and the ingredients of the best we can buy
are unknown to us. And our vellum is certainly not of
the quality we find in the old books. Some one is badly
wanted to investigate the chemistry of the one and an ap-
propriate preparation of the other. But we can take as
much care as our time allows, passing nothing as " good
enough " which we have not well examined, and bringing
to the business all the patience and deftness available.
Vellum is too stiff, or too dry, or too greasy. When
stiff, it is too thick for books ; when dry, too apt to crack
or cockle ; when too greasy, exasperating. And yet the
soft and rather greasy sort can be rendered more agreeable
than the rest with labour. It should be rubbed by the
flat of the hand with powdered pumice (or even fine sand-
paper on the rough side) and French chalk, especially
on its split (or rougher) side, until it is serviceable. A
few trials will teach how long to give to this. Five
minutes for one side of a lamb's skin would not be too
much. It can then be beaten with a silk handkerchief,
but not rubbed with this until the size has been laid.
It may be rubbed cleaner between the laying of the size
and the gilding. Especially must those parts of pages be
167
thoroughly rubbed clean which in the book, when made
up, will lie upon and be pressed against gold letters
on the page opposite ; or the pumice left behind will
scratch them. On the other hand, if the vellum has not
been thoroughly pumiced on both pages, the greasiness in
Laying & **• w^ dim the gold in time, both from above and below ;
Burnishing or even make the size flake off altogether. The size
Gold ls often blamed for faults of the vellum and its want of
preparation.
Again size, or " raising preparation," is too sticky or
too dry. If the former, the gold will not burnish well ;
if the latter, it will burnish, but will not stick at the edges,
and will crack sooner or later. And though the essential
quality of gilding is brightness, one may be content to fail
of this rather than hare letters ragged in outline or broken
on the surface.
The size in use should be just liquid enough to flow
evenly from the pen. More water makes it dry too brittle,
and tends to cockle the vellum also ; less tends to blobbi-
ness and unevenness. Even when it is put on fairly an
uncomfortable groove is apt to form as it dries down the
centre of letters ; but this can be either filled up as soon
as the first layer is dryish, or the sides of the groove can
be scraped (when the letter is quite dry) down to the
level of the groove itself with a sharp knife. The knife
must be sharp. As this scraping does not affect the ex-
treme edges the power of the size there to hold the leaf
is not impaired by it ; and certainly a well-scraped surface
is extremely even and pleasant to gild. If the surface,
however, be burnished and not scraped before laying the
leaf, it will not hold the size well, and remains lumpy
also where lumps were there originally ; while scraping
gets rid of these. During use the size should be kept
thoroughly mixed ; and a small sable brush serves well
for this purpose, as soon as it can be used so carefully as
not to cause bubbles.
To know the exact time to allow between laying and
gilding one had need to be a meteorologist, so much
" depends on the weather." Very dry and very wet
weather are equally unkind. Generally an interval of
about twenty-four hours is right ; but it is better to gild
too soon than too late, provided one can be content, on
testing the naked surface of the gilded letter with a
1 68
 burnisher, and noting that the glitter is reluctant to come, Laying &
to leave the burnishing for a while, and only lay the leaf, Burnishing
pressing it well home to the outline of the letters. The Gold
burnishing can then be done in a few more hours. But
if the size be too dry, the difficulty will be to make the
leaf stick to it at all. In this case the leaf adhering can
be scraped off, the size scraped down further, and another
thin coat added and gilded after a shorter interval. If
the letter be so fouled that such repairs are difficult, it
should be entirely scraped away and the size relaid alto-
gether. Indoing this care is needed that the vellum be
not injured round the letter.
The best gold-leaf for ordinary work costs about
38. for twenty- five pages. More expensive leaf, being
thicker, does not stick so well to the edges ; cheaper is
too thin to burnish well. Two kinds may be used
together with good results, the finer leaf being put on
next the size, and the thicker at once on to the top of
that. The letter is then pressed and outlined as usual
through paper, and the thin leaf will be found of con-
siderable assistance towards the making of a clean cut
edge. Generally, however, the piling on of several
leaves is inadvisable, as bits are liable to flake away as
the letter goes on drying, leaving dim specks where they
have been. Yet if, after the outlining through the paper,
the leaf is seen to be very dull or speckled with the
colour of the size, this means that the size has been
partly pressed through the leaf; and another laid im-
mediately will have enough to stick to, and will burnish
well. The best result comes of one moderately thick
leaf laid and burnished at the right time as quickly as
possible. Thicker leaves need only be used for large
surfaces, where the edge can be scraped even and clean,
or where a black outline is to be added. 169
As soon a* the leaf is laid, and from that point onward,
the breath must be kept from the letter with a shield (of
cardboard or tin) held in the left hand or otherwise.
Inattention to this is responsible for many failures. Not
Laying & only should the actual letters under operation be so pro-
Burnishing tected, but where a quantity are sized ready for gilding
Gold on the page these should be protected also, as well as
any parts already finished ; for breath not only moistens
but warms, and on warm size moisture condenses less
easily. If the work to be done presently is so warmed,
it will be found more difficult to deal with when its time
comes. The first work done in the day is often the best,
and for this reason, that the size for it is cool ; but in
gilding this portion one almost necessarily warms that to
be done later. Two pages, where possible, should there-
fore be gilded alternately, one cooling while a portion of
the other is gilded. Or thin plates of metal, or even
cardboard, may be placed about as shields to protect all
surfaces not under actual operation.
Superfluous gold is best removed by dusting lightly
with an old and very clean and dry silk handkerchief.
Indiarubber will certainly remove gold from the vellum,
but it will as certainly dim any part of the gilding it
touches. If the vellum was properly pounced to start
\iith the silk will easily remove all the leaf unstuck,
except little odds and ends, and these are safeliest taken
away with the point of a knife.
As the pressure of burnishing helps the leaf to stick, it
is best to wait till the letter has been burnished before
this dusting. Such spots as are visible ungilded may be
afterwards treated with a slight breath and transfer gold-
leaf, or gold dust, may be painted on them. In the
latter case the spots must be most carefully burnished,
if burnished at all, or their surroundings will be scratched.
When a gold letter is to be set on a coloured back-
ground, orin the neighbourhood of colour, it is best put
on after the colour ; as may be observed was the method
occasionally with the old books. If the gold is put on first,
it will certainly be dimmed by warmth and breath during
the colouring. On the other hand, if it is put on last,
great care must be taken that the gold-leaf shall not stick
to the coloured portions. Where possible, a stencil
I70
pattern of the parts to be gilded should be cut out of Laying &
paper. This is easily made from a pencil rubbing taken Burnishing
after the size is laid, the raised pattern being of course Gold
cut out carefully a trifle larger than the outline so
obtained. The paper is then laid over all the work,
and the sized portions showing through the cuttings can
be gilded without injury to the colour.
All gilded work should be retained, if possible, for a
week or more, and then re-burnished. And in burnishing
generally the burnisher should not be used, even when the
size is hard, with any great force or pressure at first.
For the size in drying sets as if moulded, and this mould
cannot be squeezed about or actually crushed without
being loosened or cracked. Throughout the whole pro-
cess a gentle and vigilant alacrity is required. Success
will come easily if it means to come. It cannot be forced
to come.
The binder of a book with gilding in it should be
warned to press the sheets as little as possible, and to
use all his care in handling it, so as to keep moisture,
warmth, and fingering from the gold. The folding of
the sheets, when left to him, should also be done rather
differently from usual, for all gilded pages need to be
kept as flat as possible. None of the sizes in use seem
capable of resisting bending of their surfaces without
crimping or cracking. Where there is much gilding, the
book will be the better for being sewn with a zigzag1
through
work. the sections, as this helps to " guard " the gilded

1 Fide D. Cockerell, " Bookbinding and the Care of Books,'

p. 81.

171
 CHAPTER X
THE USE OF GOLD & COLOURS IN INITIAL
LETTERS & SIMPLE ILLUMINATION

Tools & Materials for Simple Illumination — Parchment,

" Vellum," & Pounce — Colours — Simple Colour
Effects — Matt Gold — Burnished Gold — Burnished
Gold Forms, & Outlines — Background Capitals —
Applying the Background — Ornament of Back-
grounds.
TOOLS & MATERIALS FOR SIMPLE ILLUMINATION

The Use of TOOLS, &c.9 FOR GILDING.— See Chapter

Gold&
Colours in
IX. (pp. 145-6).
WORT TRACING POINT.— This is useful
Initial
Letters &
for various purposes, and for indenting patterns in
burnished gold (see p. 191).
Simple
Illumination BRUSHES.— Red Sables are very good. A
separate brush should be kept for each colour — or
at least one brush each for Reds, Blues, Greens,
White,a medium
have and gold and
"paint " — brush
a fine and itforis each.
convenient to
PENS FOR COLO UR.— Quill pens are used:
" Turkey " or " Goose," The latter is softer, and
is sometimes preferred for colour work. For very
fine work (real) Crow Quills may be tried. A
separate pen should be used for each colour.
COLOURED INKS.— Brown ink (tempered
with black if desired) may be used for fine out-
lines :if the outlined forms are to be coloured
afterwards, it is convenient if the ink be waterproof.
172
Coloured inks seldom have as good a colour as the The Use of
best paint colours (see Colours for Penwork, p. 176). Gold &
COLOURS.— (p. 175). MATT GOLD (see p. 183). Colours in
PAINT-BOX.— The little chests of drawers, Initial
sold by stationers for as. 6d., make very convenient Letters &
Simple
" paint-boxes " : pens, &c., may be kept in one Illumination
drawer ; gilding, tools, &c., in another ; and
colours and brushes in another.
PAPER (see pp. 51, 98, 103).— PARCHMENT, FELLUM,
13* POUNCE (see below).

PARCHMENT, " VELLUM," & POUNCE

(See also Appendix on Gilding^ p. 167 and pp. 98, 356)
The name "Vellum" (strictly applicable only
to calf-skin) is generally given to any moderately
good skin prepared for writing or printing on. All
the modern skins are apt to be too stiff and horny :
chemical action (substituted for patient handling),
followed by liberal sizing and " dressing," is perhaps
responsible. The old skins have much more life
and character, and are commonly much softer.
Their surface is generally very smooth — not neces-
sarily glazed— often with a delicate velvety napy
which forms a perfect writing surface.
Parchment (sheep - skin), as supplied by law-
stationers, though rather hard, still retains the
character of a skin, and is in every way preferable
to the Vellum J which is specially prepared for illu-
minators. Apiece of parchment about 26 inches
by 22 inches costs about 2s. 6d. Lambskin is still
better.
173
" Roman Vellum " is a fine quality of sheep or
1 The very costly, specially prepared calf-skin is too highly
14 finished," and has much the appearance of superior cardboard.
It is stiff and shiny, and its surface is objectionable to work on.
The Use of "inlamb
the "Vatican.
skin, made in imitation of the Vellum used
Gold &
Colours in The surface of a modern skin may be greatly
Initial
Letters & improved by "pouncing" but there seems to be a
danger of its becoming rough or porous.
Simple Pounce. — Fine powdered pumice (as supplied by
Illumination drysalters) is very good. It is rubbed on with the
hand (p. 167), or with a pad or a piece of rag.
Law-stationers use a pounce in which the main
constituents are chalk (or " whiting ") and powdered
resin. The latter, when used before gilding, is
apt to make the gold-leaf stick to the surrounding
parchment. (Before Writing^ see Note 7, p. 359.)
Chalk, « Whiting? " French Chalk? and Powdered
Cuttlefish Bone might be used as substitutes for
pumice, or as ingredients in preparing a pounce.
Sandarach (a resin) rubbed on an erasure appears to
prevent ink spreading when the surface is written
over.
A skin of parchment has a smooth (whiter) side
— the original flesh side — and a rougher, yellower
side — the original hair side. The penman will find
the smooth side preferable for writing on (though,
of course, both sides must be used in a book : see
p. no). This side is more easily damaged, and
erasures have to be very carefully made with a
sharp knife, or by gentle rubbing with indiarubber.
On the rough side, erasures cause little or no damage
to the surface. A piece of rubber — or a paper
stump — dipped in pounce may be used. It is better
— as it is more straightforward — to avoid erasures
if possible, and to correct mistakes frankly, as in
ordinary writing (see p. 344).
For ordinary purposes parchment should be cut
'7
to the4 size desired, and be held on the desk by the
tape, guard, &c. (see p. 50). It is generally a The Use of
mistake to pin it down, or to damp and stretch it Gold &
on the drawing-board (see p. 356). Colours in
Initial
Parchment is stained a fine purple with " Brazil-
Letters &
wood ": this may be obtained from a " store Simple
chemist." Three teacups full of Brazil-wood are Illumination
stewed in about two pints of water, with two
teaspoonsful of alum (which acts as a mordant).
The colour of this liquid is brownish-red, and to
make it purple, carbonate of potash is added (very
carefully, or it will become too blue). The liquid
is poured into a tray, and the parchment skin is
placed in it for half a day or a couple of days. The
colour dries lighter, so it should be prepared rather
dark, and diluted if necessary : strips of parchment
should be used to test it ; they are taken out and
dried at the fire.
The parchment skin is stretched on a frame,
the edges being caught up over little buttons or
pegs, and tied at these points with string. It is
allowed to dry slowly.
COLOURS
POWDER. COLOURS are the purest: they
may be mixed with gum arabic and water. Yolk
of egg and water is sometimes used as a medium
(or white of egg) (see pp. 166, 179). It is more con-
venient for the beginner to use prepared colours,
which are ready and dependable.
CAKE COLOURS rank next to powder colours
for purity : they seem to need tempering with a
little gum or honey or glycerine (or egg — 17see 5
above) for use on ordinary parchment.1 Used
1 OXGALL may be used for a greasy surface ; painted on it,
or mixed with the colour.
The Use of
dr y. with water, they are apt to flake off when
Gold & plain
Colours in PAN COLOURS are very safe for ordinary use.
Initial TUBE COLOURS sometimes seem to have too
Letters &
much glycerine ; they are, however, very con-
Simple venient for preparing mixed colours in any quan-
Illumination
tity, because of their semi-fluid condition, and
because the amount of each colour in the mixture
may be judged with considerable accuracy by the
length which is squeezed out of the tube (p. 178).
COLOURS FOR PEN WORK, fcfc— For
simple letters or decoration it is well to use a pure
RED — neither crimson nor orange tinged :
BLUE — neither greenish nor purplish :
GREEN— neither bluish nor " mossy."
A little " body colour " is generally used with blues
and greens to keep them "flat" (p. 118). These
colours should may be mixed as required, and be diluted
to the right consistency with water
IK* poiif
or saucer. 't per? (see p. 1 1 8). Colour which has
been mixed and in use for some
time — especially if it has been
allowed to dry — is best thrown
away (see mixing size, p. 148).
If there is much rubricating to
Uxnrer vessel .A.
be done, a quantity of each colour
Small tu^Moth sufficient to last several days may
tHe scorn openek
ami tke bottom be mixed, and kept in a covered pot.
melted offta a. A little pomatum pot is convenient
will — the smaller the better, as it keeps
ga5 flame,
FIG. 112. the colour together, and does not
allow it to dry so quickly.
The filling- brush (a rough brush
kept for filling the pen) may rest in the pot (see
fig. 112), being given a stir round every time it is
176
used to prevent the settling of the heavy parts of The Use of
the colour. A drop of water is added occasionally Gold &
Colours in
as the liquid evaporates and becomes too thick.1
TINTS FEW AND CONSTANT.— Red, Blue, Initial
and Green (and perhaps purple] with Gold, White, Letters &
Simple
and Black, are sufficient for everything but the Illumination
most advanced type of Illumination. And it is in
every way desirable that, until he has become a
Master Limner, the Writer and Illuminator should
strictly limit the number of his colours (see p. 215).
It is one of the " secrets " of good " design " to
use a limited number of elements — forms or colours
or materials — and to produce variety by skilful and
charming manipulation of these.
It is well to follow the early Illuminators in this
also : that these few colours be kept constant.
When you have chosen a Red, a Blue, and a Green —
as pure and bright as you can make them — keep
those particular tints as fixed colours to be used for
ordinary purposes. For special purposes (pp. 182, 202)
paler tints may be made by adding white, and
varied tints may be mixed, but even when your
work has advanced so that you require a more
complex " palette," you should stick to the principle
of constant tints and modes of treatment for regular
occasions : this is the secret of method.
RED. — Vermilion is prepared in three forms :
"Vermilion," "Scarlet Vermilion," and "Orange
Vermilion" For ordinary use " Scarlet Vermilion "
is the best (it may be tempered with a minute
quantity of white). " Vermilion " is not quite so
bright, and tends more to crimson, but, mixed with
1 And the nib is cleaned out now and then (with the filling
brush), or wiped, to prevent the colour clogging it (see
p. 70).
M 177
The Use of
Gold & " Orange Vermilion" it gives the " scarlet " form.
The pan colour is generally most convenient.
Colours in Where scarlet is in juxtaposition with gold, their
Initial
Letters & effect may be harmonised by having a large propor-
tion of blue in the neighbourhood : sometimes a
Simple more crimson colour than vermilion may be used.
Illumination
Chinese Vermilion is a fine colour, but difficult
to obtain ; it is even said that the genuine pigment
is reserved exclusively for the Chinese Emperor
(whose edicts are written with "The Vermilion
Pencil").
GREEN. — Verdigris is a very fine colour, closely
resembling, and possibly the same pigment as, the
green in early MSS., but I believe that it has not
been rendered permanent in modern use.
Green Oxide of Chromium (transparent) (or " Veri-
dian ") is a very good permanent green. It is
rather a thin colour, and requires body, which may
be given with lemon yellow, or with white and yellow
ochre ; being a rather bluish green, it is the better
for a little yellow. This (mixed) green is most
conveniently prepared from tube colours.
BLUE. — Ultramarine Ash (whole tube about
48.) is a very beautiful colour. It is rather pale and
transparent (and a little " slimy " to work) when
used alone. A mixture (preferably made with tube
colours) consisting of Ultramarine Ash and Chinese
White and (a very little) Prussian Blue makes an
extremely fine, pure blue. A similar mixture with
cobalt as a base makes a very good blue.
Ultramarine or Powdered Lapis Lazuli (unfortu-
nately known as " Genuine Ultramarine "l) is a fine
colour ; it may have a slightly purplish tint and need
1 "French Ultramarine" is an artificial compound, and a poor
colour.

.78
tempering with green to make a pure blue (whole The Use of
cake about i8s.). Gold&
The Blue in common use in early MSS. (before Colours in
Ultramarine came into use) has a fine, pure colour, Initial
Letters &
and considerable body : it is more raised than any Simple
other colour ; it is often seen to be full of little
Illumination
sparkles, as though there were powdered glass in it.
It is supposed to have been prepared from a copper
ore.
The following note on this blue has been given
to me by Mr. C. M. Firth :—
"The blue is Native Carbonate of Copper finely
powdered and tempered with white of egg (Vermilion
is tempered with the Yolk)."
" The ore is of two kinds, a crystalline of a medium
hardness found in France at Chessy, and hence called
Chessylite, and a soft earthy kind which is obtained in
Hungary, and largely now from Australia. The latter is
from its ease of manipulation the best for paint making.
It should be ground dry till it is no longer gritty and is
of a sky blue (pale) colour."
" The Blue in MSS. was liable to wash off, but the
oil in the Yolk prevented a similar result with the Ver-
milion. The Blue is identical with the Azzuro della
magna (for d'allemaigne) of the Middle Ages. The
frequently advanced hypothesis that the blue was due to
a glass is based on the accounts of (I.) The Vestorian
blue copper * frit ' for enamels probably ; (II.) on the
accounts in sixteenth century of the Manufacture of
Smalt, which owes its colour to a glass tinted with Cobalt.
This Azzuro is the oldest known Western blue, and was
probably employed on Egyptian walls, where it has gone
I79
green, as also in Italian Frescoes."
"The Green tint of the chemical change in the
Copper is seen in initials in books too much exposed to the
damp. These exhibit a bright green tint in places where
the colour was thinly applied."
The Use of It appears that Yolk, besides being unsuited in
Gold & colour for tempering this blue, changes it to a
Colours in greenish colour (the effect of the oil, which forms
Initial about 30 per cent, of Yolk of Egg).
Letters &
WHITE.— The tube Chinese White1 is the
Simple most convenient to use when tempering colours.
Illumination
"WhitetoolsLine
Various haveor been
Hairrecommended
Finishing" (see p. 183).
for this. A
sable pencil with the outer hairs cut away, "the
smallest brush " made, and even a fine steel pen.
I am inclined to believe that some of the early
Illuminators used a fine quill — such as a crow quill,
or a goose quill scraped thin and sharply pointed.
PURPLE is seldom used in simple pen-work,
lettering, &c., but largely and with very fine effect
in complex illumination. A reddish-purple is to be
preferred. A good colour can be made from the
purple stain described on p. 175, or from Ruby
madder and a little Rose madder, with a very little
Ultramarine.

SIMPLE COLOUR EFFECTS

Simple " Rubrication " (see p. 127). — Red letters

were most commonly contrasted with blue (the
" warmest " and " coldest " colours),2 in some MSS.
with green alone, but more commonly the three

1 For white lining, &c. — if in constant use — the Chinese

White in bottle is said to be the best ; a little Spirits of Wine
should be poured into it, to keep it moist and make it work
better. It should be stirred well, and a sufficient quantity for
immediate use is taken out and mixed in a small saucer. The
bottle is kept tightly corked.
2 And single forms were often parti-coloured, as III., IV.,
Blue, with red serifs, or vice versa (see also pp. 208, 216).
1 80
colours were used together, the alterations being The Use of
Gold&
generally —
Colours in
RED Initial
Red cap. * Letters &
in Simple
B/M£ cap. columns of BLUE in lines of Illumination
Versal Caps.
Red cap. letters RED
(see
89).fig.
Green cap. (see fig. GREEN
&c. 93). &c.

Repetition and Limitation of Simple Colours (and

Forms). — The uniform treatment of a MS. neces-
sitates that no colour (or form) in it should be quite
singular, or even isolated if it can possibly be re-
peated. If,for example, there be a Red capital on
the "Verso " page, the "opening" is improved by
some Red — a capital, a rubric, or even a line-
finishing — on the " Recto " page. Very often the
one piece of colour is very small, and, as it were,
an echo of the other (compare Line-finishings and
Initials, pp. 205, 193). While it is not always
possible or desirable so to treat both pages of an
opening, yet, in the book taken as a whole, every
colour used should be repeated as often as there is a
reasonable opportunity. And, therefore, where the
opportunities for colour in a book are few and far
between, it is well to limit the " colours " used to
two, or even one.
This necessity for repetition applies to simple
arather
book than
needto not
complex
have "more
Illuminated
than one" Forms — e.g.
Illuminated
Initial — but within such complex forms themselves
181
The Use of repetition is recognised as one of the first principles
Gold &
Colours in of " decorative design" (see p. 215).
Initial Proportions of Colours. — In Harmonious Illumina-
Letters & tion, Blue very commonly is the predominating
colour ; but no exact proportions can be laid down,
Simple for the combined colour effect depends so much on
Illumination
the arrangement of the colours.
Effects of Neighbouring Colours.1 — When blue and
red are in juxtaposition, the blue appears bluer and
greener ; the red appears brighter and more scarlet.
With Red and Green, the Red appears more crim-
son, and the green, greener and blue"r. A greenish
blue will appear plain blue beside a pure green ; a
blue with a purplish tinge will appear more purple.
Experiments might profitably be made with simple
arrangements of Red, Blue, Green, Black, White,
and Gold in combinations of two or more.
Tempering Colours with White. — Forms such as
flower petals, &c., may be painted in Blue or Red,
paled with White, and then be shaded with the
pure colour ; this gives considerable richness, and
the effect may be heightened by very careful white
line work (q-v.}. Green leaves, &c., may be made
very pale and then touched with Yellow — this gives
a brilliant effect.
Black Outlines. — The effect of these is to make a
bright colour appear brighter and richer, to define,
and, to a certain extent, harmonise, neighbouring
colours and shapes, and to keep the design flat (see
1 In " white light " three rays (known as the " Primary
Colour-Sensations ") have been distinguished — Red, Green, and
Blue ; any two of these are complementary to the remaining
colour, and appear to be induced optically in its neighbourhood.
(Yellow light is combined of Red and Green rays, and this
may partly explain the particular fitness of Blue and Gold
Illumination.)
l82
p. 1 86). For one or more of these reasons, all The Use of
coloured forms — patterns, charges, &c. — in a com- Gold &
Colours in
pound colour scheme have an outline — strong or
delicate, according to the strength or delicacy of Initial
Letters &
the work (see pp. 188, 187, 202, 221, 165). Simple
White Lining. — A black outline is often separated Illumination
from the colour by a fine white line (see fig. 129).
White lines also are used to harmonise colours, one
or more commonly being painted (or " penned ")
upon the colours. This tends to make the colours
appear paler and lighter — brightening them if they
are dark. Care must be taken not to overdo the
white lining, or it will make the colours chalky and
cold. White is also used in groups of dots, and in
fine patterns on backgrounds (see pp. 213, 430).
Gold is even more effective than white or black
for harmonising colours. It is commonly Bur-
nished in bars or frames (see p. 481), and in spots
(pp. 481, 187), or in large masses (p. 191). Matt
Gold (see below).
MATT GOLD

Matt gold, or gold "paint" — the pure gold powder

with white of egg is best — is generally painted
upon colour. It was much used in old miniatures
for "hatching" and lighting landscapes, houses,
costumes, &c. ; and stars, rays of light, and outlines
of clouds were painted in delicate gold lines upon
the blue of the skies. Such gold lining has a very
mellowing and pleasant effect upon colour, but it
can easily be overdone. Matt gold may be used '83
besides, for letters, ornament, and patterns painted
upon colour. Such forms have either no outline, or
a very faint one : their effect depends upon their
lightness, and they are not made to appear solid.
The Use of A very pretty effect may be obtained in a small
Gold & and not very formal manuscript by painting into
Colours in the spaces left for the capitals little squares of red
Initial and blue, and painting upon these the letters and
Letters &
ornament — all in gold powder — very freely and
Simple
Illumination quickly. The kind of treat-
ment israther crudely suggested
by fig. 113. The pleasant ap-
pearance ofthe pages — as though
they were scattered over with
tiny squares of cloth of gold and
red and blue — is produced with
FIG. 113.
comparative ease, while the use
of leaf gold might entail an ex-
penditure ofmore time and pains than the book
was worth. In the finest class of manuscripts,
however, these matt gold letters would be some-
what informal and out of place.

BURNISHED GOLD

Gold is always raised and burnished as bright as

possible, unless there is a special reason for using
matt gold.
The height to which it is raised varies, according
to the effect desired, from a considerable thickness
to the thinnest possible coat of " size." Extremely
thin and extremely thick raising are both objection-
able (see p. 150) : roughly speaking, a suitable height
for any ordinary purpose is between TJ-g- and -^ of
an inch.
The surface, in the case of large forms, is gene-
rally made as smooth and perfect as possible, so that,
as Cennino Cennini says, the burnished gold " will
appear almost dark from its own brightness" ; and its
brightness is only seen when the light falls on it at The Use of
a particular angle. The gilding of a manuscript, Gold &
however, is slightly flexible, and a large gilded Colours in
surface is likely to be bent, so that some part of it Initial
is sure to catch the light. Letters &
Simple
Small surfaces highly burnished very often do
Illumination
not show the effect of, or " tell " as, gold, unless
they catch the light by accident. It is well, there-
fore, where the forms are small to have several on
the page, so that one or another will always shine
out and explain the rest. And while the proper
craftsman tries always to get the best finish which
he reasonably can, the natural, slight unevennesses
or varying planes of small gilded forms may be of
advantage to the whole effect. The pleasant effect
of such natural variations may be seen in thirteenth-
century Initials, where numbers of little gold pieces
are fitted into the backgrounds, and their changing
surfaces cause the whole to be lit up with little
sparkles of light. A parallel to this may be found
in the hand-tooling of a book-cover, which sparkles
with gold, because the binder could not press in
each piece of gold-leaf absolutely level. On the
other hand, the " deadness " of a machine-stamped
cover is largely due to the dead level of its gilding.
Black and Gold. — One of the finest effects in
calligraphy can be obtained by the simple contrast
of gold capitals with black writing (see p. 299).
While, as in the case of black and ra/, the
strongest effects are obtained by a marked contrast,
gold may yet be very effectively used for small
capitals throughout the black text. It does 18not 5
lose or blend its brilliance with the black of the
writing as colour is apt to do, but lights up and
illuminates the page. For this reason gold will
The Use of " help out " and make agreeable a black and colour
Gold & effect which, by itself, would have been a failure
Colours in (see p. 174).
TInitial
• • 1 " * «JT/

Letters &
Simple BURNISHED GOLD FORMS & OUTLINES

Illumination pia'ln gff/j letters, symbols, and other detached forms,

not having backgrounds, are usually not outlined. An
outline cheapens their effect, making them darker
and heavier, and, if the line be at all thick, conceal-
ing the true form of the letter, and giving it a
clumsy appearance.
It is an instructive experiment to make a gold
(or plain white) letter with a thick outline
(a, fig. 114), and then paint a background round
it. The effect is quite altered, and greatly im-
proved (b,fig. 114). The outline no longer tells

FIG. 114.

as the outer line of the form, but partakes more of

the nature of the background, in which it cuts out,
as one might say, a little niche for the letter to
rest in.
Gold-leaf forms on coloured backgrounds are out-
186
 The Use of
lined — generally in black — in order that letter and Gold &
background may together form a flat design, stable
and at rest in the page. Colours in
Initial
The distinction between the use of gold "paint" Letters &
and the treatment of a leaf gold form should be Simple
carefully observed : the matt gold powder lies upon Illumination
colour, and may appear to blend with it (p. 183) ;
the bright gold- leaf constitutes a distinct form, which
either lies upon the surface of a page, or is, as it
were, set in a background.
Gold (leaf) Floral Ornament, &c. — If the stalk and
leaves are both gold : they are commonly not out-
lined, unless on a background.
If there be a thin stalk in black or colour with
gold leaves : the leaves are outlined with the stalk-
colour (they were commonly furred : <:, fig. 115).
If there be a thick coloured stalk with gold leaves :
both stalk and leaves commonly have a black outline,
the "leaves" often being treated as spots of gold
(below).
Gold Spots or Dots are usually outlined and furred
with black (fig. 115). The
effect produced is of a bright
gold form on a grey back-
ground.
A simple "leaf" or de-
tached spot of gold has a
formless look, much as a
small blot of colour or ink
would have. The black
c.
outline and the grey back-
FIG. 115.
ground -effect seem in this
case to give form and interest
to the spot ; at least they give it a place to rest
in — a nest to hold the small golden egg.
The Use of Even a stalk and tendril (dy fig. 115) has the same
Gold & effect of giving intention and meaning to what
Colours in might otherwise be a mere blot.
Initial
Letters & When several spots of gold (or colour) are ar-
ranged in a simple design, together they constitute
Simple a simple form which does not require a background.
Illumination
Thus the line-finishing .*. (#, fig. 126) has a formal
and intentional arrangement in itself, and therefore
need not be outlined.

BACKGROUND CAPITALS

Background Capitals or Initials frequently

employ burnished gold, either for the letters
or the ground. All the parts (including " solid "
patterns) are generally outlined in black, or dark
colour.
The commonest colours for grounds are Reds and
Blues. The grounds are frequently countercharged,
or made one colour inside and another outside the
initial (p. 190). Sometimes little or no gold is used,
and many fine white lines are employed to separate
and harmonise the colours of the Initial and the
ground. It is well, however, for the beginner to
keep the letter and the ground distinct, by observing
the Herald's maxim, and using " Metal on colour,
or colour on metal."
The forms of the letters vary from those of ordinary
capitals in being thicker in proportion to their
height, and frequently in having no serifs. A
very thin line or serif is apt to be lost in the
background.
A very good form of background initial may be
188
made out of the ROMAN CAPITAL (*, fig. 1 16) The Use of
Gold &

AA XVvA Yfv\
r-r^v Initial
Colours in
A
A\ /M )) Lett ers&
Simple
/ \\ J/
/4r^\ V-l "^\ Illumination

'

II I Tiff
(a.)

Roman.
(*1
FIG. 1 1 6.

by thickening all its parts ; in place of the serifs,

curving out and shaping the ends of the stems (/>, d)
to a sort of 'u blunderbuss" pattern (g).

APPLYING THE BACKGROUND

It is well first to make the letter,1 and then to

apply the background to it (as though it were a sort
of mosaic). The background is packed tightly round189
the letter, and the letter occupies the background,

1 In the case of a burnished gold letter, the gilding may be

deferred until the adjacent coloured parts are finished (see
p. 170).
The Use of so that they appear to be in the same plane
Gold& fig. 117).
Colours in
Initial
Letters &
Simple
Illumination

TKomm of (<t.)
, natural

together
bad<gnnuid.Ncrte Or
al5o cannten3uuget
FIG. 117.

Such " flatness " is secured even more certainly

and effectively by using two colours (e.g. red and
blue) in the background — one inside and one outside
the letter (see Plate XIL).
The curves of the gold letter may with advantage
slightly project, and so break the hard, square out-
line of the background.
The letter should not have the appearance of
being " stuck on," as it is apt to if the background
is large and empty, or if the ornament passes behind
the letter (£, fig. 117).
In the case of letters with projecting stems or
tails : the tail may be outside the background (a,
190
fig. 1 1 8), or the background may be prolonged on The Use of
Gold&
Colours in
Initial
Letters &
Simple
Illumination

Jimp/e ftadumntnds fir tad&t

FIG. 118.

one or both sides of the tail (b and c\ or the whole

" field " may be enlarged to take in the complete
letter (d).
There is no limit to the variety of shapes which
backgrounds may take — symmetrical or asymmet-
rical, regular or irregular — provided they fit the
initial or the ornament (which may itself partially,
or entirely, bound them), are properly balanced (see
Plate XII., and p. 419), and take their right place
on the page.

ORNAMENT OF BACKGROUNDS

The ornament, as a rule, covers the background

evenly, and is closely packed or fitted into its place.
Gold grounds are generally plain, sometimes bearing
patterns in dots. These are indented in the surface
by means of a point (p. 172) which is not too sharp.
It presses the gold-leaf into tiny pits, but does not
pierce it. Gold grounds may be broken up into small
parts by coloured chequers (p. 215) or floral patterns.
191
The Use of Coloured grounds are, as a rule, more or less evenly
Gold& covered with some form of
Colours in decoration in thin white or
Initial
Letters & matt goldin lines,
patterns variousor colours
in " solid
(see"
Simple
Illumination pp. 202, 212). A simple and
pretty diaper pattern may be
made by diagonal lines of matt
gold, cutting up the colour into
small " lozenges," each alternate
lozenge having a fleur-de-lis or
little cross, or other simple
ornament (fig. 119).
A bolder design, in a broad
FIG. 119. white or coloured line, may
be, as it were, woven through
counterfeited slits in the letter (fig. I2O). This helps

FIG. 120.

to preserve the general flatness of the letter,

192
background, and ornament, and gives additional The Use of
interest. Gold &
The mimic slits are made by black lines drawn Colours in
on the burnished gold of the letter. Where the Initial
stem of the ornament comes over the gold, the size Letters
Simple
&
is cut away with a pen-knife ; the part hollowed out Illumination
is painted with white to cover any blemishes, and
then painted with the stem colour, and outlined.
A plain or pale stem may have a faint or brown
outline, and be " shaded " at the sides (with greys,
browns, or yellows) to give an effect of solidity ; a
stem that is painted in strong colour (e.g. red or
blue) may have a central white line painted upon it.
Note that where the initials have backgrounds,
the line-finishings are commonly made with
backgrounds to match, though their treatment is
naturally much simpler (see Plates XV., XVII. ).

CHAPTER XI
A THEORY OF ILLUMINATION

Illumination — " Barbaric, or Colour-Work, Illumina-

tion " — " Filigree, or Pen- Work, Illumination " —
"Natural, or Limner's, Illumination."
ILLUMINATION

IT is convenient to give a wide meaning to the A Theory of

word when we speak of an "illuminated manu- Illumination
script," for the scribe works with a very free hand,
and when he wishes to decorate his pages he can
N 193
A Theory of write the words themselves in red, green, or blue,
Illumination as easily as he could have written them in black.
He can take a clean pen and a new colour and
initial and " flourish " any part of the work to his
heart's content. He may acquire the art of laying
and burnishing gold, and no possible brilliance of
effect is denied him — within the limits of his skill
as an illuminator (see also pp. 298-299).
A limited number of specially prepared printed
books can likewise be illuminated. But the greater
the number of copies, the less labour may be spent
on each one, and the more their illumination tends
to be simple " rubrication " — adding coloured
capitals, flourishes, and the like (see p. 127). And,
if a large edition is to be decorated, the printer
must be content to use black, or black and red, in
woodcut or "process" work (see pp. 365, 372).
Illumination proper may be defined as the
decoration by hand, in bright gold or colours, of
writing or printing.
There are three broad types of illumination,
which for want of better terms I distinguish as
" Barbaric " (or colour-work), " Filigree " (or pen-
work), and "Natural" (or limner's). These types
run naturally one into another, and they may be
blended or combined in every possible way, but it
is convenient to consider them and the distinctive
treatments which they involve separately.

" BARBARIC, OR COLOUR-WORK, ILLUMINATION "

(See also pp. 203, 208, 209,215-18, 414, 421,422)
This js mainly a colour treatment in which
forms seem to be regarded chiefly as vehicles for
colour. Its effect appeals to the senses, rather than A Theory of
to the imagination ; and such interest as the forms Illumination
have lies greatly in their skilful disposal or intricate
arrangement. Sometimes in their fantasy — where
organic forms are introduced — as the " great fish "
in the act of swallowing Jonah (in order to make
the T of ET), Plate XII. This type of illumina-
tion appears to have reached its climax of
barbaric splendour in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries.
Though its revival nowadays might seem a little
out of keeping with the more sedate and grown-up
point of view of modern life, we cannot doubt that
it is still /awful to decorate our work with the
brilliance and splendour of gold and colours.
Whether it is expedient or not depends upon how
it is done : to justify our work, it must succeed ;
it must be bright and splendid, and really gladden
our eyes. And we must really take pleasure in the
making of it, for if we do not, we can hardly
expect that it will give pleasure to others.
Simple and Complex Forms. — Between simple forms
— which are in a sense permanent — and complex
forms — which are always changing — it is necessary
to make a careful distinction.
An equilateral triangle drawn by " Euclid " and
one drawn by a modern Senior Wrangler are, or
ought to be, practically the same thing. If the
ancients made an ornamental band of geometrical
forms, that is no bar to us ; we also are at liberty
to make decorative bands of circles, lozenges, or
triangles. 195
The ancient Romans made a capital A — its
essential form (see fig. 142) two strokes sloped to-
gether and joined by a cross-bar (very like the
A Theory of " Pons Asmorum "), ft could hardly be simpler —
Illumination they used chisels and pens, which gave it its more
characteristic and finished form. If we use chisels
and pens properly we shall get a similar result —
not absolutely the same — for no two chisels or two
hands can be quite the same — but closely resem-
bling itand belonging to our own time as much as
to any other.
The essential form of the " Roman " A is a
purely abstract form, the common property of
every rational age and country,1 and its character-
isation ismainly the product of tools and materials
not peculiar to the ancient Romans.
But when there is any real complexity of form
and arrangement, or sentiment, we may reasonably
suppose that it is peculiar to its time, and that the
life and virtue of it cannot be restored.
It was common enough in the Middle Ages to
make an initial A of two dragons firmly locked
together by claws and teeth. Such forms fitted
the humour of the time, and were part of the then
natural "scheme of things." But we should be-
ware of using such antique fantasies and " organ-
isms " ; for medieval humour, together with its
fauna and flora, belong to the past. And our own
work is only honest when made in our own
humour, time, and place.
There are, however, an infinite variety of simple
abstract forms and symbols, such as circles, crosses,
squares, lozenges, triangles, and a number of
Alphabets, such as Square and Round Capitals,
1 It has even been supposed that we might make the inhabit-
ants of Mart aware of the existence of rational Terrestrials, by
exhibiting a vast illumination — in lamp-light — consisting of a
somewhat similar form — the frit Proposition in Euclid.
196
Small Letters — upright and sloping — which — A Theory of
weeded of archaisms — we may use freely. And Illumination
all these forms can be diversified by the tools
with which they are made, and the manner in
which the tools are used, and be glorified by the
addition of bright colours and silver and gold.
Very effective "designs" can be made with
"chequers" and diaper patterns, and with the
very letters themselves. And I have little doubt
that an excellent modern style of illumination is
quite feasible, in which the greatest possible rich-
ness of colour effect is achieved together with
extreme simplicity of form.

"FILIGREE, OR PEN-WORK, ILLUMINATION"

(See also pp. 205-208, 209, 2l8-2O, 425, 428-29 ;
figs. 79, 92, 125-26, 150, 188-89 > Plates XL,
XIIL, XIV., XVII.)
This is a type of illumination which can safely
be attempted by one who, having learnt to write,
is desirous of illuminating his writing ; for it is
the direct outcome of penmanship (see p. 204),
and consists mainly of pen flourishes, or semi-
formal lines and shapes which can be made with
a pen, suitably applied to the part to be decorated.
Its effect may be very charming and restful : no
colour standing out as in a positive colour scheme,
no individual form catching the eye ; but the whole
having a richness of simple detail and smooth colour-
197
ing more or less intricate and agreeably bewildering.
It may be compared to the tooling of a book-
cover, both in the method of producing it, and in
its effect. A book-binder has a number of stamps
which bear the simplest forms and symbols, such as
A Theory of little circles and " leaves " and stars and curved
Illumination lines, and with these simple elements he builds up a
pleasant " design," which he tools, usually in gold-
leaf, upon the cover.
The scribe can vary the forms which his pen
produces, and the colours which he gives them,
with a freedom that the set form and the method
of using the binder's tools do not allow. But
the skilled penman will find that his pen (or, at
any rate, his penmanship) largely determines the
forms of his freest flourishes and strokes, and that
the semi-formal nature of such ornament demands
a certain simplicity and repetition of form and
colour, which do not unduly tax his skill as a
craftsman.
Suppose, for example, that the scribe wishes to
illuminate the border of a page of writing. He
may choose a limited number of simple, pen-made
forms for the elements of his design ; say, a circle,
a " leaf," and a " tendril," and a few curved flourishes

FIG. 121.

and strokes (fig. 121), and with these cover the

allotted space evenly and agreeably.

198
 A Theory of
The ornament [
Illumination
being treated as
though it were a
sort of floral growth,
requires a starting
point or " root." i
The initial letter is I
the natural origin of
the border ornament, i
the stalk of which '
generally springs from
the side or from one
of the extremities of
the letter. The main
i,
stem and branches are
first made with a
very free pen, forming
a skeleton pattern (fig.
122).

NOTE. — The numbers in ,

the diagram indicate the
order in which the strokes I
were made. The main stem
(in) sweeps over and occu-
pies most of the ground ; the '
secondary stem (222) Occupies j
the remainder ; the main
branches (333, &c. ) make the
occupation secure. I
I
I
I
I
I99

FIG. 122.
A Theory of
Illumination I

Next the minor

branches are added
to cover the space
evenly, and then the
flowers, fruity and buds
— made up of com-
binations of the
" leaves," circles, &c.
— are more or less
evenly disposed in the
spaces formed by the
large, round curves
at the ends of the
branches (fig. 123).

FIG. 123.
200
 , A Theory of
1 Illumination

The "leaves" are

placed all over, wher-
ever there is con-
venient room for them
(just as the leaves of a
real plant are). Then
the stalks of the leaves
are added, and, lastly,
the interspaces are
filled with "tendrils,"
which greatly con-
tribute to the pleasant
intricacy of the design
(fig. 124).

FIG. 124.
201
A Theory of Colour Schemes. — The safest treatment of such a " design " is
Illumination in black and £old (8ee p> l8?)' The leaves, which are kept
1 rather flat, may be outlined after gilding. The flowers, &c.,
may be made up in red and blue (tempered with white : see p.
181). This is the colour treatment of the example, Plate XVII.
If the leaves are green, the stem and outline may be more
delicately drawn in pale or grey-brown ink, and the green
may be a delicate pale olive or grey-green. (A strong, black
stem with bright green leaves is apt to look crude and hard. )
In such a delicate green plant border, delicate blue and red
flowers, and one or two rather flat gold " berries " (single, or in
threes) may be placed.
A very effective colour decoration of a much simpler type
may be made in red and green (or blue) pen-work — using the
pen and the colours with which the Versal letters and line-
finishings are made. A red flourished stem with red leaves or
tendrils, and green berries (or leaves), or a green stem with
green leaves and red berries.
A floral pattern may also be made in plain burnished gold —
both stem and leaves — not outlined (p. 187 & Plate XXII.).

A more complex decoration resembling the " floral

filigree " has a " solid " stern in light or dark colour
on a dark or light ground (or on a gold ground),
as suggested in the rough diagram, fig. 120.
The examples of Italian fifteenth-century work
in Plates XVIII. and XIX. show a related type of
illumination, known as the " white vine pattern."
Very carefully and beautifully drawn, it strongly
suggests natural form.

"NATURAL, OR LIMNER'S,* ILLUMINATION"

(See also pp. 213, 2IQ-2I, 227, 423-24, 426-28, 486 ;
figs. 131^-141 ; Plates XV., XVI., XXIII.)
This, the finest type of illumination, has very
great possibilities ; and it is to be hoped that some
craftsmen, who have the necessary skill, will find
an opening for their work in this direction.
* NOTE. — Limning strictly means Illuminating, but has come
to imply drawing and painting, especially of portraits and
miniatures. Here, all its senses are intended.
202
 Plate XV. is a thirteenth-century example of the A Theory of
transition from the " barbaric " to the " natural." Illumination
The dragon-tailed initial with its wonderful scroll-
work and "ivy-leaf" being the perfection of bar-
baric form, carrying brilliant colour and serving to
support and frame the delicate and beautiful draw-
ing which it contains.1 But in the drawing itself
the skill of a fine illuminator combines with the
fancy of a cunning draughtsman to satisfy an
aesthetic taste and appeal to the imagination.
Plate XVI. shows a rare, and singularly beautiful,
treatment of an Italian fourteenth-century MS.
decorated with plant and insect forms (p. 427).
Plate XXIII. (modern) show a border of wild roses
and climbing plants : the colour treatment in the
original is very brilliant (see p. 486).
The " natural " type depends very much on the
beauty and interest of its form ; and a draughtsman
before he had become an illuminator, might be con-
tent to decorate MSS. and printed books with pen
drawings only faintly coloured or tinted ; but when
he had mastered the limitations which the craft
would impose on his drawing for pure and bright
colour, there is no degree of brilliance, even unto
" barbaric splendour," which he might not lay
upon his trained and delicate forms.
1 The modern illuminator, having no tradition for making
such scroll-work, would find that natural or organic forms — as
of trees or plants (see p. zzi) — would serve the same end and
have more " sweet reasonableness" in modern eyes. Excellent
scroll-work, moreover, might be formed out of ornamental
Capitals — if sufficient excuse could be found for introducing203
them : a large flourished L, for example, could be made exactly
on the same lines as the pendant and scroll in Plate XV.
Narrow gold rods also may be used in a border to support
a floral growth, or as frames if necessary (compare rules, p. 364).
 CHAPTER XII

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION l

The Development of Illumination — Line-Finishings —

Initial Letters — Borders & Backgrounds.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ILLUMINATION

The De- AN art or craft is so largely dependent on the tools

velopment of and materials which are used by the craftsman, that
Illumination we may reasonably say that it begins with the tools
and materials, through which it has been produced.
Now, "illumination" can be traced back step by
step to simple penmanship. And its true develop-
ment ismost graphically sketched by Ruskin (" Lec-
tures on Art," No. V.) when he says —
" The pen . . . is not only the great Instrument for the
Jinest sketching, but its right use is the foundation of the art
of illumination. . . . Perfect illumination is only 'writing
made lovely ,• . . . But to make •writing itself beautiful — to
make the snueep of the pen lovely — is the true art of illumina-
tion "; And also that those who have acquired " a habit
of deliberate, legible and lovely penmanship in their daily use
of the pen, . . . may next discipline their hands into the
control of lines of any length, and, finally, add the beauty
of colour and form to the flowing of these perfect lines."

1 The fteft in the development sketched very briefly in this

chapter,
204 refer both to the past history of the art of illumination
and to its possible revival (see Author's preface, p. 16).
 LINE-FINISHINGS The De-

Line-finishings are used to preserve the evenness velopment of

of the text when lines of writing fall short. When
the space left is small, or occurs in the middle of a sen-
tence^ a quick stroke of the pen — often a continua-
tion of the last letter, or springing from it— is
sufficient (fig. 125) ; but where there are many and
long gaps (as, for example, in a psalter at the ends
of the verses), they may be filled in with dots (see
Plate VIII.) or flourishes (a, £, c, fig. 126) either
made in black with the script pen, or with another
pen, in colour or gold.
Line-finishings commonly echo the treatment of
the initials (see p. 181). In twelfth-century MSS.
long delicate flourishes are commonly found, in red,
blue, or green — matching the colours of the Versals,
and probably made with the same pen. The latter
being rather finer than the text pen keeps these
flourishes from appearing too prominent (see e, fy
fig. 126).
Such work should be simple and characteristic
pen-work, showing the thicks and thins and crisp
curves, the result of the position of the pen, which
is usually "slanted" (see p. 43).
Bands of pen-made "geometrical" patterns — used
with rather close writing — may be very simple and
direct, though appearing pleasantly elaborate (see
figs. 87 and (g) 126, Plate XIV., and pp. 215 & 25).
INITIAL LETTERS

(See also pp. 16, 48, 112-14, 124, 134, 181, 188-
193, 193-99, 211-15, and the Collotype Plates)
205
The development of Illumination proper was —
and still is— bound up with the growth and decora-
tion of the Initial Letter.
 The De-
velopment of
Illumination
ftne-fuiisHi

pt
ot-lcrminal

me—'-
W" V"

spread
Some-

FIG. 125.
206
1dots and flourish**
tnc-fihishin The De-
Illuminationvelopment of

thus *•* A A •** •••«

with, 5tnaUerpen : WACk

^ iTiu»M¥t*iYrr»rttr4»^"

207

#S<*S&X#^^
FIG. 126.
 The De- The first step in this development is the mastery
velopment of of the pen-made Versal letter, and the right treat-
Illumination ment of simple coloured capitals (see chapters VII.,
VIIL, and X.). The next step is their elaboration.
The simplest ornamental treatment is found in the
flourishing of a terminal of the initial letter (fig. 150),
or the arrangement of the remaining letters of the
word inside or beside it. Pen flourishes may consist
of the simplest curved and zigzag strokes (sometimes
springing from the actual letter : see p. 251), ending
with a " twirl " of the pen in a loop or a " bud "
(figs. 1 50, 79) ; or they may strike out a sort of formal
floral pattern, filling or surrounding the initial (fig.
92), and such a pattern in its turn may spring
from the letter into the margin, and grow into a
complete "illuminated border" (see p. 199).
Hollow Letters. — A large capital is often made
hollow, primarily with a view to lightening its ap-
pearance, which might be rather heavy if the letter
were made solid (p. 119). The hollow — which is
commonly left plain (i.e. the colour of the paper or
parchment) — may be a mere line, straight or curved
or zigzag (fig. 189), or a pattern, or lettering (fig.
89). Sometimes it is made large and filled in with a
contrasting colour, leaving a white line, however,
between the two colours. And sometimes half the
letter is made in one colour, and the other half (on
the opposite side of the hollow centre) is made in a
contrasting colour. A " hollow " letter (especially
if very large) may be strengthened and improved by
a filling of colour or ornament. (Addenda, p. 25.)
" Woven " Forms.-^-A simple form of ornament
(related to " Basket work ") which effectually
strengthens the construction of a hollow letter —
without impairing its lightness — consists in a cross-
208
ing and " weaving " or knotting of its actual parts The De-
(fig. 127). velopment of
Illumination

Woven?

.
uuwvm ornament; oil
in burnished gold mtJi «tb
<nttltrt* and barulS acmSS the
thm \xmbsefe.

FIG. 127.

The elaborated ^? (in fig. 127)15 from a loth

or nth century MS. (Brit. Museum, Egerton,
608). The Initial and its inwoven ornament cut
up the background into a number of distinct parts
(distinctly coloured). Note also that the entire
background is contained by the Initial.
The " knot " (fig. 127), or a basket-work orna-
ment, is sometimes used as an arbitrary starting-
point for a filigree border (see p. 428) where an
initial is lacking.
Variety in Initials. — The sizes and styles of the
initials which are used for the same purpose through-
out the book vary very slightly or not at all. Gene-
rally, the more important the division which the
o 209
 The De- initial marks, the larger the initial and the more
velopment of ornate (p. 298). A slight complexity in the open-
Illumination ing letter or word of a book does not seriously
interfere with the readableness of the book as a
whole. The general rule is followed that the greater
the number of (decorative) forms the plainer they are kept
(see p. 126), and if a book contained an "initial"
on every page, it would be both an artistic and a
working economy (if there were many pages) to
make the majority of them rather plain.
But however simple the treatment of the initials
may be, there is still room for considerable variety
of form or ornament or type— is "round" or "square"
letters (see fig. 80, and especially Plate XL). Such
variety is found in the best work ; it adds a liveliness
and charm which are quite lacking where there is
unnecessary or mechanical repetition.
"Lombardlc" versus Roman Capitals. — The round,
fat letters which are known as " Lombardic " (see
fig. i, and Plates XV., XVII.) have been generally
used for " illuminated initials " in Northern Europe
since the thirteenth century. But — though they are
capable of very beautiful treatment — they are
rather doubtful models for us to follow. The fact
that such letters will always pack neatly into a
square niche or background — though an obvious
convenience — is not an unmixed advantage. And
the majority of examples show a debased type of
Letters — often so unlike their originals, and so like
one another, as to be scarcely readable. For the
sake of readableness the stems should be made
longer (fig. 128). The more slender "Roman"
type of initial, commonly used in Italy (Plate
XVIIL), is in every way a more legible letter.
The Roman Alphabet still remains the finest
210
model, and it is better that fine lettering should be The De-
velopment of
Illumination

oca
TJiayym shewing the toidaity tx> cmfiisum be-
"forms oPdiis ^pc^&ol5c>

a 5cvcre^*r-
: their Kj>c in \vHicH tKctetttryarc
cnaractmstics m^rt
bcuurrnorc marlccb
FIG. 128.

almost too slender and delicate, than that it should

be at all heavy or clumsy.

BORDERS & BACKGROUNDS

The illuminated border was originally an extension

or branching out of the initial decoration. It
commonly occupied the greater part of the left-hand
margin, and from thence it extended into the head1
or foot margin (or into both), or completely sur-
rounded the text, and even the eight margins of a

1 Where it is possible it is desirable to mark the top left-

hand corner of the " page" (and also the lower corner) by a
branch, flourish, bud, or flower (see Plates XIX., XXII.). A
top left-hand corner appearing vacant or rounded off is apt to
weaken the whole effect (see p. 134).
211
 The De-
velopment of
Illumination

NOTE. — This diagram suggests a simple

treatment of an initial word in colours and
gold. The graphic method employed by
heralds for indicating these — by lines and
dots — is here discarded for the stronger con-
The trastsletters
of black,contained
white, andinside
" grey«"
the initial P
are kept distinct — (i) crimson ("grey" in
diagram) being used solely for the patches of
ground adjoining the (gold) letters, and for
filling the hollow part of the (gold} P, the
whole word stands out in crimson and gold;
(2) the floral pattern is also in gold, but it
does not cover or hide any part of the word.
The remaining ground is green inside and
FIG. 129. blue outside the P. The dots *.* ••• are in red
on the green ground, in cream with a red
centre dot on the blue.
The gold throughout is outlined black, and the blue ground has
a black outline, separated from it by a -white line
212
 complete opening are sometimes covered with illumi- The De-
nation. In late and modem usage the border is velopment of
frequently separated from the initial, constituting a Illumination
" framing border." l
In some MSS. there are two side-borders on a
page, one springing from the Initials on the left,
the other sending branches into the gaps on the
right (see Plates XVII., XVI.). In some cases the
two pages of an opening are balanced by a side-
border in each of the wide side margins (p. 428).
Backgrounds of Initials (see pp. 188-193, 421-23)
and borders are treated very similarly. It may be
noted that, where a sotid-stem pattern cuts up the
ground into small pieces, these are often painted in
different colours — commonly red, and green, and blue
(see pp. 209, 430). And the groups of dots (fig. 129)
— in white or other colours — may fill the interstices
of a background, putting the finishing touch to the
even covering and pleasant intricacy of the decora-
tion (comp. p. 201). Or little flowers and leaves may
be used instead — growing from a thin (white) stem
which appears to twine throughout the main pattern
— just as the smaller plants in a hedge creep and
twine among the larger stems. There is no better
model in nature for the illuminator than a country
hedgerow.

1 Framing borders, or borders which surround the text, may be

allowed nearly to fill the entire marginal space.

2I3
 CHAPTER XIII
IN ILLUMINATION

** Design " — Elementary Patterns in Decoration — Scale

& Scope of Decoration — Of " Designing " Manu-
scripts, Generally.

"DESIGN"
"Design "in PERHAPS the nearest right definition of "design"
Illumination is " contrivance " — applied to the actual doing of the
work, rather than to the work when done : " de-
coration^ (when that is the sense intended) is a
safer word,1 because it implies " of something" And
generally that " something " lies at the root of the
matter. For example : "illuminated initials" and
" illluminated borders," so called, are really illumi-
nzting : they are properly a decoration of manuscript
or print.
To consider a " piece-of-decoration " as a thing
existing apart from that which it decorates, as
something drawn or copied, and, so to speak, stuck
on to the finished work, is as wwnatural as it would
be to contemplate the flame-of-a-candle as a thing
apart from the candle.

1 "Design" has been associated so much with bad cleverness

in the artist, or clever badness in the natural man, that if we
use the word in a good sense it is apt to be misunderstood.
214
Decoration is derived from decut, decor =. comeliness or grace.
 The finest decoration is really part of the work " Design" in
itself, and may be described as the finishing touches Illumination
given directly to the work by the tools which are pro-
perly employed on it.
The illuminator has, as a rule, to decorate a
given manuscript with pen or brush work — it may
be with the simplest pen flourishes, or with the
most elaborate figure "design." How to make
that illumination part of the work, he can learn
only by patient practice and by careful handling
of his tools.

ELEMENTARY PATTERNS IN DECORATION

Nearly all simple Decoration consists of a com-

paratively limited number of elements — simple forms
and pure colours — which are built up into more
complex forms to occupy an allotted space. A
primitive type of such built-up decoration is seen
in the dotted patterns, which are found in every
age — in the remains of the most ancient art, and
in the shell decorations which children make on
the sands at the present day. Examples of dotted
" backgrounds " in the " Durham Book " are shown
in fig. 130 (a and b). Chequers and Diapers — in
which two or more elements are employed — are re-
lated patterns.1 (See also Addenda, p. 25 & fig. 1910.)
A simple way of filling a band (or long narrow

1 Chequers in colours and gold were largely used in the four-

215 is
teenth-century MSS. for backgrounds in miniatures. There
an example of very beautiful heraldic diapering (in enamel) on
the shield of William de Valence, Earl of Pembroke, in West-
minster Abbey (A.D. 1296). On p. 336 of this book there is
a diagram of a very fine shield bearing a diapered chequer.
" Design "in space) is to run a zigzag line along it (r). This
Illumination may be treated either as a line or wavy stem,
which may send out buds, leaves, or flowers into
the spaces (^), or as two series of triangles which
may be "countercharged (f).1 A second zigzag,
cutting the first, would produce two series of
triangles and a central row of lozenges (d). And
it is not a very great step from this to the " twist "
where the two lines pass over and under, the lines
being made " solid " in white or gold on a coloured
background (ey fig. 130). The main difference
appears to be that while the one is of the nature
of an abstract form, the other suggests a concrete
form, such as might be made with twisted cords or
rods.
These primitive patterns never become anti-
quated ;they are still the root forms of " design,"
and the pleasant even covering of a given space by
simple elements — which is their metier — accounts
for much of the unconscious pleasure which we
take in good bricklaying or sewing or writing, and
in a thousand things, where " many littles make a
mickle."
For their decorative possibilities in Illumination
we can experiment in the most delightful way —
framing our writing with bands of countercharged
triangles in burnished gold, and blue and white, or
with golden zigzags on a blue ground, or chequer-
ing backgrounds with scarlet and blue, and trying
a hundred and one other ways (p. 197). Such
patterns have been made the most of in Heraldry,

1 If the triangles were countercharged in colour and colour

e.g. red and blue — the zigzag would be made ivhite, black, or
ld, to separate and harmonise the colours (see pp. 182-83).
216
 "Design" in
Illumination
•ii Durham
IfV X1
S2- 'S'.K'X'i
:!* l(<0 HVA'^
ii: ^i (routfi
?k t Book J>

Simple modes of filling a bdt or tend

witti Vine ornament & (c.) (4-) C^-)

(m.) (n.> ^
ELEMENTARY^
7A7TtJVWS &S
US£D W SIMP1E T5ICORVT10M
FIG. 130.
" Design " in an art which in itself would form a foundation for
Illumination a splendid and complete scheme of Illumination.

SCALE & SCOPE OF DECORATION

Penmanship. — Many of the most beautiful MSS.

were made in pen-work throughout.1 And it is well
that the penman should stick to his pen as much
as is possible. Not only does it train his hand to
make pen ornaments, the forms of which are in
keeping with the writing, but it helps to keep the
decoration proportionate in every way. It is an
excellent plan for the beginner to use the writing-
pen for plain black capitals or flourishes, and to
make all other decoration with similar or slightly
finer pens than the one used for the writing.
Again, the direct use of the pen will prevent
much mischievous " sketching." Sketching is right
in its proper place, and, where you know exactly what
you wish to do, it is useful to sketch in lightly the
main parts of a complex " design " so that each
part may receive a fair portion of the available
space. But do not spoil your MS. by experimental
pencilling in trying to find out what you want to
do. Experiments are best made roughly with a
pen or brush on a piece of paper laid on the avail-
able space in the MS., or by colouring a piece of
paper and cutting it out to the pattern desired and
laying it on. Such means are also used to settle
small doubts which may arise in the actual illumi-
1 A most beautiful twelfth-century MS., known as the
" Golden Psalter," has many gold (decorated) Initials, Red,
Blue, and Green (plain) Versals and Line-Finishings, every part
being pen-made throughout the book.
2l8
nating — as to whether — and where — some form or " Design " in
some colour should be placed on the page. Illumination
Filigree, Floral, & other Decoration. — The ac-
quired skill of the penman leads very naturally to
a pen flourishing and decoration of his work, and
this again to many different types of filigree decora-
tion more or less resembling floral growths (see
figs. 125, 126; pp. 197-202; Plates XL, XVIL).
Now all right decoration in a sense arranges
itself, and we may compare the right action of
the " designer's " mind to that necessary vibration
or " directive " motion which permeates the universe
and, being communicated to the elements, enables
the various particles to fall into their right places :
as when iron filings are shaken near a magnet
they arrange themselves in the natural curves of
the magnetic field, or as a cello bow, drawn over
the edge of a sand-sprinkled plate, gathers the sand
into beautiful " musical patterns."
And to most natural growths, whether of plants
or ornament, this principle of self-arrangement
seems common, that they spread out evenly and
occupy to the greatest extent possible their allotted space.
Branches and leaves most naturally grow away from *
the stem and from each other, and oppose elbows and
points in every direction. In this way the
growth fits its place, looking secure and at rest
— while in disconnected parallels, or branches
following their stem, there is often insecurity and
unrest.1 (See also Addenda, p. 25.)
For example : a circular space is filled more 2I9

1 In a spiral the stem, following itself, may be tied by an inter-

lacing spiral, or the turns of the spiral may be held at rest by
the interlocking of the leaves (see G, Plate XXII.).
" Design" in decoratively by a cross (ay fig. 131) than by a
Illumination contained circle ; a square is better filled by a
" lozenge " or a circle (b and c) than by a smaller

FIG. 131.

square set square and parallel (compare the diaper-

ing of the chequers in fig. 191 a). A circular or
square space might be filled on this principle with
a filigree arrangement such as is suggested by (dy
fig. 131). Note. — In the case of two curves in the
ornament touching (either internally or externally)
they may be linked at this point by a (gold) band
or circle or lozenge (ey fig. 131, see also Plate XVII.).
Miniatures and Drawing. — In drawing and paint-
ing, the difficulty which is apt to beset the illumi-
nator ishow to strike a balance between " Natural-
ism " and " Conventionalism," so called. While
the only criterion is good taste, we may be guided
by certain general principles.
To limit the number of elements in a " design "
— whether of form or colour — is nearly always an
220
advantage (pp. 177, 1 8 1, 198). And the miniaturist, "Design" in
while depicting the nature of a plant, usually Illumination
limits the number of its branches and leaves and shades
of colour. Every part of a " design " should be
drawn clearly and distinctly, and in proportion to
the whole. The miniaturist, therefore, usually
draws in careful outline every branch and leaf, making
the whole proportional with the MS. which it decorates.
In fact, the qualities of good illumination are
the same as the qualities of good writing — Simplicity ',
DistinctivenesSy Proportion, &>c. (see p. 239). And
the " convention " (here literally a coming together)
required is only such as will make the drawing and
colouring of the illumination and the form and
colour of the writing go well together.
NOTE. — Figs. 135 to 141 (woodcuts — with part of the text —
from a Herbal printed at Venice in 1571 [p. 369]) and figs. 132,
133, and 1340 (wood engravings by T. Bewick, printed 1791)
are suggested as examples of drawing — of plants and animals —
suitable for book-decoration (see also figs. 134^, <r, d ; Plates XV.,
XVI., XXIII., and notes on "limner's illumination," p. 203).

OF "DESIGNING" MANUSCRIPTS GENERALLY

Cultivate the simplest and most direct methods,
and make " rules of thumb " : for work-a-day use, to
carry you successfully through all routine or ordi-
nary difficulties, so that your hand will be trained
and your mind free and ready to deal with the
harder problems when they arise.

1 As an example of a good "rule of thumb," use the ruled Una

of a manuscript as a scale for other measurements and proportions , leaving
one, two, three, or more of the line-spaces for capitals, orna-
ments, &c. : you have this scale — as it were, a " ready reckoner "
— present on every page, and following it enables you more easily
to make the decoration agree and harmonise with the written
text and with the book as a whole (see p. 128 & figs. 89, 91, 71).
221
"Design" in Use a limited number of pure, bright colours,
Illumination and keep your work clean, neat, and definite.
Go straight ahead, trusting to workman-like
methods, and not calculating overmuch. Do the
work in a regular order, settling, first, the general
scheme, the size of the book, the writing, and the
margins ; then when you are ready —
1. Prepare the sheets (see pp. 99, no, 167).
2. Write the text — leaving spaces for decoration.
,,, . (a) The coloured writing.
3' . ] te(£) The coloured capitals.
~~(c) The line-finishings.
,.. (#) The Initials. 1 Following a regular
4*. l 1- (b) Line-finishings. Border in the various
nate (c) The Borders. J processes involved.
5. Bind the book (p. 346), or have it bound, in
order to make a real and finished piece of work.
Practise an artistic economy of time and space :
usually the quicker you write the MS. the better
it is. Allow sufficient margins to make the book
readable and handsome, but not so wide as to make
it appear fanciful. Allow sufficient ornament, not
overloading the book with it. Let the ornament
be of a type suited to the book and to the subject —
not too painstaking or elaborate in an ordinary MS. ;
not too hasty and slight in an important work.
Endeavour to strike a balance between what
may be called
siderations :an" practical " and
illuminated MS. " is
ornamental
not meant " tocon-
be
entirely "practical," but it is a greater failure if
made entirely " ornamental." Let the text be
readable in every sense, and let the ornament
beautify it : there should be give and take, as it
were, and that most desirable quality — " sweet
reasonableness."
222
84 HISTORY OF QUADRUPEDS.
"Design "in
Illumination

THE SPRINGER.
The White-Antelope, which is fuppofed to be the fame
with the Pygarg, mentioned in the book of Numbers, is
an inhabitant of the Cape of Good Hope, where it is
called the Spring-bok ; and is to be feen in herds of fe-
iveral thoufands, covering the plains as far as the eye can
reach. Sparrman fays, that, having (hot at a large herd
of them, they formed a line, and immediately made a
circular movement, as if to furround him ; but after-
223
tvards flew off in different directions.
The height of this beautiful creature is two feet and 9
FIG. 132.
 HISTORY OF QJMDRUPEDS. 97
"Design" in
Illumination

THE CHEVROTAIN AND MEMINNA,

The Chevrotain, or little Guinea Deer, is the fmalleft
>f all the Antelope kind, the leaft of all cloven-footed
juadrupeds, and, we may add, the moft beautiful, ltd
ore legs, at the fmalleft part, are not much thicker than
i tobacco-pipe ; it is not more than feven inches in
leight, and about twelve from the. point of the nofe to
he infertion of the tail ; its ears are broad ; and its
lorns, which are flraight, and fcarcely two inches long,
ire black and mining as jet ; the colour of the hair is a
eddifh-brown -9 in fome a beautiful yellow, very fliort
nd glofiy.
Thefe elegant little creatures are .rlativcs of Senegal
nd the hottefl parts of Africa * they are likewife found
n India, and in many of the iflands adjoining to thai
224
.aft continent.
FIG. 133.
Illumination
Design" in
"Design"
Illuminationin

FIG. 134 b.
226
 " The intricacies of a natural "Illumination
Design " in
scene (fig. 134 a — after Bewick)
may be simplified when rendered
in such a simple medium as the
pen drawings of a MS. (comp.
fig. 134 b). Figs. 134 c & dare FIG. I34<r.
old examples of strong, simple
drawing. Students should prac- (This and fig. 134 d are
tise themselves by translating copies from a thirteenth cen-
figs. 132, 133 into fine, Quill- tury MS. in the possession
pen drawings."— (N. R.) of Air. Yates- Thompson.)

r tupuarmoptietaajPi
"Design" in ARVNDO, Grzcis, K« ^Mf.] Arabian, Cafib.]
Illumination nunis, 2&/>r.] Hifpanis, Caw.] GaJlis,
A R V N D O .

228 FIG, 135. — THE REED.

 ASPARAGVS SVLVESTRIS. "Design" in
Illumination

229

,nec valetiprcs vires habent. C^terum Cor-

FIG. 136. — ASPARAGUS.
"Desi gn" in
Illumination j.] Hifpanis, Lcnteyas.]
LENS

FIG. 137.— THE LENTIL.

230
VITII vinifera, Graccis, Atunxor otv9$<>po<.] Itali$i "Design" in
Illumination
bibus, ./farm Kafm> feu Karm.] Gecmanis, Vueln
VJTIS VINIPERA.

FIG. 138.— THE VINE.

23I
 CARYOPHILLT FLORES
" Design " in
Illumination DOMESTICl .

Jf,aut auuraci decode poti. AfTeruantur faecharo, perinr* ac rp-

FIG. 139.— THE CARNATION.
232
 P^ONIA FOEMfNA. " Design "in
Illumination

233
m, & renum, & vcficq dolorcs decora in vino aluum fiflic .
^mcnlcs firtuncdcccm^utduodecimpotae^ vinoauflcrot
FIG. 140.— THE PEONY.
 P E R 5 I CA
"Design" in
Illumination A .
C repcriuntur
rnr.n rubcnt,
aJgcnt, alifvi-
lu.aha fangui-
.aliaduracina
more lint pul-
ndiducamur.
ia nunpcrfua,
um ficu-tn re-
ttur. Suntetii

Amygdala dul-
%hygdalam ap

A .
ft fohts Amyg
lilibus,quem-
>USV quamuis
tirpurafccntcs
oatcnes fragi-
tillcs, necalte
^ fit.quod hare
cat , fie cadat .
S .
% in Italia,fed
cuaprouenit.
T ES .
reccm habcnt
1. Alioqtu fa-
in cdicamen-
ocms,nempe
fuum, huini-
r icmpcric-'
5.
cohibent, ftd

*)>fluxioncs i\
unu& qujc fa-
iFlorcs re-
a folumaluii
uonc» »]uoq;
onun aquam
f^uc r«;rotantium incommodo . Lacnr>'ma arborjs datur ex plantaginis ,
ad fan^utms raeftjoneJ . rufliemibus \t rb , & anhelciis ex Tufl»lagin*$
.
jicnro JHifit quoty; ad raucrdinnn, ^c artcna' impedimenta. Datnr calcu-
P-»*H Auilimoixuiii,duacuxu drachmarum ponderer »—«.;-. f~n* JJii-
Recrntia folia illi-
234 FIG. 141.— THE PEACH.
 PART II
LETTERING
 PART II
LETTERING

CHAPTER XIV
GOOD LETTERING SOME METHODS OF CON-
STRUCTION & ARRANGEMENT

Good Models — The Qualities of Good Lettering — Sim-

plicity — Distinctiveness — Proportion — Beauty of
Form — Beauty of Uniformity — Right Arrangement
— Setting Out & Fitting In — "Massed Writing"
& "Fine Writing" — Even Spacing — Theory &
Practice.

GOOD MODELS

IF lettering is to be rightly constructed and Good

arranged, the study of good models is essential. Lettering —
Some of the writing and lettering in the old MSS., Some
and the letters used on various old tombstones and Methods of
Construction
brasses, weeded of archaisms, will be found almost
perfect models. Yet to select one of these from & Arrange-ment
the many which are
much discrimination. " more or less " good, requires
It is suggested below that the essential virtues
237
of good lettering are readableness^ beauty, and char-
acter. If,then, we can discover some of the under-
lying qualities which make for these, our choice
will at least be better considered, and instead of
 Good
forming our " style " on the first type of letter that
Lettering — pleases, we shall found our work on a good model,
Some full of possibilities of development.
Methods of
Construction The Roman Capital (Chap. XV.). — The ancestor
of all our letters is in undisputed possession of the
& Arrange- first place : but it is open to comparatively few to
ment
make a practical study of its monumental forms by
means of cutting inscriptions in stone with a chisel.
The Pen-formed letters are more easily practised,
and the mastery of the pen acquired in the practice
of a root form — such as the half-uncial — is the key
to the majority of alphabets (which are pen de-
veloped) and to those principles underlying the
right construction and arrangement of lettering,
which it is our business to discover.
Doubtless a " school " of lettering might be
founded on any fine type, and a beautiful alphabet
or fine hand might be founded on any fine inscrip-
tion :but the practical student of penmanship may
be sure of acquiring a knowledge of lettering which
would be useful to any craftsman concerned with
letters, be he printer, book-illustrator, engraver, or
even inscription carver.

THE QUALITIES OF GOOD LETTERING

The first general virtue of lettering is readable-

nessy the second, fitness for a given Use. And the
rational basis of the following summary is the
assumption that such fitness is comprised in beauty
and character^ and that a given piece of lettering
having readablenessy beauty^ and character has the
essential virtues of good lettering.
The qualities on which these virtues seem chiefly
to depend, and their special significations in the case

238
of plain writing, may be set forth as follows :—
 THE QUALITIES OF GOOD WRITING Good
READABLENESS Lettering —
Some
I. Simplicity: As6). having no unnecessary parts
(and as being simply arranged : see Methods of
Construction
2. Distinctiveness . As having the distinguishing char-
acteristics ofeach letter strongly & Arrange-
ment
marked (and the words distinctly
arranged : see 6).
3. Proportion, As having no part of a letter wrongly
exaggerated or dwarfed (and as
the lettering being proportionally
arranged : see 6).

BEAUTY
4. Beauty of Form : As having beautiful shapes and con-
structions, so that each letter is an
individual and living whole (not
a mere collection of parts) fitted
for the position, office, and material
of the object bearing the inscrip-
tion.
5. Beauty of Uni- As the assimilation of the cor-
formity : responding parts — " bodies,"
"limbs," "heads" — and as the
" family likeness " of the different
letters, so that they go well to-

6. Beauty of As gether.
having a general fitness in the
Arrangement : placing, connecting, and spacing
of letters, words, and lines, in the
disposal of the lettering in the
given space, and in the propor-
tioning of every part of the
lettering and its margins.

CHARACTER
7. Essential qualities As being genuine calligraphy, the
of (Hand and direct outcome of a rightly made
Pen) -work : and rightly handled pen, (Sttp.^B.)
239
S. Freedom : As having skilled and unaffected
boldness. (Set pp. 122, 327, 323, 369.)
9. Pirtonality : As having the characteristics which
distinguish one person's hand
from another's. (Set also pp. 278,323.)
 Good This summary, while not presuming to define
Lettering — the Virtue^ or achieve Beauty by a formula, does
Some indicate some guiding principles for the letter-
Methods of maker, and does suggest a definite meaning which
Construction may be given to the terms " Right Form," " Right
& Arrange- Arrangement," and « Ri^ht Expression " in a
ment particular craft.
It is true that « Readableness " and " Character "
are comprised in Beauty^ in the widest sense ; but
it is useful here to distinguish them : Readableness
as the only sound basis for a practical theory of
lettering, and Character as the product of a par-
ticular hand & tool at work in a particular craft.
The above table, therefore, may be used as a test
of the qualities of any piece of lettering — whether
Manuscript, Printing, or Engraving — provided that
the significations of those qualities on which
" Character " depends be modified and adapted to
each particular instance. It is however a test for
general qualities only — such as may help us in
choosing a model : for as to its particular virtue
each work stands alone — judged by its merits — in
spite of all rules.

SIMPLICITY

(As having no unnecessary parts)

Essential Forms and their Characterisation. — The
" Essential Forms " may be defined briefly as the
necessary parts (see p. 275). They constitute the
skeleton or structural plan of an alphabet ; and One
of the finest things the letter-craftsman can doy is to
make the Essential Forms of letters beautiful in them-
selves^ giving them the character and finish which come
naturally from a rightly handled too/.
240
 If we take the " Roman " types — the letters Good
with which we are most familiar — and draw them Lettering —
in single pencil strokes (as a child does when it Some
" learns its letters "), we get a rough representa- Methods of
tion of their Essential Forms (see diagram, fig. Construction
142). & Arrange-
Such letters might be scratched with a point in
wax or clay, and if so used in practice would give
rise to fresh and characteristic developments,1 but
if
thinwe horizontal
take a " square
stroke cut
and" pen whichvertical
a thick will give
strokea
(figs. 10 and 40), it will give us the "straight-pen"
or simple written, essential forms of these letters
(%• 143)-
These essential forms of straight-pen letters
when compared with the plain line forms show
a remarkable degree of interest, brought about by
the introduction of the thin and thick strokes and
gradated curves, characteristic of pen work.
Certain letters (A, K, M, N, V, W, X, Y, and
k, v, w, x, y) in fig. 143 being composed chiefly
of oblique strokes, appear rather heavy. They are
lightened by using a naturally " slanted " pen which
produces thin as well as thick oblique strokes. And
the verticals in M and N are made thin by further
slanting the pen (fig. 144).
To our eyes, accustomed to a traditional finish,
all these forms— in figs. 143 and 144, but par-
ticularly the slanted pen forms — look incomplete
and unfinished ; and it is obvious that the thin
strokes, at least, require marked terminals or serifs.

1 In fact, our " small-letters" are the formalised result of the

rapidly scratched Square Capitals of the Roman era (p. 37 &
fig- 3)-
S 241
 Good
Lettering —
Some
Methods of
Construction
ABCDEFGHIK
& Arrange-
ment

LMNOPQRST
VXYZ'JUWfcS
Square Capitals.

be boo Capitals.
aabcdefhiklm
nopcrrst u vxy ;
Small Lettay. (3
*^ --. j>^ 4 /

Ji nnurh Uiajmun or the stiutfwnl

ESSE
en- the
of threeNTIA
L FORMS'
main types tf Letters
FIG. 142.
242
 Good

ABCDEFGHI
Lettering
Some —
Methods of
Construction
& Arrange-
ment

KLMNOPqRS
TVXYZ*JUW
S<piare Capitals, (ptnfonns).

bebrocmu Capitals. (v.Undats).

aabcdefcrhikl
mnopcprst uvx
VZ&j W UU 2 Smallltttvs.
Diamrwi
'oftke 'three main typ&) A S^ 243

jnvdu&td 1yy a"str tu4kt Pen"

FIG. 143.
 Good

AKMNVW
Lettering —
Some
Methods of
Construction Letters —~ as
& Arrange-
ment

XY*$&kvwxy5
fmn 0* ESSENTIAL FORM5»
-produced by a **Strutted Pent

FIG. 144.

Finishing-Strobes. — The pen naturally produces

a variety of finishing-strokes — "heads," "feet,"
serifs, &c. — each type of which strongly charac-
terises the alphabet in which it is employed.
The main types (fig. 145) are —
(a) Hooks or beaks.
(b) Straight (or curved] strokes, thick or thin
according to the direction of the pen.
(c) Triangular " heads " (and " feet "), straight or
slanted, and more or less curved and sharpened.
(d) Thin finishing-curves, horizontal or oblique.
To give uniformity to the various letters of
an alphabet it is necessary to treat similar parts
as consistently as possible throughout (see No. 5,
p. 239). And the remarkable way in which "heads"
impart a " family likeness " to letters closely
resembles the same phenomenon among human
beings (see pp. 324, 254).
If we consider the four types of serif, as applicable
244
to straight-pen writing, we find —
 Suitable only for certain Good
(a) Hooks or Beaks
parts of certain letters Lettering —
(d) Thin Finishing- ing). for informal writ- Some
Curves (and
Methods of
Construction
(b) Straight (or Curved] \ Informal
mental). (or Orna-
THIN Strokes f & Arrange-
Formal and capable of ment
(c) Triangular
"Heads" I imparting great ele-
gance and finish.
For a formal, straight-pen writing, therefore, we
may assume that a form of triangular head is, on

C.

Slanted-pen firms ofserifr &)

oblique ends v V.
FIG. 145.
245
the whole, the most suitable, while some of the
letters may be allowed to end naturally in finishing
hooks and curves.
 Good Heads are easily built up at the ends of thick
Lettering — strokes, but some practice is required to enable a
Some penman to make them on the thin strokes properly
Methods of and skilfully. On the thin horizontals they are
Construction made with an almost continuous movement of the
& Arrange- p0'mt of the nib from the thin stroke itself (see (a)
ment to ^ fig^ I^ c!Osely resembling the termination

half-nib point/run? up

Reverse

filled in (c.) is rrverxd (f.)

T^ ^4. -F
HI ** ~"TL "7^" I*

E.
three hed& (i) an* mvatiad vertical
FIG. 146.

of some of the thin strokes in the Irish half-uncial

(Plate VI.). On the thin oblique or vertical stems
a thin crossing stroke is first made, and then shaped
246
with the pen point to meet the stem (see (/) and (£) Good
fig. 146). Lettering —
We may write out the letters now with their Some
suitable serifs, and we see that the Pen character Methods of
and finish, given to the "Essential, or Skeleton, Construction
Forms " (fig. 142) result in a very formal and highly & Arrange-
finished alphabet (fig. 147).
Slanted-pen characters and serifs (see fig. 145) —
(a) Hooks or Beaks ^ Suitable for most of the
(d) Thin Finishing- > letters, but tending to
Curves ) be informal.
(b) Straight (or Curved] \ „ . ,
Formal and
Strokes]( Formal strong.
THICK and suitable for
(c) Triangular Heads < small-letters, and free
( capitals (see fig. 168).
The alphabets (fig. 148), produced from the
skeleton forms (fig. 142) by the slanted pen, while
not having such a conscious air of finish as the
straight- pen letters, are much easier to write, and
have in a greater degree the virtues of strong,1
legible, natural penmanship.
They are eminently suitable for general MS.
work (see p. 305) when the beginner has mastered
an early form of round-hand (see pp. 70, 304).
DISTINCTIVENESS

(As having the distinguishing characteristics of each

letter strongly marked)
The "Characteristic Parts" are those parts which247
most particularly serve to distinguish one letter from
1 Their greater strength may not at first be apparent in fig. 148,
as the nib used therefor is narrower, in proportion to the
height of letter, than that used for fig. 147 (see also fig. 151).
 Good
Lettering —
Some
Methods of
Construction
ABCDEFG
H1JKLMN
& Arrange-
ment

OPQRST&
UVWXYZ
abcdeftjiij
klmnopqrs
tuvwxyz;?:
Ponrud types <£ \jtttas J . \ „ 9 f * 1
vduayUue FIG.^Jtimht-TEtt
147. ^ "f
248
ABCDEFG Good
Lettering
Some —
Methods of
Construction

HIJKLMN
St Arrange-
ment

UVWXYZ
abcdefgkij
klmnopcjTS
tuvwxyziT.
'Slanted-Pat " diamcteaat
249

FIG. 148.
 Good another (fig. 149). We should therefore, when
Lettering constructing letters, give special attention to their
Some
Methods of
Construction
& Arrange-
SOME
ment ofihtmon
* "CHARACT
ERISTIC
FAKT5:
Such of
distinguish

• ..
stem -letters.
^nbrtMft
special treat-
(See also F 150.)
FIG. 149.

preservation, and sometimes they may even be

accentuated with advantage — always with an eye
to the life-history, or evolution, of the letter in
question, and allowing for the influence of the
special tool with which it is to be made (see Pro-
portion^ below).
250
 PROPORTION Good

(As having no part of a letter wrongly exaggerated Lettering

* ^/^-see pp. 274, 277-78) J|a«« of
The right proportioning of letters entails the Construction
& Arrange-
ment

cn.
FIG. 150.
preservation of their Essential Forms and their
Characteristic Parts, and, provided these are not
251
 Good seriously interfered with, a certain amount of ex-
Lettering- — aggeration (and dwarfing) 1 is allowable in special
Some
cases ; particularly in ornamental writings, and
Methods ot
Construction Pen-flourished capitals or terminal letters (see figs.
79 and 125).
& Arrange- Rational exaggeration usually amounts to the
ment
drawing out or flourishing of tails or free stems, or
branches — very often to the magnifying of a char-
acteristic part (see fig. 150, & pp. 250, 331). It is
a special form of decoration, and very effective if
used discriminately.
BEAUTY OF FORM

(As having beautiful shapes and constructions, so that

each letter is an individual and living whole (not
a mere collection of parts) fitted for the position,
office, and material of the object bearing the in-
scription)
To choose or construct beautiful forms requires
good taste, and that in its turn requires cultivation,
which comes from the observation of beautiful
forms. Those who are not accustomed to seeing
beautiful things are, in consequence, often uncer-
tain whether they think a thing beautiful or not.
Some — perhaps all of us — have an intuition for
what is beautiful ; but most of us have to achieve
beauty by taking pains.
At the least we are apt to be misled if we label
abstract forms as essentially beautiful or essentially ugly
— as by a mistaken recipe for beauty. For us as
craftsmen " achieving beauty by taking pains,"
means acquiring skill in a special craft and
1 The exaggeration of one part may be said relatively to dwarf
the other parts of a letter ; but it is seldom advantageous,
and often not permissible, to dwarf part of a letter absolutely.
252
adapting that skill to a special piece of work. Good
And perhaps the surest way to learn, is to let Lettering —
our tools and materials teach us and, as it were, Some
make beautiful shapes for us. Methods of
" Inside Shapes."— The beauty of a letter depends Construction
very much on its inside shape — i.e. the shape of the & Arrange-
ment
space enclosed by the letter form. As this is often
overlooked, it may be briefly referred to. Fre-
quently when it seems difficult to say what is
wrong with a piece of bad lettering, a glance at

oon?
the inside shapes will reveal the fault. In simple
writing^ if the pen be properly cut and properly
held, these shapes will generally take care of them-

laside. shape?: mufc

IS.tzndto

FIG. 151. 253

selves, and internal angles or asymmetrical lines
which occur are characteristic of that particular form
of penmanship, and not accidental (£, fig. 151).
 Good In making Built-up letters — which have both
Lettering — outer and inner strokes — the inner strokes should
Some generally be made first (see p. 121).
Methods of Plain and Ornamental Forms. — Not only for the
Construction sake of readableness, but to promote a beautiful
& Arrange- anc| dignified effect, the forms of letters are kept
simple when the text is long. And, generally, the
less frequent the type, the more ornamental may be
its form (see pp. 126, 210, 298, 330).

BEAUTY OF UNIFORMITY

(As the assimilation of the corresponding parts — "bodies"

" limbs" " heads " — and as the "family likeness"
of the different letters, so that they go well together)
Right uniformity makes for readableness and
beauty, and is the result of good craftsmanship.
Readableness. — Where the text letters are uni-
form, the reader is free to give his attention to the
sense of the words, whereas the variations in an
irregular or changing text are distracting.1
Beauty. — The abstract beauty-of-uniformity may
be said to lie in this, that the different letters, or
individual elements, "go well together" The
beautiful effect of uniform lettering is thus caused
by the united forces, as it were, of all the letters.
Good Craftsmanship. — A pen, or other letter-
making tool, being handled freely and regularly,
the uniform movements of the tool in similar cases
will produce uniform strokes, &c. (On the other
hand, the interruption and loss of freedom to the
1 As when the construction of a part of some letter is peculiar
(all the y or g tails, for example, catching the eye, and standing
out on the page), or, as when promiscuous types are used, giving
the 2impression
54 of a confused crowd of letters.
writer who is irregular, or who forces an unnatural Good
variety,1 results in inferior work.) Lettering —
Some
RIGHT ARRANGEMENT Methods of

(As having a general fitness in the

placing, connecting, and spacing of ment
BE A UTT OF letters, words, and lines, in the dis-
ARRANGE- < posal of the lettering in the given
MENT space, and in the proportioning of
every part of the lettering and its
margins)
The particular fitness of a given inscription
depends upon considerations of its particular office,
position, material, &c. (see pp. 100, 351). For general
use, however, the craftsman has certain regular
modes of disposing and spacing the lettering, and
proportioning the whole. And, as in constructing
individual letters, so in treating lettering as a whole,
he endeavours to give his work the qualities that
make for readableness : viz. simplicity, distinctiveness,
and proportion.
Simplicity in the Disposal of the Lettering. — For
convenience of construction, reading, or handling,
the simple, traditional arrangement of lettering is
generally followed in dealing with flat surfaces
(paper, vellum, &c.) : 2 —
THE TEXT FORMING
A RECTANGLE, CON-
SISTING OF A NUM-
BER OF EQUAL LINES
1 Variety. — There is a variety both readable and beautiful (see
pp. 210, 369), but it is founded on uniformity (and sincerity).
a "JBanJs" and symmetrical or asymmetrical groups of letter- 255
ing adapted to the available space are used — usually as ornament
— upon friezes, furniture, chests, book covers, flagons, dishes,
and the like (see fig. 156 & p. 336). The special treatment of
such things is a matter for the craftsman who makes them.
 Good Distinctiveness in the Spacing of the Lettering necessi-
Lettering — tates sufficient interspaces : the following common
Some spacing of Letters, Words, Lines, &c., may be
Methods of modified to suit special circumstances.
Construction Letters, as a rule, are not equidistant, but their interspaces are
& Arrange- approximately equal (a, fig. 151).
ment Words, commonly one letter-space apart (b and <:).
Lines of Capitals, frequently half (d) or whole (e) letter-height
apart. Lines of Small-Letters, commonly ascenders and descenders
just clearing (/").
Divisions of Text a clear line apart, or marked by a difference
in colour or size (see figs. 94, 96, 186, &c.).
Proportion In the Treatment of the Whole Inscription.
— The spacing-proportions referred to above apply
to lettering generally, but the proportions of an
inscription as a whole involve the consideration of a
special case. Example :—
The Proportions to be Considered in the Case of a
MANUSCRIPT BOOK (see pp. 100-108, 341, &c. ).
(i) Size and shape of the Book (Set by custom, use of Book,
and its page (proportion of size of material, &c.) (see figs.
width to height) (see p. 103). 69, 70, and pp. 101, &c.).
0) Width of Margins-
Proportions — (a) (Commonly about i £: 1:3:4)
(a) to each other. (see fig. 70, and pp. 103-7).
(b) to size of page. (b) (Frequently about, or more
(c) to the lettering. than, half the area of the page).
(3) Size of Writing — (Set by page, and margin, and
Proportion of height of letter number of words in the line ;
to length of line.
usually more thany*o«r words
to the line) (see pp. 107-8).
(4) Number of lines — (Set by page, margin, and
Proportion of text to page. height-of-letter,and modified
by treatment of spacing) (see
pp. 108, z6z).
Large Capitals, (Set by Small-Letter ; common-
(5)Init ials, of
Size & ly one, two, three, or more
of the writing - line - spaces
high) (see footnote, p. an).
(6) Size of Decorative Divisions (Set by page, &c. ; usually such
of the Text (marked by Division is relatively small
different treatment, colour, or large — as a definite "head-
ornament, &c.). ing," or a whole page) (see
p. 132).

256
 Good
Lettering —
Some
Methods of
Construction
& Arrange-
ment

WORTCSPAGE
equaL (white) Interspaces

spaccadbctwcdrwon
r M s
LINES OFM
CAPITALS i^,
LINES OFlgf
CAPlTALSJl
distance apart V| 257

Uiiies ^oFSmall "18?

 Good SETTING OUT, & FITTING IN
Lettering — Ruling. — The approximate sizes of margins and
Some
Methods of letters, and the number of lines of text, having been
Construction estimated, guiding lines are ruled on the surface
& Arrange- (see p. 343) — a right and a left vertical marginal line,
ment with the necessary number of horizontals between
them. (In the case of a manuscript, these lines
are ruled faintly (or grooved), and are left to form
a feature of the page ; for inscriptions on other
materials than paper, parchment, &c., they are
generally removed after setting-out.)
Setting-out. — An inscription of any size, or one
requiring complex or very nice arrangement, is set-
out in faint, sketchy outline of lead pencil or chalk.
Simple writing is not set-out, but such slight calcu-
lation or planning as is necessary is carried out
mentally, or on a scrap of paper. By practice the
scribe, like the compositor, can fit his lettering to
the given space with ease and accuracy. For writ-
ing and (to a large extent) printing, both combine set-
ting-out and the act of "fettering" in one operation. And
this shows how practice gives foreknowledge of the
" mechanical " part of the work, leaving the mind
free to take pleasure in its performance ; and also
how slight — if necessary at all — is the experimental
setting-out of simple forms required by the practised
workman.
Dividing Monosyllables. — In simple writing — the
beauty of which depends on freedom rather than on
precision — I think that even such an awkward
word as " through " should not be broken. If the
space at the end of a line is insufficient, it should be
left blank, or be filled in with a dash of the pen.
But in the case of words in LARGE CAPITALS,
especially in title-pages and the like, where spacing
258
is more difficult, and smooth reading less essential, Good
any word may be divided at any point if the neces- Lettering —
sity is sufficiently obvious. But (even when the Some
division is syllabic) breaking words, as interfering Methods of
Construction

AVO1 DIN.
& Arrange-
ment

breaking

MONOGRAlvMATICi
TREATMENT: IF TlE
SPACE DEJvNNDS IT

IKSIT
FIG. 153.
259
with the ease of reading, may often be avoided
with advantage, and divisions which give accidental
words, especially when they are objectionable, as
 Good
" TH-ROUGH," or " NEIGH-BOUR," should not be
Lettering — allowed. Among other ways of dealing with small
Some
Methods of spaces, without breaking words, are the following :—
Construction Ending with Smaller Letters. — The scribe is always
at liberty to compress his writing slightly, provided
& Arrange- he does not spoil its readableness or beauty. Occa-
ment
sionally, without harming either of these, a marked
difference in size of letter may be allowed ; one or
more words, or a part of one, or a single letter, being
made smaller (a, />, fig. 153 ; see also Plate V.).
Monogrammatic Forms, &c. — In any kind of letter-
ing, but more particularly in the case of capitals,
where the given space is insufficient for the given
capitals, monogrammatic forms resembling the ordi-
nary diphthong IE may be used ; or the stem of
one letter may be drawn out, above or below, and
formed into another (c, fig. 153).
Linking. — Letters which are large enough may
be linked or looped together, or one letter may
be set inside another, or free-stem letters may be
drawn up above the line (d, fig. 153, but see p. 26).
Tying up. — One or more words at the end of a
line of writing — particularly in poetry (see p. 95) —
may be " tied up," i.e. be written above or below the
line, with a pen stroke to connect them to it (fig. 67).
Care must be taken that none of these methods
lead to confusion in the reading. Their " Quaint-
ness " — as it is sometimes called — is only pleasing
when their contrivance is obviously made necessary.

"MASSED WRITING" & "FINE WRITING"

We may distinguish two characteristic modes of
treating an inscription, in which the treatment of
the letter is bound up with the treatment of the
spacing (fig. 154).
260
And if I bestow all
Ttiy roods to feed
the poor; and if I
cnvernybocU^tlutl
nuv crtory, but have
not love, it profits
cth me notmrur-ir
1Ljflove rr i
surreiwi Lan<r^
and is Kind;
Love cnvieta not;
love vauntetk not itseU;
is notpurrrcpa i up,
FIG. 154.

261
 Good
" Massed Writing" (Close Spacing). — The written
Lettering — or printed page is very commonly set close, or
Some
Methods of " massed," so that the letters support and enforce
one another, their individual beauty being merged
Construction
in and giving beauty to the whole. The closeness
& Arrange- of the letters in each word keeps the words distinct,
ment
so that but little space is required between them,1
and the lines of writing are made close together (ascend-
ing and descending stems being shortened, if neces-
sary, for this purpose).
"Fine Writing" (Wide Spacing). — An inscription
in "Fine Writing" may be spaced widely to dis-
play the finished beauty of the letters, or to give free
play to the penman (or letter-craftsman). It con-
sists generally of a number of distinct lines of Writing
(or other lettering).
The two modes may be contrasted broadly, thus —
MASSED FINE / Lines spaced
WRITING \ together. WRITING\ and separated.
Has an effect of richness, de- Has an effect of elegance, de-
pending on tone of mass and pending on form of letters
close, even spacing. and
lines. distinct arrangement of
Simple method (for ordinary Refined method (for special
use) ; saving of time and use); lavish of space and
space, .'. suited for long time, .-. suited for large
inscriptions or small spaces. spaces or short inscriptions.
Lines generally of equal length, Lines may be of unequal
or if some fall short, end- length, giving irregular,
fillings may be used — gaps right-hand edge, as in poetry
are avoided if possible. (see p. 263) — gaps allowed
on either side.

1 By closing up the letters and the words one may generally

avoid " rivers," or accidental spaces straggling through the
text. The presence of "rivers" is at once made evident by
slanting the page and looking along its surface, across the
lines. Note, that whether the lines be close or wide, the inter-
spacing of the Small-Letters does not vary very much.
262
Ascending and descending Stems — medium or long : long Good
stems — medium or short : stems often a marked feature,
serifs simple, and not ending in carefully made Lettering —
strongly marked. heads and feet, or flourishes. Some
Suited for slanted-pen forms Suited for straight and slanted Methods of
of " gothic " tendency, and pen forms of " roman" ten- Construction
heavy, black writing (ex- dency,and slender, light writ-
ample, "black letter").* & Arrange-
Requires generally contrasts of Allows ingvariety Italic").*
(example,in "size of Letters ment
colour or weight (p. 330), and (see pp. 298, 318): its typical
will bear more and heavier treatment is as plain, fne
illumination (Line-fillings, lettering — better without
Initials, Borders, &c.). heavy Borders, &c. (p. 199).

* NoTE. — Both modes are suited for Roman Capitals and Small-
Letters.

These two modes may not have been recognised

by the ancient letter-craftsmen : their comparison
here is intended chiefly as a stimulus to definite
thought, not as a hard-and-fast division of two
" styles " ; for there may be any number of possible
compromises between them. In practice, however,
it will be found convenient to distinguish them as
two modes of treating LINES OF WRITING which produce
markedly different effects, the one, as it were, of COLOUR,
the other of FORM.
Plates XL, XIIL, XIV., XV., XVII. may be
taken as examples of" Massed Writing," Plates IV.,
V., VI., VII., IX., (XXI.) of « Fine Writing" ; the
other plates suggest compromises between the two.
Poetry (see p. 95), or any text consisting of, or
which is conveniently broken up into unequal lines,
may be treated as " Fine Writing." There is no ob-
jection to a straight left-hand edge with an irregular
263
right-hand edge,1 where the cause of the irregularity
i The gaps on the right may be filled with line-finishings to
preserve a "Massed" effect, but for many purposes this would
be apt to look too ornamental (see pp. 205, 423).
 Good
is natural and obvious, and no fault of the scribe's.
Lettering — Such an arrangement, or rather, straightforward
Some writing, of poetry is often the best by virtue of its
Methods of freedom and simplicity (see p. 371).
Construction
In many cases, however, a more formal and
& Arrange- finished treatment of an irregular line text is to be
ment
preferred (especially in inscriptions on stone, metal,
&c.), and the most natural arrangement is then an
approximately symmetrical one, inclining to " Fine
Writing " in treatment. This is easily obtained in
inscriptions which are previously set-out, but a good
plan — certainly the best for MSS. — is to sort the
lines of the text into longs and shorts (and sometimes
medium lines), and to set-in or indent the short lines
two, three, or more letters. The indentations on
the left balance the accidental irregularities on the
right (fig. 154, and Plate IV.), and give an appear-
ance of symmetry to the page (see Phrasing, p. 384).
Either mode of spacing (close or wide) may be
carried to an unwise or ridiculous extreme. " Lead-
ing " the lines of type was much in vogue a hundred
years ago, in what was then regarded as " high-
class" printing. Too often the wide-spaced line
and "grand" manner of the eighteenth-century
printer was pretentious rather than effective : this
was partly due to the degraded type which he
used, but form, arrangement, and expression all
tended to be artificial. Of late years a rich,
closely massed page has again become fashionable.
Doubtless there has been a reaction in this from the
eighteenth century to an earlier and better manner,
but the effect is sometimes overdone, and the real
ease and comfort of the reader has been sacrificed to
his rather imaginary aestheticism.
264 attaching supreme importance to readable-
By
ness, the letter-craftsman gains at least a rational Good
basis for his work, and is saved from the snares Lettering —
which lurk in all, even in the best, modes and Some
fashions. Methods of
Construction
EVEN SPACIN G & Arrange-
ment
In the spacing of a given inscription on a limited
surface, where a comparatively large size of letter
is required, what little space there is to spare
should generally be distributed evenly and consis-
tently (ayfig. 155). Lavish expenditure of space
on the margins would necessitate an undue crowd-
ing1 of the lettering (/>), and wide interspacing2
would allow insufficient margins (c)— either ar-
rangement suggesting inconsistency (but see p. 352).
NOTE. — A given margin looks larger the heavier
the mass of the text? and smaller the lighter the mass of
the text. And, therefore, if lettering be spread out,
as in " Fine Writing," the margins should be extra
wide to have their true comparative value. The
space available for a given inscription may in this
way largely determine the arrangement of the
lettering, comparatively small and large spaces
suggesting respectively "Massed Writing" and
"Fine Writing" (see p. 262).
In certain decorative inscriptions, where letters are
merely treated as decorative forms — readableness
1 In (£) fig. 155, the letters have been unintentionally nar-
rowed. The natural tendency to do this forms another objec-
tion to such undue crowding.
8 In (c) the letters have been unintentionally widened.
3 Experiment. — Cut out a piece of dark brown paper the
exact size of the body of the text in an entire page of this
265
Handbook, viz. 5^ inches by 3 inches, and lay it on the text:
the tone of the brown paper being much darker than that of
the print makes the margins appear wider.
 CONSIDER
Good
Lettering —
Some
Methods of

Conductio
& Arrange- n EACH
IS COME &OF WHAT
ment TllNG

IT CONSISTS (V INTO
WHAT IT CHANGES*

CONSIDER
WHENCE EACH TOfG
IS COME &OF WHAT
1TCONS1STS&WTO
WHATITCHANGES.

lONSlDER
WHENCE EACH TUNG
.5 COME & OF WHAT
T CONSISTS^, INTO
VH AT IT CHANGES
FIG. 155-
266
being a matter of little or no moment — the treat- Good
ment of the spacing is adapted to a particular sur- Lettering —
face ; and, for example :— Some
Methods of
Construction
THE LETTERS MAY BE KEPT VERY & Arrange-
ment

CLOSE, FORMING ORNAMENTAL

BANDS, THO' THE LINES MAY BE

WIDELY SPACED.

OR THE LETTERS
MAY 6 E FAR APART
& THE LINES CLOSE.
FIG. 156.

THEORY & PRACTICE

The above discussion of theories and " rules "

for the construction and arrangement of good
lettering is intended to suggest some useful methods
— not to provoke excessive fitting or planning, but
rather to avoid it. Straightforwardness is perhaps
the greatest virtue in a craft, and whatever " rules "
it may break through, it is refreshing and charm-
ing.
An excellent example for the scribe or inscrip-
267
tion maker is the method of an early printer, who
had only four or five sorts of type — say, " Small-
Letters " and " Capitals " (Roman and Italic) and
" Large Capitals," and who, without any elaborate
"design," simply put his types into their proper
 Good places, and then pulled off his pleasant sheets of
Lettering — " commonplace " printing.
Some The scribe should choose the best and simplest
Methods of forms and arrangements, and master them before
Construction going further ; he should have a few definite types
& Arrange-
ment « at his finger tips," and, for everyday use, a matter-
of-course way of putting them down on paper.
Ambiguity is one of the greatest faults in a craft.
It comes often from vague ambitions. One may
be inspired by good ambitions, but the immediate
concern of the craftsman is to know what he is
capable of doing at the present, and to do it.
Let the meaning of your work be obvious unless
it is designed purely for your own amusement. A
good craftsman seeks out the commonplace and tries
to master it, knowing that " originality " comes of
necessity, and not of searching.

CHAPTER XV
THE ROMAN ALPHABET & ITS DERIVATIVES

The Roman Alphabet — Proportions of Letters : Widths

— Upper & Lower Parts — Essential or Structural
Forms — Characterisation of Forms — Built-Up
Forms — Simple - Written Capitals — Uncials —
Capitals & Small- Letters — Early, Round, Upright,
Formal Hands — Slanted - Pen Small- Letters —
Roman Small - Letters — Italics — Semi-Formal
Hands — Of Formal Writing Generally — Decora-
tive Contrasts — Ornamental Letters.

The Roman THE ROMAN ALPHABET

Alphabet THE Roman Alphabet is the foundation of all
TV . lts. our ,alphabets (see Chapter I.). And since the full
Derivatives
development of their monumental forms about 2OOO The Roman
years ago, the Roman Capitals have held the sup- Alphabet
reme place among letters for readableness and beauty.
& its
They are the best forms for the grandest and most Derivatives
important inscriptions, and, in regard to lettering
generally, a very good rule to follow is : When in
doubt, use Roman Capitals.
The penman may with advantage devote some
study to a fine monumental type of Roman Capital
(such as that of the Trajan Column Inscription :
Plates I. and II.), and endeavour to embody its virtues
in a built-up pen form for use in MSS. (p. 294).
PROPORTIONS OF LETTERS I WIDTHS

The marked distinction between the " Square "

and the " Round " forms, and the varying widths
of the letters — as seen in the early inscriptions,1
are characteristic of the Roman Alphabet. We may
broadly distinguish Wide and Narrow letters thus —
OQCGD « Round.n
WIDE M W

H (U) A N V T (Z)
B E F R S Y (X) Square"
NARROW I IJ
KLP 269

1 Such inscriptions contrast favourably with that Nineteenth

Century style in which it was customary to make every letter
occupy the same space and look as much like its neighbour as
possible.
The Roman
The "Round" Wide Letters— 0, £>, C, G, D.—
Alphabet Omay be regarded as the Key letter of an
& its alphabet. Given an O and an I of any
Derivatives alphabet, we can make a very good guess at the
forms of the other letters.
In fine Inscriptions the external line of O is

ooo
commonly an almost perfect circle (see Plate II.)
— i.e. its height and width are equal. This may be
regarded as the ideal shape, though a slight widen-
ing or narrowing of the letter (fig. 157) is quite
permissible.1

circular, ruunnver. wider.

FIG. 157.

Q, C, G, and D follow the proportions of O

1 NOTE. — There is less danger of spoiling letters by narrowing

them than by widening, because the limits to the possible narrow-
ing of a letter are more obvious than the limits to its possible
widening. Further, when letters are widened there is a ten-
dency to thicken their parts and make them heavy and vulgar.
270
A

very nearly, and, though C, G, D are a little narrower, The Roman

they have the same effect of roundness and width. Alphabet
The « Square " Wide Letters— M, W> and H, & its
( £7), A, N, V, T, (Z)- Derivatives
Their mean width is properly
VV " about equal to their height.
TXT
H Ma Width equal to, or a little less than, height
(fig. 158), but if made too narrow it would
look heavy, being double-stemmed.
1 "I (see pp. 287, 284) resembles H.

« T T are double-stemmed, and have

> V internal angles, moreover,
which would become too sharp — and tend to close

danxgrs of too sharp aiuges.

FIG. 158.

271
The Roman up — if they were made too narrow (fig. 158).
Alphabet
& its
Alphabet A-pv The cross-bar — the characteristic part of T
& its
Derivatives J[ — projects a fair way on either side of the
stem.

'"7 158).
Either wide or (moderately) narrow (fig.

BERS
The Narrow Letters, By £, F, R, 5, Y (X] (see
fig- I59>

X
narrow

FIG. 159.

There is a point of division in these letters about

the middle of the stem or a little above (see p. 273),
and we may argue that each being composed, as it
were, of two little letters — which are half-height,
they are proportionately half-width : and this will
be found approximately correct. l-£ may be said
to consist of one little D on the top of another,
averaging respectively half the height and width of
a full-sized D.
ETT> T} follow the proportions of B
j I1 J & IV (see also E, 4, p. 282).
272
Smay be made of one little tilted O on the top The Roman
of another — joined together and having the Alphabet
superfluous parts removed. & its
Derivatives
is like a little V upon a little I.

Either narrow or wide (fig. 159).

The Narrow letters, AT, Z,, and P —

These forms are related to the B, E forms, but
it is permissible to make them a little wider to give
clearance to the angles of the 1^ and force to the
single arm and loop — the characteristic parts (see
%• 149)— °f ]^ and

UPPER & LOWER PARTS

In the letters B, E, H, K, X (A), F, R, P (S),

Y there is generally a tendency to enlarge the
lower part, the cross-bar — or division — being set
above mid-height. This tendency may reasonably
be accounted for as follows :—

The natural division of l-< H I— I

1^" & Y^ regarded as abstract forms, would

be symmetrical — i.e. at the centre of the stem.1
In order that its apparent position may be central,
however, it is necessary, for optical reasons, to make
* The primitive forms of these letters were vertically symmet-
rical, Ibelieve.
s 273
The Roman its actual position above the centre.1 And further,
Alphabet by a reasonable enlargement of -the lower part,
& its these letters acquire a greater appearance of stability.
Derivatives
It would be well, I think, for the letter-craftsman
to begin by making such divisions at the apparent
centre (i.e. very slightly above mid-height ; see
E, F, X, Plate II.), so keeping most nearly to the
essential forms (see p. 275). Later he might con-
sider the question of stability (see B, Plate II.).
The exaggerated raising (or lowering) of the
division
ible and associated
ridiculous. with "Art Lettering" is illeg-

A The lower part is essentially bigger, and

the cross-bar is not raised, as that would
make the top part disproportionately small.
F usually follows E, but being asymmetrical and
open below it may, if desired, be made with
the bar at — or even slightly below — the actual
centre.

R In early forms the bow was frequently

rather large (see Plate II.), but it is safer
to make the tail — the characteristic part — more
pronounced (see Plates III., XXIV.).
PThe characteristic part of P is the bow,
which may therefore be a little larger than
the bow of R (see Plate III.).
Sin the best types of this letter the upper
and lower parts are approximately equal ;
there is a tendency slightly to enlarge the lower
1 It is interesting to note in this connection that the eye
seems to prefer looking upon the tofi of things, and in reading,
is accustomed to run along the tops of the letters — not down
one stroke and up the next. This may suggest a further
reason for smaller upper parts, viz. the concentration of as much
274
of the letter as possible in the upper half.
part. (In Uncial and early round-hands the top The Roman
part was larger : see Plates IV. to VII.)
Alphabet
& its
Y varies : the upper part may be less than that Derivatives
of X, or somewhat larger.

ESSENTIAL OR STRUCTURAL FORMS

The essential or structural forms (see p. 240) are the

simplest forms which preserve the characteristic structure^
distinctivenesS) and proportions of each individual letter.
The letter-craftsman must have a clear idea of
the skeletons of his letters. While in every case the
precise form which commends itself to him is matter
for his individual choice, it is suggested in the
following discussion of a typical form — the Roman
B — that the rationale of his selection (whether
conscious or unconscious) is in brief to determine
what is ABSOLUTELY essential to a formy and then how
far this may be amplified in the direction of the PRACTI-
CALLY essential.
The letter B reduced to its simplest (curved-bo-w) form — i.e.
3 the bare necessity of its distinctive structure — comprises a
erfendlcular item spanned by t-wo equal, circular bo-ws (a, fig. 160).
In amplifying such a form for practical or aesthetic reasons,
• is well as a rule not to exceed one's object — in this case to
*ermine a reasonable (though arbitrary) standard essential
n of B, having a distinctive and proportionate (f) structure.
may increase the arcs of the bows till their width is nearly
1 to their height (b), make their outer ends meet the ends
e stem (e), and their inner ends coincide (d). Raising
.vision till its apparent position is at or about the middle of
,tem entails a proportionate increase of width in the lower
:, and a corresponding decrease in the upper part (e).

The very idea of an essential form excludes 27the

5
wwnecessary, and its further amplification is apt to
take from its distinctiveness and legibility. Where
no limits are set, modification is apt to become
The Roman exaggeration. And, though special forms and
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

e.
method o
*orm"of Capital B
FIG. 1 60.

ornamental letters may be produced by " reasonable

exaggeration" (/£, /, #z, fig. 161), if the tool be kept
276
 The Roman
ARB1TRA Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

Having a
ana, j "

'tend-
--X
I.) —^ J cy to —
c./en _
- of- any featiirer-

'Note :
disproportion and indistin

277

is permissible in Orn
FIG. 161.
The Roman under proper control, yet, generally, such structural
Alphabet changes do not improve the appearance of the plain
& its letter forms.
Derivatives
We may test our " Standard " (a, fig. 161) by considering the
effects of further amplification.
(1) Raising the division1 slightly is permissible (b, fig 161) —
too much makes the top part disproportionately small (c).
(2) Widening both botvs, or separating their junction from the stem,
tends to dissociate the bows from the stem, making the letter
less distinctive (g and /, fig. 161).

Widening and narrowing are both allowable and

occasionally desirable, but assuming that a standard
or ideal width can be approximately determined, it
is well to keep to it for common and ordinary use.

CHARACTERISATION OF FORMS

(See also Built- Up Forms^pp. 291-6, and pp. 240, 253)

That the tool 2 gives character and finish to the

Essential Forms of letters, can easily be proved by
a little practical experience of the natural action of
a properly cut pen (see figs. 142 to 148, and 162).
And the penman — or indeed any other letter-maker
— is advised to allow the pen to train his hand to

l The extremely beautiful and finished B in the "Trajan

Alphabet" (Plate II.) has the division a little higher, and a
marked enlargement of the lower part ; until the letter-crafts-
man can approach the perfection of its execution he will find
a simpler form more suitable for his " standard." A curious
form, in which the top lobe has nearly or quite disappeared
(comp. c, fig. 161), is found in early Roman inscriptions. This
form (which may have helped to give us the useful small b) is
not suitable for a modern Capital, and would lack the distinctive-
ness of B.
3 Chisel-made Roman Capitals (possibly influenced by brush,
&c., pp. 292, 391), Plates I., II.: (modern), XXIV. Pen-made,
Plates III., XVIII.: (modern), figs. 147, 148, 167, 168, &c.
278
 The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

EIUZATJONOF
THE LfTTERB.
BY" MEANS OF
PEW
STROKES 279

FIG. 162.
The Roman make the proper strokes automatically : then he
Alphabet may begin to master and control the pen, making
& its it conform to his hand and so produce Letters
Derivatives which have every possible virtue of penmanship
and are as much his own as his common hand-
writing.
Most of the letters in a good alphabet have
specially interesting or characteristic parts (p. 250),
or they exhibit some general principles in letter
making, which are worth noting, with a view to
making good letters, and in order to understand
better the manner in which the tool — whether
pen, chisel, or brush — should be used.
The characterisation of the Roman Capital Form.
NOTE. — The large types below are indices — not models.

A I . A pointed form of A, M, and N (see

Plate II.) may be suitable for inscriptions
in stone, &c., but in pen work the top is
preferably hooked (fig. 167), beaked (fig.
147), or broken (fig. 158), or specially
marked in some way, as this part (both in Capital
A and small a) has generally been (fig. 189).
2. The oblique strokes in A, K, M, N, R, V,
W, X, Y, whether thick or thin, are naturally
finished with a short point inside the letter and a
long, sharp point, or beak^ outside (see serifs of oblique
strokes, p. 289).
3. The thin stem may be drawn out below for
an occasional form (see F, 3).

B
1 . B, D, R, and P are generally best made
round-shouldered (fig. 162 & Addenda^ p. 26).
2. B, D, E, F, P, R (and T) have gene-
rally an angle between the stem and the top
horizontal, while
280
 3. below in B, D, E (and L) the stem curves or The Roman
blends with the horizontal. Alphabet
4. See O, 2. & its
Derivatives

als or
Ci. C, G, and S ; the top horizont
er
* arms ' may be straight than the lower
arms, or vice versa (see figs. 167 and 206).
2. C, G, and S; the inside curve is best
continuous — from the ' bow ' to the ends
of the * arms ' — not being broken by the serifs, and
3. it is best to preserve an unbroken inside curve
at the termination of all free arms and stems in
built-up Roman Capitals, In C, G, S, E, F, L,
T, and Z the upper and lower arms are curved on
the inside, and squared or slightly pointed outside
(the vertical stems curve on either side) (fig. 163).
4. * Arms ' are best shaped and curved rather
gradually out to the terminal or serif, which then
is an actual part of the letter, not an added lump
(p. 289).
5. See O, 2.

2. See B, 2 and 3.
dered
3. giTnhge See cBu,rvie. may be consi as
in
spr. f r om the foot of tnhael stem, and
e
r io
iay therefo for an occas form be
r
D
a t e d m
sepa from the stem at the top (*Z), fig. 177).
4. See O, 2.

E
1. See B, 2 and 3.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. The lower limb in E, L (and Z) is
often drawn out : these, however, are pro-
perly to be regarded as occasional or special
281
The Roman forms: the lower serif of this type commonly points
Alphabet out (see figs. 2C>6, 1 88).
& it8 4. E's three arms (& F's two) are approximately
Derivatires equai ;„ /ength in the best early forms

1. See B, 2.
2. See C, 3 and 4 (and E, 4 above).
3. One or more (the development of the
letter and tradition may decide which) of
the free stems of A, F, G, H, I, J, K, L,
M, N, P, R, T, V, W, X, Y may be drawn out
for occasional forms (see fig. 188).
4. The elongated stems of F, I, J, P, T, Y may
hang below the line, or they may (occasionally)
stand on the line and overtop the other letters.

2. The stem 2, may3, be awn out below

anddr4.
. the lineSee(F,C,3)i,
.
Gi
3. The stem sometimes forms an angle
with the lower 'arm' (this is safest: see
fig. 148), sometimes they blend (fig. 147).
4. The point of the lower 'arm' may project a
very little beyond the stem to mark the outer angle.

5. The wholly curved "gothic" {ey (and also

the other round letters : see p. 119) may be intro-
duced occasionally among Roman Capitals.
6. See O, 2.

H
1. The left-hand stem is occasionally
drawn out above (F, 3 & comp. fig. 3), and
2. this form is sometimes associated
with an ornamental cross-bar (fig. 189).
3. H and N mayslightly widen out above.
282
I 1. The stem may be drawn out above or
below (F, 3 and 4).
2. See J, 2.

Ji. The stem or tail may be draw

n out (F,
The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

3 and 4).
2. NOTE. — With regard to the use of I for
J (and V for U) : this is associated so much
with the Latin usage, that it is perhaps per-
missible still in Latin.1 But for modern English,
in which these letters are strongly differentiated, the
tailed J and the round U are to be preferred. Be-
sides the suspicion of affectation attaching to the
other mode, its strangeness gives an appearance of
awkwardness — almost amounting to illegibility —
to common words, such as « A QVAINT IVG "
or " IAM IAR." And, at the least, very careful

1 J. C. Egbert in an "Introduction to the Study of Latin

Inscriptions" says, " J -was not specialised at a letter until the l$th
Century." It would seem that in early inscriptions a tall I
was frequently used for J bet-ween vowels, and for I at the begin-
nings of words : later, while the medial I remained straight, the
initial form was curved to the left and used for both I and J; this
curved initial form, I , at length became identified with the
letter J.
Similarly, it appears that V was used for an initial, and U
for a medial ; and later, the V form became identified with
the consonant.
28the3
3ln tofgi, nattu >» «*•
In the words

initial I is curved like a J, while the medial i's are straight ;

the initial V has a v form, while the medial V in nativ(itatis) has
a u form.
The Roman discrimination is desirable : " IVBILATE " may
Alphabet pass, but " I VIVBE " is not really readable.
& its 3. The tail of the J may be slight, provided it
Derivatives be distinct, and the second stem of the U may
match the first (fig. 158) ; the ugly J and
in common use need not be copied.
4. See also Tails, pp. 289-291.

K
1. The stem is sometimes drawn out
above (F, 3).
2. Both arms are occasionally lengthened,
and the width of the letter increased, by
joining the thin arm to the stem lower
down 5 the thick arm, or tail, then springs from
the side of the thin arm (compare I? ). This
tends away from the essential, and is therefore a
less safe form.
3. The tail may be curved or drawn out occa-
sionly (see Tails, pp. 289-291).
4. Serifs on arms. See A, 2.

L
1. See B, 3.
2. See C, 3 and 4.
3. See E, 3.
4. See F, 3.

M
I. The stems are commonly slightly
spread out to give greater clearance for
the inner angles. An occasional form
is much spread out AA •
284
2. NOTE. — There are inscriptional forms of M
and N without the top serif (Plate II.). But the The Roman
pen forms and others have top serifs, and these
commonly extend outward — tending to beaks (see Alphabet
& its
Derivatives
A, i and 2)— rather than in. (V, W, X, Y (and
N) show a similar tendency — see p. 289.)
3. The thin stem of M is occasionally drawn
out (F, 3).

2. See H, 3. and 4.
C, 3
i . 3. SeSeee M, 2, and A, i and 2.
N 4. The first stem is drawn out below
l
t line for an occasiona form (dmost suit-
h e
able for an Inliltyia Lette : the right-han stem is
l r )
ve occasiona
r y raised (when a final letter) (F, 3).
5 N. O T E . — T h e stems of N (the only vertical
thend — onmetimces o e M'hsic—kerin theee Rolamtaen .Capitals)
in s o t o u n t i n g
t s t b t : s P II

letter of the curved

01. in key
forms Oandis, the a sense, of the whole
alphabet (p. 270). The upright form —
£\ — may be regarded as the ideal simple
letter.
2. Very commonly, however, O is tilted —
— (see fig. 163), and when this is the case, all the

p
curved letters— B, C, D, G, P, Q, R, S, U— are
correspondingly tilted (see Plate II.). The tilted form
is more easily made, but both are good forms.
1. See B, i and 2.
2. See O, 2. 285
3. (P with stem below line (see Plate
IV.) must not be allowed to confuse with
D) (see F, 3 and 4).
The Roman 4. The bow of P appears to be attached (to the
Alphabet stem) above : in certain forms it is slightly separated
& its from the stem below : see Plate II.
Derivatives
>^->^ I. Q resembles O with a tail: see O.
f \ 2. There are many characteristic var-
1 I ieties of the tail : see Tails (pp. 289-291).
^^^^r 3. NOTE. — Q being always followed
^^ by U, it is convenient often to deal
with the two letters together. (See Plate II.)

2. See O, 2.
d 2.
3. InSeetheB,foirman nearest the essential, the
R i .jun c t i o n of the Bow and the Tail touches
the stem. If the tail springs from the curovne
ti
of the bow (Plate II.) greater care in construc
e s s a r y o m p a r e e a t m e n t
is nec (c K). Th tre of the
.
tail is very important It may end in a serif (see
A, 2), or it may be curved and pointed (see Tails,

s
pp. 289-291). It may be drawn out (see fig. 50).
4. See F, 3 (& comp. fig. 169).
1. See C, i, 2, 3, and 4.
2. See O, 2 (and p. 273).
3. S very often leans slightly forward.

2. See C,ng3 and 4.

i
3. Draw o.ut of stem : see F, 3 oannadlly4.
. 2 i
4e.ndeNdOT See —B,The right arm nis occas
E
ext. — to fill a line — wllhye T is a ter,-
ier a r
Tminal lett (in this cearse it is gwehnaert made lighte l
and the left arm heavi — some as in the Uncia
T, figs. 56 & 1 88).
286
 Ui. NOTE. — The curve — if it be modelled The Roman
on the common tilted O (see O, 2)— is Alphabet
thin where it meets the second stem. & its
2 (V for U). See J, 2, 3, and footnote. Derivatives
3. The foot of the second stem projects
on the right only, and gives clearance to the angle
of the curve on the left. Sometimes the second

v
stem ends in a hook or beak, which (very occasionally)
is drawn out below.

1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. The thick stem may be drawn up
(F, 3), in which case the thin commonly
curves over for strength (see figs. 89, 95).
3. (See note on V for U, under J.)
1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. The best form is of two V's
crossed,
3. The first or both the thick stems may be drawn
up and the thins curved over (see V, 2).

A,s 2. a slight curving

medtime
.
2. Th e eM, is2,soan
Seer
X I in of the stems, especially the thin stem
(see fig. 80).
3. The thin stem is sometimes drawn
out below (F, 3), and commonly curved.

Y 287
1. See M, 2, and A, 2.
2. See F, 3 and 4. (Y with stem below
line (see Plate V.) must not be allowed to
confuse with V.)
3. An occasional rather interesting form
 z
The Roman of Y has the arms curving out and ending in points
Alphabet (see fig. 167).
& its
Derivatives f W l' See C> 3 and 4-
2. The lower arm of Z is sometimes
drawn out (see E, 3) : it may be curved
and pointed (or flourished).

Genera/ Remarks on the characterisation of the

Roman Capitals and related forms (see fig. I63).1
VERTICAL STEMS.— (a, fig. 163) Thick (ex-
cepting inthe thin stemmed N (and M)).
(b) Slightly curved in on either side (see fig. 1 1 6),
or appearing so because of the outward curve of the
serifs (see figs. 204, 206).
(c) A fine effect is obtained when the stem is
made wider above than below (see p. 119).
(d) Free stems occasionally are drawn out (see
above, F, 3 and 4, and pp. 251, 260, 332).
OBLIQUE STROKES or STEMS.— Thick,
to the left \, thin, to the right / (see A, K, &c.)>
otherwise like vertical stems (above) — (see also
SERIFS (e) below).
HORIZONTALS, ARMS, BRANCHES, or
BARS. — Thin : free ends sometimes drawn out
and flourished (see figs. 125, 188).
BOWS and CURVES.— Gradated, and follow-
ing the O (see pp. 44, 121, 270, 285).
SERIFS or FINISHING STROKES. — (a)
NOTE. — Serifs of some sort are practically essential
to the proper characterisation of an alphabet (see
figs. 147, 148, 162), and should generally have a
certain uniformity (p. 324).
1 The more ornamental treatment of Stems, Boius, Serifs, Tails,
&c. , is referred to at p. 331, and in figs. 188, 189.
288
 (b) The serifs, &c., of simple-written forms are The Roman
treated at p. 244 (see fig. 145).
Alphabet
& its
(c) In Veriah and certain other forms the mode
of making requires the serif to be a distinct addition Derivatives
to the letter (see figs. 116, 166).
(d, fig. 163) In the finest built-up A B Cs serifs are
treated as the actual finishing and shaping of the
ends of the stems and branches^ rather than as added
parts (see C, 3 & 4, p. 281 and p. 240). This
particularly affects the construction of the thin
strokes (see figs. 165, 167).
(e) The serifs of the oblique strokes in A, K, M, N,
R, V, W, X, Y are commonly not placed centrally,
but projecting in the direction of the stroke (i.e.
away from the letter, thus : J^ ), branching out
from the parent stem (see tailsy below), and avoid-

ing an acute angle (as "^ ). This has tended to

produce hooks and beaks (see fig. 163), which are
often used for the oblique strokes, particularly of
A and N (see figs. 189, 158), and the tails of K
and R (see below).
(/) There is a similar natural tendency to hook
or flourish the terminals of vertical stems on the left,
particularly of B, D, I, J, K, L, P, R ; less often
of E, F, H. A very interesting and beautiful effect
may be obtained by delicately curving down the
upper serifs on the left (like thin beaks'). Such serifs
are sometimes very slightly turned up on the right,
and it may be noted that this tendency of the
" horizontals " to curve up and forward - is
natural and characteristic of freely made, vigorous
lettering (see Uncial T, pen dashes, &c., figs. 169,
125, &c.).
TAILS.— (a) The tails of K, Q, R (and J)—
T 289
The Roman

REE
Alphabet dmwn cniT

l
& its

ODf
Derivatives

Siorms
IOD3

.SERI•FS

FIG. 163.
290
and the strokes in A, F, G, I, M, N, P, Y, &c., The Roman
which may be drawn out tail-wise — play an impor- Alphabet
tant part in the right construction, and the occa- & its
sional decoration, of plain lettering. They may Derivatives
end either in serifs or in curves (see SERIFS (e)y
above, and fig. 188).
(b) NOTE. — It is a characteristic of vigorous forms
that branches, c>f., stand out well from their stems
(pp. 219, (e) 289, (N) 271), and a good tail should
stand out well from the letter (K, Q, fig. 167).
(c) An excellent form of tail for ordinary use,
combining strength and grace, consists of a (strong)
straight stroke ending more or less abruptly in a
(graceful) finishing curve..
(d) An extraordinarily long tail requires a slight
double curve to take off its stiffness.
(e) A good tail may be made by the addition of
a double curved stroke on the under side of a
straight tail (or of a single curve above).
(f) In treating the tail of J, or the drawn-out
stems of A, F, G, I, M, N, P, Y, it is important
to preserve the essential straightness of the stems.
Therefore, if a finishing curve be used, its size is
related to the length of the straight stroke, and,
unless this be extraordinarily long, the curve is
usually made rather small and abrupt. A curve
which is too large is apt to weaken the form and
" pull it out of the straight" (^, fig. 163).

BUILT-UP FORMS

Built-up Letters are composed of compound

strokes (<:, d, fig. 1 64) ; Simple-written Letters of
simple strokes (#, £).
The Pen being an instrument which produces
291
The Roman definite thick and thin strokes on a smooth surface, is
Alphabet perfectly adapted to the construction of either
& its simple or compound forms ; other tools, such as the
Derivatives
stylus, needle, graver, &c., produce various scratches,
stitches, or cuts, generally of the nature of rather vary-
ing thin strokes, and to produce thick strokes a
building-up process is required.
In making built-up forms the control exerted by
the tool is less obvious, and more depends upon the
craftsman, who must therefore use greater care
and judgment. Not only is it possible, but, occa-
sionally, itmay be desirable to depart from the
more obvious tool-forms ; though generally the
more simply and naturally tool-made a form is,
the better it is.
The fine early inscriptions are supposed to have
been first drawn or painted (in outline) and then
cut into the stone. The chisel forms were doubt-
less affected in this way by brush (and indirectly
by pen) forms, but these were of the simplest — no-
thing was sketched in that was unfitted for the
chisel to make into a natural and true chisel-form.
The action of the brush or " pencil " to a certain
extent resembles that of the pen, but their effects
are really distinct. In contrasting pen-made and
brush-made letters, we may observe that a pen form
tends to abrupt changes from thin to thick : a brush form
to gradation (fig. 164). The pen particularly affects
curved strokes (comp. a & b), generally making them
more quick and abrupt (or even broken, see * * c).
than brush curves. The brush will give more grace-
ful and finished but less uniform letters (see p. 376).
The character of a pen-letter depends greatly on
the nib-width (p. 324), and narrow, medium, or broad
nibs are used according to the type of letter required.
292
 +OX.O
The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

Simple-written PEN curves

FIG. 164.

A narrow nib may be used for special (built-up)

Initials and Capitals, which are drawn rather than
written (a, fig. 165). The horizontal arms (made
by the pen held horizontally) are markedly affected,
and if a very fine nib were used, the necessity of
strengthening and thickening them would tend
further to reduce the pen character.
A broad nib gives strong, uniform pen-letters (b}.
For ordinary use letters are perhaps best made
293
with a "medium" nib (<:). The width of the
ordinary writing-pen, or rather narrower, gives a
good proportion for initials, &c. (see pp. 118, 218).
In MS. books the early built-up Capitals were
The Roman commonly of a rather severe type — approaching
Alphabet the Roman Capital, but having the sharp contrast
& its
Derivatives

Proportion
of width of
notarize
of letter?

Nornnv:
ediuni:
FIG. 165.

between the thicks and the thins characteristic of

pen-letters (fig. 166). They make very simple and
effective " Versals."
A more highly finished type of pen-made Roman
Capital may be made by blending the serifs and
stems (dy p. 289) : it is nearer to the inscriptional
294 but it exhibits a more curved and supple
form,
 The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

in

295
The Roman outline, which comes of natural pen-strokes (fig.
Alphabet 167).
& its

AFGIJ
Derivatives /^"^ • ** ^ '^ 'W' ~W~

KLTVPo
ut/r-u^'pen Capitals (see also
. 15S, .Ncte tik& O.
FIG. 167.

The remarks in Chapter VII. on the treatment

of the more elastic " Gothic " Versal (a free variety
296
of the Roman) may be taken as applying generally The Roman
to (Coloured) Built-up Capitals — due allowance Alphabet
being made for the characteristic differences of the & lts
various types. Derivatives

SIMPLE-WRITTEN CAPITALS

"Rustic Capitals" (fig. 4) may be referred to

here as typical, simple-written capitals. Though
not a very practical form,1 they are full of sugges-
tions for a semi-ornamental lettering in which the
pronounced treatment of the heads and feet might
be a feature (comp. fig. 203). They were used as
ornamental letters for titles and the like (see Plates
VIII., IX., &c.) for centuries after they had gone
out of ordinary use.
Simple - written Roman Capitals. — (Examples :
Plates III., XVIIL, XIX., XXL, figs. 147, 148,
168, 175, 179. See also pp. 247, 429.)
Uncials. — (Examples : see p. 300.)
Simple - written Capitals ordinarily conform to
the writing line — as set by the small text (p. 82).
This applies even where several words in capitals
have to be inserted in the small text, though in
special cases where these might look too crowded
such capitals might be written on alternate lines.
Used for Initial Words, headings, whole pages, or
books, in black or colour, they are written with
greater freedom and accorded more special treat-
ment (see pp. 298, 299).
Simple-written Capitals are best composed 2 of
97
sharp, clean, pen-strokes : they may be quite plain
1 Their thin stems and heavy branches may tend to weakness
and illegibility—*^, such letters as E, F, I, L, and T (see
fig. 4) are not always easily distinguishable.
The Roman or more or less decorative (fig. 168), subject to the
Alphabet general rule that the fewer the number of letters or the
& its more ornamental their office, the more elaborate and

ABCDEg
Derivatives fanciful may be the forms employed (see p. 294).

NOPQVR
RSTVV. ital* : rvwrhl
Caital* rvwrh
FIG. 1 68.

A freely used pen naturally produces occasional

varieties for special or ornamental purposes : these
tend to elegance and drawn out flourished strokes
(p.
— -
331); they vary chiefly in:-
being extra large.1
1 Increasing the tixe of letter affects the form as though the nib
were narrowed (see p. 324).
298
Several of these may be used with fine effect in The Roman
a page of plain Capitals, their " weight " (and Alphabet
generally their colour) being the same as that of & its
the text (see Plate V., and p. 328). Derivatives
Whole Books or Pages written in Capitals. — A very
grand effect may be produced by these at the
expense of a little more time and material than
a Small-letter MS. entails. The lines of writing
are commonly made one-letter-height apart : this
requires ordinary simple ruling — the capitals being
written between every alternate pair of lines (see
p. 412).
Such writing may conveniently be treated as
"Fine Writing" (p. 262). It justifies the use of
wider margins. It is generally more difficult (and
less necessary) to keep the right-hand edge as
straight as a small text permits. The irregularities
of this edge may be balanced by setting out in the
left margin the first letters of sentences, verses, and
the like (see p. 264). Such initials may be written
larger or more ornamentally as suggested above ;
or, if built-up Letters are required, plain, rather
slender Roman Capitals are the most suitable :
these look best in burnished gold.
Perhaps the finest and most beautiful work which
the penman can produce, is a book written entirely
in gold1 capitals'* on purple vellum (see pp. 164, 175).
This is only possible in special cases, but a book
rightly so made being illuminated from within, has
an incomparable simplicity and grandeur., surpass-
ing that of the finest post-decorated and illuminated
299
manuscripts.

1 Some may be in " silver" (p. 165).

2 In a very short book these might even be built-up capitals.
The Roman UNCIALS
Alphabet _
& its Examples : Plates IV., V. ; figs. 5, 169 (enlarged) ;
Derivatives (modified, fig. 56).
Uncials are typical pen-capitals.1 Though not
of such practical use as the simple-written Roman
Capitals, their great possibilities and their beauty
make them worth practising. (See Round, Upright,
Forma/ Hands, p. 304.)
Their use is limited by two considerations —
First: that while the round ^b. C, b. CO, U
are essentially legible (p. 239), people generally are
not accustomed to them, and may find them hard to
read ; and

Secondly: that
have ascending and*b,descending p-0!- ^,) strokes
. k,L, which
p, q^are
apt to become too pronounced and give an un-
pleasant appearance of "tailiness" to a page of
Uncial Writing (in English, sec footnote, p. 326).
The first difficulty may be met by keeping
Uncials for special MSS. — for private use — and
introducing them sparingly or not at all in Service
Books, Placards, &c., where ease and quickness of
reading are essential.
The appearance of " tailiness " (not so obvious in
Latin) may be avoided by making the tails shorter
and keeping the lines of writing well apart. Or
freely made Roman Capitals without tails (see D,
tail-less, fig. 57) may be substituted for one or
more of the chief offenders.

1 Palaeographers call them " majuscules " ( = " large letters "),
but distinguish them from "Capitals." For the purposes of
the modern penman, however, they may be regarded as Round
Capitals. (For their treatment, see pp. 297-299, and 304.)

300
The Roman

Alphabet
& its
Derivatives
The Roman Uncials may be " round " (see Plate IV., fig. 5,
Alphabet
& its 413). p. 304), or "pointed" (see fig. 169, and p.
and
Derivatives
CAPITALS & SMALL-LETTERS

During the development of Small-Letters from

Capitals but little distinction was made in their
use, and such capital forms as N and R were
freely and promiscuously used in the round minuscule
writings, together with the small-letters n and r (see
Plates VI., VII.). On the other hand, Small-Letter
forms were frequently written larger and used
as initials. In Irish and Anglo-Irish MSS. these
were filled inside with green, yellow, or red, and
surrounded outside with red dots, or otherwise
decorated with colour (see fig. 7, and Plate VI.).
In early MSS., therefore, one does not find an
alphabet of Simple - Written Capitals, which is
peculiar to a given small text. But we may
employ a kindred capital — such as the round
Uncial for the round Half-Uncial. And a fitting
alphabet may always be constructed, from the
" Roman " or " Uncial " types of Capitals (footnote,
p. 300), by taking the same pen with which the
small-letters have been made and using it in a
similar manner : " straight " for " straight-pen "
writing, and " slanted " for " slanted-pen " writing
(see figs. 147, 148).
When in doubt as to the type of Capital — for
any purpose — use Roman Capitals.
EARLY, ROUND, UPRIGHT, FORMAL HANDS

Examples : Half- Uncials — fig. 6 (Roman) ; Plate

VI. (Irish), Plate VII. (English) fig. 170 later; see also
pp. 40, 44, 413-415. Uncials (Plate IV. and p. 38).

302
clnot>ea
The Roman

Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

FIG. 170. — Part of an English eight-century MS. (British

Museum, Case C, No. 68), enlarged three times linear.

303
The Roman The main types are the "round** Uncial and
Alphabet Half-Uncial, commonly written with an approxi-
& its mately " straight pen." l They are generally treated
Derivatives as fine writing (p. 262), and written between ruled
lines : this has a marked effect in preserving their
roundness (see p. 414).
They are very useful as copy-book hands (see
p. 70), for though the smooth gradation of their
curves, their thin strokes, and their general elegance
unfit them for many practical purposes, yet their
essential roundness, uprightness, and formality afford
the finest training to the penman, and prevent him
from falling into an angular, slanting, or lax hand.
Their very great beauty, moreover, makes them
well worth practising, and even justifies their use
(in a modernised form) for special MSS., for the
more romantic books — such as poetry and " fairy
tales" — and generally where speed in writing or
reading is not essential
With an eye trained and a hand disciplined by
the practice of an Irish or English Half-Uncial, or
a modified type, such as is given in fig. 5O> the
penman may easily acquire some of the more
practical later " slanted- pen " types.

" SLANTED-PEN SMALL-LETTERS

(Typical Examples :—
Carlovingian ninth - century MS. — Fig. 8 (en-
larged, fig. 171):

1 The writing in fig. 170 shows a slightly slanted pen. To

make quite horizontal thins is difficult, and was probably never
done, but it is worth attempting them nearly horizontal for the
sake of training the hand.

3°4
 English tenth - century MS. — Plate Fill, (en- The Roman
larged,fig. 172):
English eleventh - century MS. — Plate IX. (en- Alphabet & its
larged,fig. 173): Derivatives
Italian twelfth-century MS. — Plate X. (enlarged,
fig- 174)-
The use of the " slanted pen " generally pro-
duced stronger, narrower, and stiffer letters. Its
effects are detailed in pp. 43-47, and fig. n, and
may best be studied in the tenth-century example
(fig. 172 — the letter forms are described on p. 416).
In the Carlovingian MS. — which does not show
these effects in any marked degree — we may note
the wide letter forms, the wide spacing, the long
stems (thickened above by additional strokes), the
slight slope of the letters, and the general effect of
gracefulness and freedom (see fig. 171). Carlo-
vingian MSS. may be said to represent a sort of
mediaeval copy-books, and their far-reaching influence
on writing makes them of great interest to the
modern penman, who would, moreover, find one
of these hands an excellent model for a free
"formal hand."
For practical purposes the " slanted-pen " letter
is generally superior to the " straight-pen " letter.
The " slanted-pen " letters have greater strength
and legibility, due mainly to the presence of the
thick horizontals — often equal in width to the verti-
cals. Their use saves both space and time, as they
are narrower, and more easily and freely written *
than the straight-pen forms.
The real importance to us of these early types
1 NOTE. — Single-line ruling is commonly used — the writing
being on, or a little above or be/oiv, the line: this allows of
greater freedom than the double line (see p. 304).
u 305
The Roman Alphabet
& its Derivatives

ft
O
3

.s

J I c
lol 3
306
 The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

307
The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

3
 The Roman
< Alphabet
& its
DerivatiTes

tnconui
irgtnfax
pttret-'O
FlG. 174. — Part of Plate X., enlarged three times
linear (see pp. 417-419).
3°9
The Roman lies, I think, in their relation to the Roman Small-
Alphabet Letter (pp. 418-19 & 429-83), and their great
& its possibilities of development into modern formal
Derivatives hands approaching the " Roman " type.

ROMAN SMALL-LETTERS

Ex.: (Italian) Plates XIX., XX. (i5th century) ;

figs. 175, 176 (l6th century) : figs. 147, 148 (modern
MS.).
The Roman Small-Letter is the universally recog-
nised type in which the majority of books and
papers are printed. Its form has been in use for over
400 years (without essential alteration) and as far as
we are concerned it may be regarded as permanent.
And it is the object of the scribe or letter-maker
gradually to attain a fine, personal formal hand,
assimilating to the Roman Small-Letter ; a hand
against the familiar and present form of which no
allegations of unreadableness can be raised, and a
hand having a beauty and character now absent or
wwfamiliar. The related Italic will be mastered for
formal MS. work (p. 315), and the ordinary hand-
writing improved (p. 323). These three hands
point the advance of the practical, modern scribe.
The Roman Small-Letter is essentially a pen
form (and preferably a " slanted-pen " form ; p.
305), and we would do well to follow its natural de-
velopment from the Roman Capital — through Round
Letters and Slanted-Pen forms — so that we may arrive
at a truly developed and characteristic type, suit-
able for any formal manuscript work and full of sug-
gestions for printers and letter-craftsmen generally.
A finished form, such as that in Plate XX. — or
even that of fig. 175 — would present many diffi-

310
 culties to the unpractised scribe, and one who so The Roman
began would be apt to remain a mere copyist, more Alphabet
& its
or less unconscious of the vitality and character of Derivatiyes
the letter. An earlier type of letter — such as that
in Plate VIII. — enables the scribe to combine speed
with accuracy, and fits him at length to deal with
the letters that represent the latest and most formal
development of penmanship.
And in this connection, beware of practising
with a fine nib, which tends to inaccuracy and the
substitution of prettiness for character. Stick to
definite pen strokes, and preserve the definite shapes
and the uniformity of the serifs (p. 324) : if these
be made clumsily, they become clumsy lumps. It
may be impossible always to ascertain the exact
forms — especially of terminals and finishing strokes
— for the practised scribe has attained a great uni-
formity and some sleight of hand which cannot be
deliberately copied. But — whatever the exact
forms — we may be sure that in the best hands they
are produced by uniform and proper pen strokes.
ITALICS

Ex.: Plate XXL, and figs. 94, 177, 178 (en-

larged).
Italics1 closely resemble the Roman Small-Letters,
but are slightly narrowed, slightly sloped to the
1 It is convenient to use the term "Italics" for both the
cursive formal writing and the printing resembling it. Italic
type was first used in a " Virgil" printed by Aldus Manutius
of Venice in 1500. The type was then called " Venetian " or
"Aldine." It was counterfeited almost immediately (in Ger-
many and Holland it was called "cursive"); Wynkin de
Worde used it in 1524. It seems to have been originally in-
tended for printing entire Classics, but was afterwards used
to distinguish portions of the text (see also p. 373).
 & its Omnes fch apfi et euangeli
Derivatives

Omnes{Hh ddcipli dm
Omnesfifhlnocctcs. orate
SancfeStepIiane. era.
San^lelaurenti. era.
Sanctovmc&nti. ot-a.
ora
ora.
Satic^eblaft. era.
S adH loa. et pau le orate.
Sadi Cofma et damu. orate.

FIG. 175. — Italian Prayer Book; i6th century (see opp. /. 6°/. 345)

3I2
a8 The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

a3
s
313
The Roman right, and very freely written (commonly with a
Alphabet
& its " slanted pen "). The serifs generally consist of
slight natural terminal hooks, &c. — though in p and
Derivatives q a finishing stroke is sometimes added. Ascending
and descending strokes (in />, dy fy hy k, /, g, jy py qy y)
are commonly rather long, and often end in curves,
sometimes in flourishes (fig. 177).

bdhilmiuw -serif and ftowisheJ

FIG. 177.

The lines of writing are generally widely spaced

— allowing for the long stems : the bodies of the
letters being narrow are generally rather closely
packed, and frequently the lines of writing appear
3*4
as almost continuous light but compact writing, The Roman
while the ascenders and descenders and parts of the Alphabet
Capitals may be flourished freely in the spaces be- & its
tween the lines — sometimes filling them with orna- Derivatives
mental pen work, which contrasts strongly with
the extreme plainness and regularity of the
bodies.
Italic Capitals are a variety of the Roman Capitals,
slightly sloped (frequently less sloped than the
accompanying small-letters), and sometimes much
flourished (fig. 177). The types modelled on the
latter were called by printers in the seventeenth
century, " Swash Letters."
Use of Italics. — In printing they served at first to
mark such portions of the text as —

f Quotations ,
Introductions^
Prefaces,
y / and subsequent
I>- *>»l>ha"i»'S>
j r ly XI words . _1 ext
not part of, the
Indexes, f were used for 1 ^^ ^ in the
Not"> ^ Bible, &c.).
In MSS. when it is not desirable to alter the
character, Red Writing (see p. 130) may be sub-
stituted for italics. Italics — either in black or red
— go best with " Roman " characters.
Like the Roman Small-Letter, the Italic is a
generally recognised and accepted form : this and
other considerations, such as the peculiar elegance
and charm of the letters, their formal relation to
modern handwriting, their compactness and
economy of space in the line, and the fact that
they may be written easily and with extreme
regularity — being indeed the most rapid of formal
hands — are practical reasons for a careful study
of the type, and justify the writing of certain
MS. books entirely in Italics.

315
5

ti
U-,
 SEMI-FORMAL WRITING The Roman

Figs. 179, 1 80, and 181 are taken from a six- Alphabet
& its
teenth-century Italian MS.1 written in a semi- Derivatives
formal cursive hand in dark brown and red-brown
inks (probably originally nearer black and red), on
150 leaves of fine paper.
The proportions of the Book? together with the
good writing, have a very agreeable effect, and are
interesting as being used by a writer over 300 years
ago. The extra width of the side margins may
have been allowed for annotations — some notes
were written in by the scribe himself.
Page = Il£ inches high, 8 inches wide.
(Inner (£ inch + \ inch allowed for Small Capitals)
= \\ inch (approximate).
Top — if inch (constant).
Side — 2f inch (approximate).
Foot •=. 3 inch (approximate).
Writing-Line Space nearly ^inch high: length (varies), average
4 inches.
Text Column nearly 6£ inches high, consisting of 22 lines of MS.

Character of the Writing. — The good shapes of

the letters, their great uniformity, and their easy
yet formal arrangement, mark this MS. as the work
of a skilful penman. But, while pen character of
a sort is very evident, the writing approaches the
stylographic (apparently a rather narrow blunt nib
was used), and the absence of definite thicks and
thins distinguishes it from all the formal hands
hitherto discussed : it may conveniently be termed
Semi-formal.

1 The Book is a catalogue of early Roman inscriptions :

apparently a written copy of a printed book.
2 With a sheet of paper 11^ inches by 16 inches the student
might reconstruct these.
31?
The Roman
Alphabet M4 ^
&its „ £ < *
Derivatives >- f . > n.V '•C
9** *""i . •W

c* C
^ >
>
"* X

^ ^ •"* il iZ c^X

s££°2^^<<-
s^r:^R^§^^
. *O ^ -S Q
rt ^ o w ^
W M O Z to

jw s *„ ?^ ?^ ^M w.

318
 The Roman
Alphabet
and its

~ J Li -I
Derivatives

^* I Nr^- i*>'

••tili'JhM>7*r.Jj
u
*
- i-^Ll
* 14^

3^9
The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Deriratives

5c Sw

S *
£c
* h*
\A

•* P.
W<
-J
5 w5
III

c < 5
H 2
CD O
>* K
-^ 2;

320
 Construction. — The rapidity and uniformity of The Roman
this writing are largely due to an extremely easy Alphabet
zigzag movement of the pen, such as is natural & its
in writing my », and u — the final upstroke usually Derivatives
running on into the next letter. Note particularly
that the round letters c, d^ *, g, 0, q generally begin
with a nearly straight down stroke — like the first

winu T
part of u — to which tops are added (see fig. 182).

constructon
of stems 3.

N
Smi-firmA 6
FIG. 182.

In the case of a, the first stroke curves forward to

meet the second.
x 321
The Roman In the straight-stemmed capitals B, D, E, F, H,
Alphabet I, L, M, N, P, R, and T, the first stroke is made
& its -\
Derivatives rather like an I (showing the tendency to a zigzag)
the foot of which is generally crossed horizontally
by a second stroke making a form resembling J —
on this as a base, the rest of the letter is formed
(see fig. 1 82). This tends to preserve the uniformity
of the letters : and gives a fine constructive effect,
as, for example, in the letter ^\ .
General Remarks. — The semi-formal nature of
such a MS. would seem to permit of a good quill —
not necessarily sharp — being used with the utmost
freedom and all reasonable personal sleight of hand ;
of soft tinted inks — such as browns and brown-
reds ; of an ww-ruled page (a pattern page ruled dark,
being laid under the writing paper, will, by showing
through, keep the writing sufficiently straight), and of a
minimum of precision in the arrangement of the
text. And in this freedom and informality lie the
reasons for and against the use of such a hand.
There is a danger of its becoming more informal
and degenerating because it lacks the effect of the
true pen in preserving form.1 But, on the other
hand, it combines great rapidity and freedom with
beauty and legibility : few printed books could
, compete in charm with this old " catalogue,"
which took the scribe but little longer to write
than we might take in scribbling it.
Many uses for such a hand will suggest them-
selves. Semi-formal documents which require to
1 Practising a more formal hand as a corrective would prevent
this.

322
be neatly written out, and Books and Records of The Roman
which only one or two copies are required, and Alphabet
even Books which are worthy to be — but never & its
are — printed, might, at a comparatively low cost, Derivatives
be preserved in this legible and beautiful form.
It suggests possibilities for an improvement in
the ordinary present-day handwriting — a thing
much to be desired, and one of the most practical
benefits of the study of calligraphy. The practical
scribe, at any rate, will prove the advantages of
being a good all-round penman.

OF FORMAL WRITING GENERALLY

On Copying a Hand. — Our intentions being right

(viz. to make our work essentially readable) and
our actions being expedient (viz. to select and copy
the simple forms which have remained essentially
the same, leaving the complex forms which have
passed out of use — see pp. 195-6), we need not vex
ourselves with the question of " lawfulness." l
Where beautiful character is the natural product
of a tool, any person may at any time give such
character to a useful form, and as at this time a
properly cut and handled pen will produce letters
resembling those of the early MSS., we may take
as models such early, simple pen-forms as have re-
mained essentially the same? and copy them as closely
as we can while keeping them exact and formal.
Finally, personal quality is essential to perfect
workmanship, but that is the natural and gradual —

1 The Law fulfils itself : that which we must not copy is that
which we cannot copy.
2 E.g. the letters in the tenth-century English hand— Plate
VIII. : excepting the archaic long f and round & (b, fig. 183).
323
The Roman sometimes scarcely visible — departure from a model,
Alphabet that comes of practice and time.
& its Forms of Letters : component pen-strokes. — In a good
Derivatives hand the chief component strokes — stems, bows,
and serifs — are repeated again and again (see pp.
244, 254) — this is essential to the uniform character
and the quickness of the writing. When sub-
stituting a new for an old letter a naturally used
pen will produce such common pen-strokes, giving

ft fig- 183).
the desired " family likeness " to the new letter l

Proportion 2 of Thick Strokes. — The broader the

thick stroke is in proportion to the height of a
letter, the more the form of the letter is controlled
and affected by the pen (c, fig. 183). For training
and practice, therefore, the wide nib is the most
useful. A narrower nib (d or e) allows of more
freedom and variety, and there is a great charm in
slender lettering — this the trained scribe may essay
(see Plate XX., and p. 482).
Proportion 2 of Stem Height. — The character of a
writing depends very much on whether the stems
are short, medium, or long. The stems of b and p
may be as short as half the height of the bodies
(/> %• J^3) j a medium stem for ordinary use might
be two-thirds of, or equal to, the height of the
body (g). Stems may be drawn out to almost any

1 The propriety of the actual form of the new letter will

largely depend on the scribe's knowledge of the development of
that particular letter and its component parts (comp. the in-
teresting development of g, sketched in figs. 3 & 183, but
note correction of Ex. 173 in Addenda, p. z6).
2 The proportions of the thick strokes, stem heights, &c., in a
given hand need not be exactly followed, but it should be
recognised that any alteration in these •will inevitably alter the
forms and the character of the letters (fig. 183, and pp. 84 & 26).

324
/-r^ '/•""/• r* * I ^e R°man
\Dcvelopmmt of g: from G . see ^3-1 A1Phabet
Derivatives

169. 170. 171 ijr2 73. <;4-

FIG. 183.

325
The Roman length, and may constitute a decorative feature of
Alphabet the writing, as in the Anglo-Saxon l MS., Plate
& its IX. (See p. 331, and fig. 188.)
Derivatives Distinct Lines of Writing. — The line — especially

Uudacr X.

itiitllit
XV.

catorum FIG. 184.

xvi.

in MS. books — is really a more important unit than

1 In English so many ascent/ing and descending letters are used,
that it might be the best and most natural treatment of these
to make them a marked feature of the writing (see also " Fine
Writing," pp. 261-63). Note, in this connection, that our a b C
has been developed as a Latin alphabet, and that the evenness
of Latin MS. is largely due to the infrequence of tailed letters.

326
the page ; and the whole question of the arrange- The Roman
ment of Lettering hinges on the right treatment of Alphabet
the lines. One is particularly struck by the dis- & its
Derivatives
tinctness ofthe lines of writing in the old MSS.,
due mainly to —
(a) The binding together of the letters in the line —
commonly by strong serifs or heavy " shoulders " and
"feet" (see figs, n, 184, and p. 414).
(b) Packing the letters well together (see pp. 7 7, 262).
(c) Spacing the lines sufficiently apart (see pp.
262-265).
It is a good rule (especially when practising) to
space the lines fairly widely. Really fine writing
shows generally to greater advantage if not too
much crowded, and there is more danger of making
reading hard by crowding the lines, than by crowd-
ing the words (see fig. 156).
Whatever mode of treatment be followed, each
line should be written with as much freedom as
possible, the simplest straightforward writing being
preferable to that which is over-arranged.

DECORATIVE CONTRASTS

The decorative treatment of lettering generally

involves contrasts of size, weighty colour, or form —
that is, of large and small, heavy and light, variously
coloured, or variously shaped letters. As a general
rule, marked contrasts are best ; a slight contrast
may fail of its effect and yet be sufficiently notice-
able to give an unpleasant appearance of irregu-
larity.
Contrasts of Colour (see pp. 1 44, 1 80). — Note that,
while it is convenient to distinguish "colour" —
as redy blue, green, &c. — weight strictly involves
327
The Roman colour : built-up or heavy letters in black show
Alphabet extra black beside lighter writing, while the latter
& its appears grey in comparison (see figs. 197, 186); in
Derivatives re(l writing the heavy letters appear red, the lighter
letters, pink (see fig. 90).
Contrast of Size. — The simplest decorative con-
trast is that of LARGE1 letters with SMALLER
letters (fig. 185) ; the strokes being of equal, or

CONTRXST
\ OF SIZE. -HARMONY
OFFDRMAVEIGHT
FIG. 185.

nearly equal, weight, there is an harmonious even-

ness of tone throughout. Where the large letters
are very much larger, their parts are made somewhat
heavier to keep their apparent " weight " approxi-
mately equal (see p. 486). This is one of the most
effective treatments for inscriptions generally (see
p. 299, and Plates V. and XXIV.).
Contrasts of" weight " and size. — In simple writing
these are obtained by using two sizes of pen — the
small, light letters being used for the bulk of the

1 Where there is only a slight difference in size, the effect is

improved by using a different/on* or colour (see pp. 130, 345).

328
text, the larger heavier letters being used for occa- The Roman
sional words or lines (or vice versa). This is a very Alphabet
& its
effective simple treatment for MSS. (fig. 186). Derivative*

aftwlinescf
muchlamer
Writi
1 /

simple, contrast: of size # colour.

TlieUmcrvmtuvris convenient-
ly written bc&vem every other"-'
pair o£ writing-lines. It may t>c
more dconativefy treated
FIG. 1 86. — (6"« also Jig. 191.)

The occasional letters may be more decoratively

treated (see Responses and Rubrics, p. 345) by intro-
ducing the further contrasts of colour (p. 144) or
form (p. 336).
329
The Roman Contrasts of form, " weight," and size. — These
Alphabet are generally obtained by the use of large built-up
& its X^^N
Derivatives | aPita's> together a simple-
with text written (or
ordinarily printed) (fig. 187).

bNTRAST OF FORM,
W£1GHT AND SIZE;
^(USUALLY) COLOURFIG. 187.

A marked contrast usually being desirable, the

built-up capitals (especially if black) are kept quite
distinct from the rest of the text (see fig. 197) : if
they are scattered among the other letters they are
apt to show like blots and give an appearance of
irregularity to the whole. As a rule, the efFect is
improved by the use of red or another colour (see
figs- 9J> 93)-
Contrast of form — for decorative purposes — is
usually combined with contrast of weight (e.g.
" Gothic," heavier, p. 336) or size (e.g. Capitals,
larger, p. 371).

ORNAMENTAL LETTERS

(See Chaps. VII., VIII., X., XII., & pp. 34, 251, 26)
To give ornament its true value we must dis-
tinguish between ordinary occasions when simplicity and
directness are required, and special occasions when elabo-
ration isdesirable or necessary.
The best way to make ornamental letters is to

330
develop them from the simpler forms. Any plain The Roman
type may be decoratively treated for special purposes Alphabet
— some part or parts of the letters usually being ration- & its
Derivatires
ally "exaggerated" (p. 252). Free stems, " branches"
tails, &c., may be drawn out, and terminals or serifs
may be decorated or flourished (fig. 203).
Built-Up Forms. — Even greater license (see fig.
161) is allowed in Built-Up Letters — as they are
less under the control of the tool (p. 292) — and
their natural decorative development tends to pro-
duce a subordinate simple line decoration beside or
upon their thicker parts (fig. 189 & p. 26). In MSS.
the typical built-up, ornamental form is the " Versal"
(see Chap. VII.), which developed — or degenerated
— into the "Lombardic" (fig. i). Here again it is
preferable to keep to the simpler form and to develop
a natural decorative treatment of it for ourselves.
"Black Letter" or "Gothic," still in use as an
ornamental letter (fig. 190), is descended from the
fifteenth-century writing of Northern Europe (Plate
XVIL). A better model may be found in the
earlier and more lively forms of twelfth and
thirteenth century writing (fig. 191).
Rightly made, and used, it is one of the most
picturesque forms of lettering — and therefore of
ornament — and besides its ornamental value, there
is still in the popular fancy a halo of romance about
" black letter," which may fairly be taken into
account. Its comparative illegibility, however, —
due mainly to the substitution of straight for curved
strokes — debars it from ordinary use.1 Though its
1 Compare monotone and monotone. For general pur-
poses, therefore, and particularly for forming a good hand, the
earlier tcripts are to be preferred (or the late Italian): even
twelfth-century "Gothic" writing is hardly readable enough
for " practical " purposes.
The Rt>man
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives I TTtescri/Toit usit-
tnxnr sterna*

te top line of wnttna- ntay

ascencknr
wKik in dieftourusKcd'tnto
fixrtrmatxjin dietopctcscoSecr
tke fcot-Une

FIG. 1 88. — (See also figs. 125 a«</ 150.)

332
 The Roman

Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

ow M se.
J J
-r* ~ /^v • /i\ ^o ""**•
and'hutte®

^QQ3k^
HAHNfi
I i C_ , I.T.fe

form* lllustndyt
of the oriainS cf
Simple O&uvmntal
LETTERS,
FIG. 189.— (See also Plates VI. , XL, XXII.,
figs> 79 0^84, and p. 420.)
333
The Roman
Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

FIG. 190. — Ordinary Modern "B/ack Letter" Type (see p. 331).

334
 The Roman
.5 Alphabet
& its
Derivatives

335
The Roman distinction in form and colour (p. 327) from ordinary
Alphabet small lettering, make it useful in arresting atten-
& its tion ; as in a legal document, where the clauses are
Derivatives marked by
&c.

Its most effective use, however, is as pure orna-

ment— when it does not matter whether the words
are easily read or not. For mottoes, &c., painted
or carved on walls or furniture, and for ornamental
borders round tapestry hangings, tombs, book-
covers, bowls, flagons, plates, &c., bands of such
ornamental lettering are extremely decorative (see
footnote (2), p. 255, & also p. 364).

FIG. 191 a. — Shield of Arms of Earl de Warrenne, Castle

Acre Priory, Norfolk (Gold and blue chequers, diapered — see
p. 215) : reproduced, by permission, from Bou! ell's " English
Heraldry," No. 68.

336
 APPENDIX A
CHAPTER XVI
SPECIAL SUBJECTS

Divers Uses of Lettering — MS. Books, &c. — Binding

MSS. (with Note by Douglas Cockerel!)— Broad-
sides, Wall Inscriptions, &c. — Illuminated Ad-
dresses, &c. — Monograms & Devices — Title Pages
— Lettering for Reproduction — Printing — Inscrip-
tions on Metal, Stone, Wood, &c. — Of Inscriptions
Generally — Bibliography, &c.
DIVERS USES OF LETTERING

The following list of some of the uses of hand- Special

made lettering, though necessarily very brief, will Subjects
perhaps suggest possibilities both to the student and
the craftsman :—
MS. BOOKS, &C. : (see pp. 98, 341, & Author's Preface).
(i)) That
Preferably
which "the best." of calli-
is worthy
graphy.
Fine Literature (3) That which is the " favour-
ite " of the owner of the book.
Poetry is differently treated from
prose (see pp. 95, 263, 371, 138),
and should have extra wide side
margins when possible (p. 483).
Y 337
Special {Poems, cards, hymns, &c. (see pp.
Subjects Single Poems, 137-139, & Poetry, above), prefer-
ably in the form of small books.
writing),
Tracts or Treatises : {Copie s might be preserved (p. 313)
in good writing (instead of Type-

Church Services : fPrayers, Communion, Marriage,

| &c. (pp. 140, 144, 345).
NOTE. — The Psalms, &c., may be
treated as poetry (as in the
Gospels & Psalters : " Revised Version ") or as prose
(as in the "Authorised Ver-
sion "), see Fine Literature above.
'These may be very varied ; contain-
ing vacations, terms, sessions ;
public, church, or family festi-
vals, personal memoranda or
Almanacks : topical quotations. They offer
great opportunities for heraldic
or symbolic ornament (such as
coats - of - arms, astronomical
signs, &c.).
Dedications , &c.t in These may be on a parchment leaf
Books : inserted and securely glued into
(Lettering on Archi- the beginning (preferably bound
tects' Plans : see up with book), or be written on
MAPS & PLANS, a fly-leaf. Annotations, extracts,
&c., may be written in colour in
P- 339) printed books (p. 144).
(see below).
" Copy- Books " .-

BROADSIDES : f Sheets printed (or written) on one

\ side : see p. 350.
Notices : (Posters, Placards, Hand-bills, &c.).
Quotations : (Texts, Mottoes, &c.) (see p. 336).
Church Texts, (The Creed, Commandments, &c.).
These may be very decorative — in
Family Trees Pedi-\
ment. They might also be made
grees : I in book form.

338
WALL INSCRIP-\Carved or painted: see pp. 350, Special
TIONS: I 375-385, & Chapter XVII. Subjects
Public Notices : \ Note : on walls, plastered, or un-
Lettering in Churches, suited for carving, sgraffito might
t. ° be used with fine effect.
Lettering in Iff upon\ tiieSj may
^ . * . {Letters whichalso(after
be painted
baking)upon
are
public buildings : J cemented into the wall (p. 377).

mechanical reproduction).

LETTERING FOR] ( See also

RE PRO DUG-
DUG- Msec P. 365).. JJ BROADSIDES,
TION: above-
Printer's types and} (in woodcut and metal: pp. 365,
Ornamental letters : / 36?)'
Title Pages : (see p. 363).
Paper and other Book} (Magazines, Newspaper-Headings,
covers : Music, Catalogues, &c.).
n/r c_j r»r fS00^, clear lettering may be used
Maps fy Plans : | in these with fine effect.
I (preferably simple, with Arms,
Book Plates : < Crest, or Symbol, and suitable
\ lettering).

Letter-paper Head- |(preferably in copper-plate " Ro-

ings9 Cards, &c. : J man " and "Italic ").
Bill Heads, Receipt\ (preferably in copper-plate or type :
Forms, &c. : ) see p. 365).

Certificates : these nials,

{j (Testimo &c.) theThe
are made, plainer
better.
Programmes,
g . &c.
CJ Menus, ' ~\V (Christmas
,~. . cards,
. &c.).
0 .
Cards, : )
Almanacks : (see above).
339
oSpecia
t_- l MS. Books
j ,, •* •!(*0**{^
and "copy- copper-plate if reproduced
m|Sht ^ written
by
well
Subjects booh": \ enough (p. 367).
/Better lettering in these would not
... - . J only mitigate many eyesores, but
Advertisements, &c. :\ would probably attract by its
v novelty (see p. 351).

ENGRAVING, \sfc. : (see PP. 364, 365, 375).

D c-» f (" Brasses," Name-plates, Door-
Brasses, &c. : |l plates, '&Ci).
Punches : (for naming, numbering, &c.).
Utensils : (Bowls, flagons, plates, &c.).
Ornaments : (Jewellery, &c.).
for em-
per andheadings
Die Sinking : &c.). letter-pa&c.,
coins, medals,
\If (forbossed ,

INSCRIPTIONS IN\
STONE e-T WOOD .-/<see pp- 375-385. & Chap. XVII.).
On Monuments £5*\Also on mile-stones, boundary
Buildings : ) stones, bridges, &c.
Tombstones :
Foundation Stones :
Memorial Tablets :

"SIGN WRITING" : (see PP. 350, 376).

Signs : (for stations, inns, shops, &c.).
Shop Fascia*) &c. :
Names ) &c. : (on doors & on carts, coaches, &c.).
Notice Boards :

« Ticket Writing ":

see remarks on built-up forms, p. 292:
EMBROIDERY, and Chapter XII. [on Letter-
c . -^ ing, &c.j of " Embroidery and
Tapestry .]Weaving,"
of "Eml by Mrs. A.
H. Christie, in this Series.
Decoration for hangings, (p. 3 36 ) : Marking clothes,

340
 All the arts employ lettering directly or indirectly, Special
in fine decoration or for simple service. Subjects
The following list of ancient uses is interest-
ing : !— "I. TITULI
I Dedicatory and Votive Inscriptions (Tituli Sacri).
^ Sepulchral Inscriptions (Tituli Sepulchrales).
3 Honorary Inscriptions (Tituli Honorarit).
4 Inscriptions on Public Works (Tituli Operum Publicorum).
5 Inscriptions on Movable Objects (Inttrvmentum).
II. INSTRUMENTA
I. Laws (Leges et Plebi Scita).
z. Decrees of the Senate (Senatut Consulta).
3. Imperial Documents (Inttrumenta Imperttorum).
4. Decrees of Magistrates (Decreta Afag'utratuum).
5. Sacred and Public Documents (Acta Sacra et Publica).
6. Private Documents (Acta Privata).
7. Wall Inscriptions (Inscriptiones Parietariae).
8. Consular Diptychs (Diptycha Consularia)."

MS. BOOKS, &C.

Books in the making — as compared with ordinary

inscriptions — are capable of great compression or
expansion, and may be said to have a quality of
elasticity. Nearly all other ordinary inscriptions are
set inscriptions (p. 350), requiring a given number of
words to be set out in a given space. But in books,
while it is convenient that the treatment of the
text should conform generally to a chosen size of
page (p. 103), the contents of the page may vary
according to the letter-form and the spacing (pp.
107, 262), and the number of the pages is not
definitely limited, so that another page, or a
l p. 214, J. C. Egbert's " Introduction to the Study of Latin
Inscriptions," — 1896.
Special number of additional pages, may always be taken
Subjects to complete the text.
The size of page, margin, and writing having
been settled (see Chap. VI.) — and the pages ruled
— the penman writes out the text with the utmost
freedom, not stopping to make fine calculations,
but leaving such spaces and lines, for Initials,
Headings, &c., as his fancy and common-sense
dictate, and letting the text — or its divisions —
smoothly flow on from page to page till a natural
termination is reached. And if the terminal page
has only one or two lines on it, it is not necessary
to attempt a balance with the previous page — the
book or chapter l ends just there, for the good
reason that there is no more of it.
Colophons, Tail-pieces, &c. (see p. 142), make a
pleasant finish, and may complete the page or not
as convenient.
Planning : Sections and Pages. — Calculations of
the amount of text, of the number of sections or
pages required, and so on, are useful, and planning
the pages may be convenient — for example, one
or more of the verses of a poem, or a given number
of words, may be allotted to the page — provided
always that the scribe preserves his freedom, and
treats each case on its merits. If he think it most
suitable to devote a complete page to each para-
graph, he may do so in spite of its resulting in the
pages all being of different lengths.
The one general limitation which it is proper to

1 If there is sufficient room left on the terminal page for a

clearly marked beginning (such as a decorative initial), the next
chapter may begin there, and so fill the page — but generally
there is no objection to leaving blank what the text has failed
to fill.

342
observe is that of the Writing-line — its length * and Special
spacing — and to this may be added the desirability Subjects
of beginning the text of every page on the first or
head line.2 For most of us it is not practically
possible to do without the aid of the writing-lines
— which really lead, through uniformity, to greater
freedom — though a book written without them 3
might be as beautiful as any ruled manuscript.
Marginal Lines. — These, the terminals of the
writing-lines, are frequently made double, with
about \ inch between (see Plates XX. and XV.).
On the left this space is utilised for marginal
capitals, or is left blank; on the right the first
line acts as a warning mark and the normal
termination of the text, the second as a barrier
beyond which the writing should not go. The
double lines, in being more obvious than single
lines, are also more effective in "straightening"
the page (p. 109) : presumably for this reason the
two upper and two lower writing-lines were often
ruled from edge to edge of the page (see Plate XL).
Ruling. — Marginal and writing-lines, once ruled,
are to be left intact, and may be regarded as actual
component parts of the finished pages. They are
best made with a hard blunt point (p. 1 08)— -the
furrows so made give an interesting character,
almost a " texture," to the smooth surface of the
page. But they may be ruled with a fine lead
pencil, or with a fine pen and faint black or
1 The line need not always be Jilted by the writing (p. 425).
2 It would not be necessary for the first page of a chapter
to have the ordinary dropped head and blank upper space if a
fine initial or decorative heading were used to mark it.
8 Some of the books engraved by William Blake suggest pos-
sibilities ofsuch ^-conventional treatment, both of writing and
" illumination " (see also p. 21).
343
 Special coloured inks. Inked or coloured lines, however,
Subjects are not generally written upon (see footnote, p. 305),
but between (see Plates XIII., XVIL, XX., &c.).
Correcting Mistakes. — A neatly made rather small
letter above and a " carat " below (as in ordinary
writing) may be used for an omission (fig. 192).

makfdrur
FIG. 192.

A superfluous letter may be neatly struck out.

Erasures are usually unsatisfactory, and a simple,
unostentatious correction, besides disarming criti-
cism, isin accordance with the proper freedom of
the craft (see p. 174).
Annotations, &c., preferably in smaller coloured
writing, are very decorative in the broader margins
(pp. 144, 315).
Special Books. — A MS. book is necessarily unique,
and some special or personal interest — either of the
craftsman (see p. 142) or his "client" — inevitably
attaches to it. This may affect its size and form,
the treatment of the text, and the decoration and
construction generally (see p. 100). Every legiti-
mate opportunity of adding to its individual
character should be taken by the scribe and
illuminator.
344
 Fig. 175 and Plate XX. are both taken from Special
private prayer books or psalters ; in each the name Subjects
of the owner (e.g. " Euanzelista famulo tuo" Plate
XX.) is frequently inserted. Plates XV. and
XXII. are also taken from specially commissioned
MSS., and many evidences of their ownership,
such as portraits or coats-of-arms, form part of the
decoration of such books.
Church Services, &c. — (For a special church or
person.) Church uses arc so varied, that it is most
important to ascertain the custom, use, or taste of
the persons concerned — especially as to the order
of, and the introduction or omission of, certain
words, paragraphs, or parts, the colours used in the
text, the notation of the music — and the manner
in which the book will be used.
A service book for the use of a priest gives
prominence to the parts in which he is concerned
— the responses1 may be smaller, and different in
form or colour. The rubrics — in red (see pp. 140,
144) — are kept quite distinct, and may form a very
decorative feature. For a private person the other
parts — such as are said by the congregation — might
be specially marked. In either case a certain
amount of planning — e.g. completing prayers, &c.,
in an opening, to avoid turning over — may be
justified by its convenience to the reader. Should
very careful planning ever be required, a pattern-
book may be made, having the contents of each
page roughly indicated in it.
Wedding Service Books, &c. — The interest and

1 The distinction in the Prayer Book between "Amen " and

"Amen" — used as a response — is best marked by the sign R
(for Responsum) in red, placed before the latter, as : R Amen
(see pp. 144, 15).

345
Special value is enhanced if the book is specially prepared
Subjects — containing the proper names and dates, and only
the special psalms, hymns, prayers, homilies, &c.,
which will be used. Dated pages may be provided
at the end of the book for the signatures of the
" friends and neighbours " of the principals.
BINDING MSS.

MSS. should be bound without delay in order to

complete and protect them.
To bind books in stiff boards, in leather, requires
considerable practice and skill, but a very effective
limp vellum cover can be made by the scribe himself,
who, in binding his own books, will learn to think
of the binding as a part of the book, and to allow for
it in the writing and planning (see p. 106).
The following note * on covering books in limp
vellum is specially contributed by Mr. Douglas
Cockerell :—
" How to cover a look in a limp vellum cover without
using special appliances.
" Cut four strips of stiff vellum f inch wide and about
four inches long. On these slips you will sew the sections
of your book.
" Add to your book a plain section at either end ; 2
vellum for a vellum book, paper lor a paper book.
Knock up the backs of the sections squarely, keeping
the heads level, and across the back mark with a soft
pencil guided by a square, lines to show the position of
the slips. The positions of the four slips should leave
the space between the slips the same as that between the

1 Figs. 195 and 196 are from Mr. Cockerell's "Bookbinding

and the Care of Books," in this Series.
* These form the fly-leaves (p. in).

340
top slip and the head of the book ; the
space between the bottom slip and the tail Krtrfe Subjects
Special
should be a little longer than the spaces
between the slips. At about -^ inch Stttfft
from either end make an additional line
across the back for the " kettle " or
catch stitch. These lines will show
as dots on the back of single sections.
Each individual section should now
have at the back a dot at either end
for the kettle stitches, and four pairs
of dots | inch apart to show the position
of the slips, ten dots in all.
" To sew the book, fold the vellum
slips about i^ inch from one end and
bend to a right angle. Place your front
end-paper outside downwards, with the
back even with the edge of a table or
board, and place your folded slips with
their shorter ends under it. Then insert
your needle from the outside, at the head
" kettle stitch " mark, into the centre
of the section and bring it out at the
Hrst band mark ; put the slip in position
and reinsert your needle at the mark on
the other side of the slip, and so on to 'Toil
the end of the section, coming out at the
tail kettle stitch. This should leave
your section with a thread,1 passing
alternately along the centre fold inside
and across the slips outside, with a
loose end hanging from the kettle stitch
mark where you began, and a thread iKrttl
with the needle hanging from the other f
kettle stitch mark (fig. 193).

1 Thread should be unbleached. Silk of

the best quality is better than thread.
Special " Lay on your next section and sew it in the same way
Subjects but in the reverse direction, tying up with the first loose
end when you come to it. Sew the whole book in the
same way, tying on a new needleful of thread as each is
exhausted, making practically a continuous thread going
backwards and forwards inside the sections and across the
slips from end to end of the book. Each succeeding
kettle stitch should be caught up by a loop (fig. 194),

FIG. 194.

and it is well to catch together the loose threads crossing

the slips.
" When the book is sewn, the back may be covered with
thin glue and lined with a piece of leather, but as this is
a little difficult to manage neatly, and as the book will
hold together without it, for a temporary binding the
sections may be left without glue.
** For the cover cut a piece of covering vellum 1 (vellum
with a surface) large enough to cover the book and to
leave a margin of i J inches all round. Mark this with
a folder on' the underside, as shown at A, fig. 195.
Spaces (i) and (2) are the size of the sides of the book
with the surrounding " squares," 2 space (3) is the width
of the back, and space (4) the width for the overlaps on
the foredge.8 Cut the corners as shown at (5), and fold
the edges over as at B, and then fold over the overlaps

1 Forrel may be used as a cheap substitute for vellum.

2 " Squares " = " the portion of the boards projicting beyond the edges
of the book."
* " Forcdgt "= " (fore edge) the front edge of the leaves,"

348
 \ 5
V Special
Subjects

• 3 2 !

A
\
• 1 3 2 •
\
B

FIG. 195.

and back as at C. Be sure to make all folds sharp and

true.
" To avoid mistakes it is well to make a cover of stiff
349
 Special paper first, and then, when that fits exactly, to mark up
Subjects the vellum from it.
" On the inside of the vellum cover, mark faint lines
about | inch from, and parallel to, the creases of the back,
and further lines about J inch from these. Place your
book in the cover and mark the places where the slips
cross these lines. Make slits in the cover there, and lace
the slips through them (fig. 196), first putting a piece of

FIG. 196.

loose, toned paper inside the cover to prevent any marks

on the book from showing through the vellum. Then
lace pieces of silk ribbon of good quality l through the
cover and end-papers, leaving the ends long enough
to tie."
BROADSIDES, WALL INSCRIPTIONS, &C.

Set Inscriptions. — Ordinary inscriptions generally

consist of a given number of words to be set out in

1 A good, rather dark green ribbon looks well — such as that

known as " Church lace," used for the " tyers " in some of the
Kelmscott books. Very good ribbons may be obtained from a
bookbinder, at 6d. to is. 6d. a yard.

350
a given space. Careful planning may sometimes Special
be required to fit in the words suitably, or Subject*
to adapt the lettering to the space. But setting-
out (p. 258) becomes much simpler after a
little practice, and the good craftsman avoids over-
planning.
The Place of the Inscription. — The actual space
for a wall inscription is commonly suggested by an
architectural feature — a stone, a panel, or a niche
— of the wall ; but in choosing a suitable space for
a given inscription, or suitable lettering for a given
space, we must take into account —
1. The office of the inscription.
2. How it is to be read —
(a) " At a glance" or
(b) by close inspection.
3. The distance from the reader.
4. The lighting of the space.
5. The character of the surroundings.
6. Any special features.
The Size of the Letters. — The all-important ques-
tion of readableness may be settled thus : the inscrip-
tion having been planned suitably to fill the space,
one or two words are written or painted (the
exact size) on paper — smoked or otherwise col-
oured if necessary to resemble the background.
This is stuck upon the chosen part of the wall,
aud then viewed from the ordinary position of a
reader. When the inscription is high up, the thin
parts — especially the horizontals of the letters —
must be made extra thick to be seen properly from
below.
Margins. — Wide margins are only required for
comparatively small lettering which demands the close
Special attention of the reader* and generally a set inscrip-
Subjects tion looks best if the lettering be comparatively
large — covering most of the given surface, and
leaving comparatively narrow margins. The frame
or moulding, or the natural edge or environment
of the circumscribed space, is very often sufficient
"margin" (see Plate XXIV.).
The margins vary, however, according to cir-
cumstances ;especially the foot margin, which
may be very narrow if all the space is required for
the lettering (see fig. 211), or very large2 if
there is plenty of space (see fig. 210). And,
as in special pages or terminal pages of books,
so in single sheets, panels, &c., the " foot margin "
may show — as it really is— as the space which
did not require to be filled, and was therefore
"/eft over."
Number of Different Types. — While in a book of
many pages considerable diversity is allowed, it is
essential to the strength and dignity of a single
sheet or set inscription to limit the number of
types employed in it. Three or four ordinary
types will generally give sufficient variety, and if
it be necessary — as in notices and placards — that
IMPORTANT WORDS be put in special types to catch
the eye, let two — or at most three — special types
suffice, and let the remainder of the text be
as quiet and reserved as possible. "Display
Types" commonly defeat their object by being
overdone. A simple contrast is the most effective

1 E.g. all ordinary written and printed matter intended to be

read at a short distance (see pp. 103-106).
3 As much as two-thirds, or more, of the whole (pace.

352
 CAPITALS
Subjects
Special

in the head-line, large and spaced wide, are

contrasted with a mass of smaller lettering
below (see p. 330). NOTE. — Generally a
finer — though less striking — effect is obtained
by keeping large capitals rather slender — con-
trasting size rather than 'weight (p. 328).
FIG. 197.

ILLUMINATED ADDRESSES, &C.

Forms of Addresses, &c. — The writer should be

prepared to advise his " clients " on the form which
the address may take, on special features in its writ-
ing and illuminating, and on its general treatment.
Ordinarily an Illuminated Address is prepared
either as a Framed Parchment (p. 356), a Parchment
Scroll, or sheet (p. 356), or a small bound MS. (Le.
in book form : p. 35 y).1
The wording commonly consists of three parts :
the HEADING (usually the name of the addressee),
the TEXT (usually divided into paragraphs), the
SIGNATURES (or a list of names) of the subscribers.
An address is commonly in the ist or 3rd person,
and in case of any confusion of these, any slip of
the pen, or other oversight in the draft, the penman

1 The addressee's taste and convenience ought to be con-

sidered :e.g. to one the framed inscription might be an embarrass-
ment, while by another it might be preferred.
, while " Z 353
Special should, if possible, call attention to it before the
Subjects document is put into permanent form.
A very convenient and agreeable style of "ad-
dress" is a formal letter, beginning "Dear Mr.
A — B — ," and ending in the ordinary way. This
is a form which may be drawn up more simply, and
which reads more naturally, than the ordinary ist
or 3rd personal statement.
An " address " is sometimes in the form of a
resolution passed by a public or private body or
committee. For municipal or other important
corporations, such an extract from their minutes,
neatly and " clerkly " written out on parchment,
and duly attested by the signatures of their " head "
and their secretary, and without ornament save
their seal — on a dependent ribbon — or their coat-
of-arms, or badge, would not only be the most
natural, but possibly the most dignified and effective
shape which might be given to the formal presenta-
tion of their compliments.
An "address" accompanying a present is fre-
quently little more than a list of names with a brief
complimentary or explanatory statement. If pos-
sible such an inscription should be written or
engraved on the article itself, or be specially
designed to accompany it. In some cases this
is very simple : when a volume, or set of volumes,
is given, the inscription may be written in the first
volume — or on a parchment which may be inserted
— or it may be prepared in book form, in a binding
to match. A silver or other ornament sometimes
has a little drawer provided to hold a narrow scroll
of names. A portrait may have an inscription on
the frame — or even in a corner of the picture — or
be accompanied by a simple, framed parchment.
354
 Signatures. — A neatly written out list of sub- Special
scribers — especially when their number is large — Subjects
is very convenient : it does not require individual
personal appointments, nor involve risks of damage
to the address. The actual signatures of sub-
scribers, however, are of greater interest and sen-
timental value, and on such grounds are preferable
to a mere list of names.
To avoid risks (or with a view to incorporating
the signatures in the decorative scheme) the decora-
tion, gilding, &c., may sometimes be deferred until
after the signing of the address.
When the exact number and the names of the
subscribers are known beforehand, lines may be
provided for their signatures, marked with letters
in alphabetical order (the proper number of lines
under each). This method solves any difficulty in
regard to precedence in signing.
NOTE. — Ordinary signatures require about -J inch
by 3 inches space each. If there are many they
may be conveniently arranged in two or more
columns, according to the space available.

Directions for Signing l —

Edges of parchment not to project beyond desk or
table, lest they be creased.
Paper to be provided to cover the address, with
FLAPS to raise when signing.
When lines for signatures are grooved (p. 108),
signatories to face the light (this makes the lines
more evident).
Ink of one colour to be used if possible.
Clean, ORDINARY pens to be provided, and pieces
of paper for trying them on.
1 To be given to the person in charge of the address.
355
Special Framed Parchments. — The parchment may have
Subjects — beyond the top and foot margins — spare pieces
which (after the writing and illuminating is finished)
are bent over the ends, and glued to the back, of a
stout, white card, or millboard — covered with white
or light coloured paper. Or — extra margin being
allowed all round — the edges of the parchment are
cut into tags or "scallops," and folded over an
ordinary canvas stretcher, and well tacked at the
back with small brads. The wedges are carefully
adjusted till the parchment lies flat.
A parchment glued to the surface of a millboard
is more convenient for framing, but has a less
natural surface, and is not so easily managed by
the penman as the plain, flexible parchment.
Frames should be gold, black, or white ; very
plain, and generally without mounts. The parch-
ment, however, must be framed so that there is no
danger of any part of it coming into contact with
the glass (as that, being damp, would lead to cockling).
Parchment Scroll. — The foot edge of the parch-
ment may be folded over twice,1 a strong, silk
ribbon (see footnote, p. 350) is laced along through
slits in the folded part (ay fig. 198), so that the two
ends come out again at the centre — where they
may be knotted together — and are ready to tie
round the scroll when it is rolled up (b}. A rather
narrow, "upright" parchment is most convenient
(c). An "oblong" parchment may be very effec-
tively arranged in long lines of writing (^). If a
special casket or case is not provided, a neat
1 The original intention of this fold, in deeds, was to provide
for the attachment of the seal, and, perhaps, to prevent any addi-
tion being made. If the folded part be fairly wide, say, £ to i
inch, little or no foot margin need be allowed.

356
 Or
ma thebe nhkon
laced Subjects
Special

(<*.) micht \x rolled up fas 'indicated*))

*nd fain a cylvu&al 198. .
FIG. cafe «1H

japanned tin case may be obtained for a few

shillings.
A small Bound MS. is certainly the most easily
handled form in which an address may be prepared
— its convenience to the penman, the signatories,
the reader, and the addressee, is strongly in its
favour. A lengthy address, or a very large number
of names, may be contained in a comparatively
small book.
Method of Planning out Addresses, &c. — If in the
357
Special book form , the address is treated much as an ordinary
Subjects book (see Chap. VI., and Binding, p. 346). The
framed or scroll address is planned similarly to a
single sheet (p. 90). The following notes of a
working method were made during the planning
out of an address :—

(i) Decide approximately the general/bra, shape, and decora-

tive treatment of address.
-— 5
(2) Count words in TEXT (leaving out = 13°
HEADING and SIGNATURES) .
Count paragraphs ....
(Decide whether first or last paragraph
is to be in a different form or colour.)
Decide approximate width = 12 inches.
Decide approximate side margins (i\
inches each) ..... = 5 »
Hence length of ivriting-line . = 7 tt
Allow ^ inch lines, and approximately
eight words to the line.
(3) 130 words TEXT, approx. . 16 lines = 8 in. deep.
Allow extra (on account para-
graphs) . . . .1 line
(Roughly sketch out HEAD-
ING on lines each £ inch
by 7 inches.) Allow for I. '„*' „
HEADING . . .6 lines =

Allow for two SIGNATURES,

&c. . . . . .3 lines

Total depth of Writing, &t. . 26 lines = 13 inches.

Allow for Top margin . . . * ,,
Allow for Foot margin . . . 3 ,,
(NoTE. — This tvas a " scroi/," and the foot
margin ivas folded up to "within an inch of the
SIGNATURES. A plain sheet would have
required about 4 inches foot margin.)
Length of Parchment . .18 inches.
(4) Cut a paper pattern, 12 inches by 18 inches. Rule (in
pencil) Side margins (2^ inches and 2^ inches), and Top
margin (2 inches), and 26 (£ inch) lines. On this write
out the address in ordinary handwriting, using ordinary

358
 black and red (or coloured) inks : make approximately Special
eight words to the line, and -write as fast as possible; this Subjects
helps to keep the spacing uniform.
This written pattern should not take more than twenty
minutes for its entire preparation : it is intended to be
used as a check on the previous calculation (not as an
exact p/an), and as a copy, it being easier to copy from
your own, than from another's, handwriting.
If the original draft is typewritten, it is hardly necessary
to make such a pattern.

(5) Check this copy very carefully with the original to see that
the words, &c., are correct.

(6) Cut, rule, and pounce the parchment (pp. 343, 174).
(7) On some scraps of parchment, ruled with a few similar
lines, and pounced, try one or two lines of writing,
both in vermilion and black, to see that all goes
well.
This enables you to get the pens and inks into working
order, and will very likely save the carefully prepared
parchment from being spoilt.
(8) Write out the address, leaving suitable gaps for gold or
special letters.
(9) Put in special letters, decorative capitals, and any other
decoration.

(10) Check the finished address very carefully with the original
draft (see (5) above) and look it over for mistakes,
dotting i's, and putting in commas, &c., if left out. It
is important that such a formal document should be
accurate.

General Remarks. — The above simple mode of

planning out can be further simplified in custom
and practice. By the penman keeping to regular
shapes, proportions,1 and modes of treatment for regular
1 E.g. to keep to ^ inch writing-line spaces (except for extra
small addresses, or small books). This being approximately
the right space for ordinary SIGNATURES, results in further
simplification of ruling and arrangement.
359
 Special occasions, the addresses, &c., will practically " plan
Subjects themselves" (p. 101), and better workmanship is
the natural result.
Generally the simpler the form and the treatment
of an Illuminated Address, the better the effect.
The most effective decoration is the plain coloured
or gold capital, and the finest ornament is a coat-
of-arms (see " Heraldry" below ; and for general,

uwram /%
ftiHiejr
the truT^i Got ofJrms
FIG. 199.

360
simple Illumination, see Chapters VII. to XIII.). A Special
symbolical mark, such as a crest, badge, monogram, Subjects
cypher, or other device (p. 362), boldly and decora-
tively treated, may be used in place of a coat-of-arms.
There is too much " Illumination " in the con-
ventional "Address," which looks like a " piece of
decoration " with a little writing. A really reason-
able and effective Illuminated Address is a piece of
writing suitably decorated.

Heraldry. — 'A reliable handbook must be con-

sulted, for accurate " blazoning " is essential.
Early examples should be studied (see p. 387).
The diagram, fig. 199, is given as an example of
how a charge was evenly arranged on the shield
(see balanced background, p. 419). Another example
— showing a diapered chequer — is given on p. 336.
Shields in Illuminated borders may be coloured
before the border, lest the brilliant mass of colour
of the shield clash with the border. The shield, if
large, may with advantage set the tone of the whole
colour scheme.

MONOGRAMS & DEVICES

A Monogram consists of two or more letters

combined in one form, as the diphthong ^E, and

the amperzand1 \*J for oT': its legibility may

be helped by compound colouring. A Cypher
consists of linked or interlaced letters, as

i In the common form Ot, the letters \^ C (see Plate

VI.) are now barely traceable.
 Special and may be repeated and reversed if desired (see
Subjects fig. 200).

3C
°°
and. reversed.
C.

ice used by Charles t/ie (Jneaf:

KAROLVS-

iirur this
Sort of Cyrtiars,
ietters may te vm#en cm a
piece o-f paper,
that tn£ tetter? which
m>er& is -foldad,$o
ty^tyhite the uU< is still
FIG. 200.

Monograms and cyphers may be very decora-

tively employed as ornaments, and may be used to
mark a man's goods, or as a signature on his work :
something easily recognised — either very legible or
characteristic — is therefore desirable. The two
modes may be combined, and there is no limit to

362
the effective devices and ornaments which may be Special
composed of letters. Simple and straightforward Subjects
devices, however, are generally preferable to very
ornate or intricate designs.
Chronograms. — A chronogram consists of a word
or words in which the numerical letters indicate a
date. The following is from a very fine memorial
inscription at Rye (see fig. 207) :—
loannes Threel^e MfDlo L«/« setatls fl^ore obllt.

It expresses the date I+L+M+D+I+L+I+L+I+I

(or 1 + 50+1000+500+1 + 50+1 + 50+1+!) = 1655.
As every letter having a numerical value (i.e. C, D,
I, (J), L, M, (U), V, (W), X) may be counted, a
proper chronogram is not easily composed.
The letter-craftsman will discover many ways
of " playing " with letters, and of expressing — or
concealing — names and numbers in other words,
and he may take every liberty he chooses in his
private pleasure, provided it does not clash with
public convenience.
TITLE PAGES

If large capitals be used, the Name of the Book,

the Author, &c,, above ; the Name of the Publisher,
the Date, <Sv., below,1 may together fill the page.
Ordinary capitals (as used in the text) leave a space
in the centre (see Title Page of this book) : often
pleasantly filled by a small woodcut — a symbolical
device, monogram, or printer's mark.
Generally, the fewer and simpler the types, the
better : though contrasts of size, form, or colour
1 Other particulars may be put in the colophon (p. 142).
363
Special see p. 327) — such as printing one or two words in
Subjects large CAPITALS, or in HBlatfe ILttttt (p. 331),
or part in red — may sometimes be used with good
effect. When the types are rather varied, single
or double framing lines (called " rules ") placed
round the page have the effect of binding the
whole together. The page may also be divided
into parts by transverse "rules" — these further
solidify it. Black rules are preferable to red (p.
144) : if they are double, the outer line may be
thicker than the inner.1
Relation of Title Pages, <SY., to the Text. — Gene-
rally the practical part of the book is to be con-
sidered and settled before the ornamental and the
decorated Title page conforms to the treatment of
the text pages, and should be clearly related to
them by the character of its letters or its orna-
ments. Its margins (especially the top margin)
should be approximately the same as those of the
text pages, though framing borders may occupy
part of, or nearly all, the marginal space. Without
doubt the artless, ordinarily printed title page is
preferable
that have to thoseor specially
little designed
no relation to the" title
rest pages
of the"
book.
Wood Engraving (see pp. 365, 371). — Of all the
" processes," wood engraving agrees best with
printing. The splendid effect of Title and Initial
pages engraved in wood may be seen in the books
of the Kelmscott Press. In early printing, wood-
cut ornaments or borders were commonly used to

1 The use of "rules," though quite legitimate, will be found

misleading if it be depended on to "doctor" and "pull to-
gether "any weak arrangement of lettering.
364
decorate the printed title page. An example of Special
this combined method — of which unfortunately Subjects
the greater part of the borders have to be left out
— is shown in fig. 201 (from a i6th century book).1
Initial Pages and Openings. — The claim of these
to decorative treatment should be considered (p.
128). We generally look at the outside of a book
for the title — which should be clearly stamped on
the cover. But inside the book we look rather
for its actual beginning than for its name, and,
while something in the nature of the " sub-title "
might be used, it would be quite reasonable to
revive the ancient fashion — especially in the case
of MS. Books — of making the actual beginning
the most decorative part of the book. Or a very
fine effect may be obtained by the decoration of
the entire initial opening — the title on the verso
(left page), the beginning of the first chapter on
the recto (right page).

LETTERING FOR REPRODUCTION

Where it is possible, it is generally best to make

use of ordinary typography. A good fount of type
and a natural setting-up or arrangement of it, are
more effective than many special designs (see pp.
364, 267).
Wood and Metal Engraving. — If special forms or
arrangements of letters are required, for which type
is lacking or unsuited, they are best cut in wood or

1 More, Sir Thomas : " Utopia, tt Mori et Eratmi Epigrammata " :

410, Froben, Basle, 1518. Woodcut borders and Title p'ages
by Holbein. (The reproduction is from the title page to the
Epigrams.) NOTE. — The exceptionally fine type of capitals (see
p. 373) here shown is used throughout the book for headings, &c.

365
 Special
Subjects

EPIGRAM-
M ATA CLA
RISSIMI DI
SERTISSIMI-
QVE VIRI
THOMAE
MORI BRI-
TANNI, PLERACLVE E GRAE
CIS VERSA. i

FIG. 201 (see footnote, p. 365)

metal. The engraver leaves the mark of his tool Special
and hand upon, and so gives character to, such Subjects
lettering ; while, if he has some knowledge of
letters, he may give fresh beauty to their forms.
The Zincotype Process reproduces, either in fac-
simile or on a reduced scale, the "design" made
by the craftsman in " black and white." This it
does more or less exactly according to the pains
taken by the zincographer, the quality of the paper
employed, &c. The literalness and facility of this
process, however, seem to have had a prejudicial
effect on the work of the designer. Unless he con-
scientiously determines that his design shall stand
without " touching-up," the knowledge that he
may blot out or trim a faulty line with white, that
he may fill out or finish a deficient stroke with
black, that he may work large and zincograph small,
is apt to result in carelessness combined with over-
finishing — or a sort of perfection without character.
If zincography be used, a strong, rather type-
like letter, or a built-up letter — arranged to give a
general effect of richness of mass, would appear
more natural than the doubtful " reproduction " of
delicate writing or fine pen-lettering.1
Etching. — Calligraphy might be reproduced with
very fine effect, retaining its natural delicacy and
on a plane surface, if a process of etching writing
in facsimile were possible.
PRINTING
The general question of fine printing and its
relation to calligraphy can only be briefly referred
1 Doubtful, because, unless unusual care be taken, its delicate
quality may be lost in the process, and also because of the
type-like impress of the block on the paper.
367
Special to here. A proper study of the art of typography
Subjects necessitates practice with a printing press, and prob-
ably the help of a trained assistant.
To would-be printers, printers, and all interested
in typography, the easily acquired art of writing
may be commended as a practical introduction to
a better knowledge of letter forms and their decora-
tive possibilities*
In this connection I have quoted in the preface
(p. 13) some remarks on Calligraphy by Mr.
Cobden-Sanderson, who, again, referring to typog-
raphy, says — *
" The passage from the Written Book to the Printed
Book was sudden and complete. Nor is it wonderful that
the earliest productions of the printing press are the most
beautiful, and that the history of its subsequent career is
but the history of its decadence. The Printer carried on
into Type the tradition of the Calligrapher and of the
Calligrapher at his best. As this tradition died out in
the distance, the craft of the Printer declined. It is the
function of the Calligrapher to revive and restore the
craft of the Printer to its original purity of intention and
accomplishment. The Printer must at the same time be
a Calligrapher, or in touch with him, and there must be
in association with the Printing Press a Scriptorium where
beautiful writing may be practised and the art of letter-
designing kept alive. And there is this further evidence
of the dependence of printing upon writing : the great
revival in printing which is taking place under our own
eyes, is the work of a Printer who before he was a Printer
was a Calligrapher and an Illuminator, WILLIAM
MORRIS.
" The whole duty of Typography, as of Calligraphy,
is to communicate to the imagination, without loss by the

1 " Ecce Mundut (The Book Beautiful)," 1902.

368
way, the thought or image intended to be communicated Special
by the Author. And the whole duty of beautiful typog- Subjects
raphy is not to substitute for the beauty or interest of the
thing thought and intended to be conveyed by the symbol,
a beauty or interest of its own, but, on the one hand, to
win access for that communication by the clearness and
beauty of the vehicle, and on the other hand, to take
advantage of every pause or stage in that communication
to interpose some characteristic and restful beauty in its
own art."
Early Printing was in some points inferior in
technical excellence to the best modern typography.
But the best early printers used finer founts of
type and better proportions in the arrangement
and spacing of their printed pages ; and it is now
generally agreed that early printed books are the
most beautiful. It would repay a modern printer
to endeavour to find out the real grounds for this
opinion, the underlying principles of the early work,
and, where possible, to put them into practice.
Freedom. — The treatment or " planning " of early
printing — and generally of all pieces of lettering
which are most pleasing — is strongly marked by
freedom. This freedom of former times is fre-
quently referred to now as " spontaneity " — some-
times itwould seem to be implied that there was
a lawless irresponsibility in the early craftsman,
incompatible with modern conditions. True spon-
taneity, however, seems to, come from working by
rule^ but not being bound by it.

135For
to example, the old
141 are taken Herbal many
contains from woodcuts
which 'figs.
of
plants, &c., devoting a complete page to each.
When a long explanation of a cut is required,
a smaller type is «W(comp. figs. 135 & 138) ; when
2 A 369
Special the explanation is very short, */ does not fill the page.
Subjects This is a free and natural treatment of the greatest
convenience to the reader, for illustration and text
are always in juxtaposition. And though the size
of the type and the amount of the text are varied,
yet the uniform top margins, and the uniform
treatment and arrangement of the woodcuts, har-
monise the pages, and give to the whole book an
agreeable effect of freedom combined with method.
An old way of treating a text and its commen-
tary is indicated by the diagram (fig. 202). The

sh&wuur arrangement of J><ug& (about ^ fut ).

• Inner a>tumns of Commentary narrow (Text cols, equal)
FIG. 202.

text is printed in large type, the commentary, in

smaller type, surrounds it ; such portion of the
text being printed on each page as will allow suffi-
cient surrounding space for the accompanying com-

37°
mentary on that portion. The proportions and Special
treatment of every page are uniform (note, Subjects
particularly, the uniformity of the upper parts of
the pages, five lines of commentary being allowed
to enclose the text, or bound it above, on every
page) with the exception that the height of the
text-column varies — one page having as few as
three lines of text to the column, another having
fifty-nine lines. This free treatment of the text
gives a charming variety to the pages.
Poetry. — A broader and freer treatment is desir-
able in the printing of poetry. The original lines
and the arrangement of the verses should be more
generally preserved. And though the opening
lines of a poem may sometimes be magnified by
printing them in capitals — which necessitate their
division — to sacrifice the naturally varying line to
the " even page " is questionable, and to destroy
the form of a poem in order to compress it is a
" typographical impertinence " (see p. 95).

ON OF PRINT *
DECO
MU CHTIMAY
RA BE DONE BY
ARRANGING IMPORTANT
OR TBYINTH"IT
TEX E S OC N"SION
OWCA ITALS
CAPAL USE ;
OF EXTRA LARGE CAPITALS.
For special letters or ornaments, woodcuts are
best (see p. 364). The early printers generally
had little, simple blocks of ornamental devices
which might be used separately, or be built up
into a frame border for a whole page — a simple
method and effective, if used reasonably.
Special The judicious use of colour, especially of red
Subjects (see pp. 127, 144), is very effective. The extra
printings required for additional colours may make
it worth while (in the case of limited editions) to
put in simple initials, paragraph marks, notes, &c.,
by hand (see pp. 194, 113). The earliest printed
books, being modelled on the MS. books, employed
such rubrication freely, in spaces specially left in the
text or in the margins. There are still great possi-
bilities inthe hand decoration of printed books.

The following note on printing, reproduced here

by the permission of Mr. Emery Walker, appeared
in the Introductory Notes of the Catalogue of the
first exhibition of The Arts and Crafts Exhibition
Society, in 1888.

"PRINTING

" Printing, in the only sense with which we are at

present concerned, differs from most if not from all the
arts and crafts represented in the Exhibition in being
comparatively modern. For although the Chinese took
impressions from wood blocks engraved in relief for cen-
turies before the wood- cutters of the Netherlands, by a
similar process, produced the block books, which were
the immediate predecessors of the true printed book, the
invention of movable metal letters in the middle of the
fifteenth century may justly be considered as the inven-
tion of the art of printing. And it is worth mention in
passing that, as an example of fine typography, the earliest
dated [l] book, the Gutenberg Bible of 1455, has never

1 [// ivas dated 1456 by a rubricator, not by the Printer. — E.W.~\

372
been surpassed. Printing, then, for our purpose, may be Special
considered as the art of making books by means of movable Subjects
types. Now, as all books not primarily intended as
picture-books consist principally of types composed to
form letterpress, it is of the first importance that the letter
used should be fine in form ; especially, as no more time
is occupied, or cost incurred, in casting, setting, or print-
ing beautiful letters, than in the same operations with ugly
ones. So we find the fifteenth and early sixteenth
century printers, who were generally their own type-
founders, gave great attention to the forms of their types.
The designers of the letters used in the earliest books were
probably the scribes whose manuscripts the fifteenth-cen-
tury printed books so much resemble. Aldus of Venice
employed Francesco Francia of Bologna, goldsmith and
painter, to cut the punches for his celebrated italic letter.
Froben, the great Basle printer, got Holbein to design
ornaments for his press, and it is not unreasonable to
suppose that the painter 'may have drawn the models for
the noble Roman types we find in Froben's books. With
the decadence in handwriting which became marked in
the sixteenth century, a corresponding change took place
in the types; the designers, no longer having beautiful
writing as a model and reference, introduced variations
arbitrarily. The types of the Elzevirs are regular and
neat, and in this respect modern, but they altogether lack
the spirit and originality that distinguish the early Roman
founts of Italy and Germany : Gothic characteristics
inherited from their mediaeval predecessors. In the
seventeenth century type-founding began to be carried
on as a craft apart from that of the printer, and although
in this and the succeeding century many attempts were
made to improve the " face " (as the printing surface of
type is called), such examples as a rule reflect only too
clearly the growing debasement of the crafts of design.
Notable among these attempts were the founts cut by
William Caslon, who started in business in London as a
letter-founder in 1720, taking for his models the Elzevir
373
Special types. From this time until the end of the century he
Subjects and his successors turned out many founts relatively
admirable. But at the end of the eighteenth century
a revolution was made, and the founders entirely
abandoned the traditional forms of their pre-
decessors, and evolved the tasteless letters with
which nearly all the books published during the
first sixty years of the present century are printed,
and which are still almost universally used for
newspapers and for Government publications. Par-
ticularly objectionable forms are in everyday use in
all continental countries requiring Roman letter.
(The last two sentences are set in a type of this character. )
"In 1844 the Chiswick Press printed for Messrs.
Longmans ' The Diary of Lady Willoughby,' and re-
vived for this purpose one of Caslon's founts. This was
an important step in the right direction, and its success
induced Messrs. Miller & Richard of Edinburgh to en-
grave a series of * old style J founts, with one of which
this catalogue is printed. Most other type-founders now
cast similar type, and without doubt if their customers,
the printers, demanded it, they would expend some of
the energy and talent which now goes in cutting Japanese-
American and sham seventeenth -century monstrosities in
endeavouring to produce once more the restrained and
beautiful forms of the early printers, until the day when
the current handwriting may be elegant enough to be
again used as a model for the type-punch engraver.
" Next in importance to the type are the ornaments,
initial letters, and other decorations which can be printed
along with it. These, it is obvious, should always be
designed and engraved so as to harmonise with the printed
page regarded as a whole. Hence, illustrations drawn
only with reference to purely pictorial effects are entirely
out of place in a book, that is, if we desire seriously to
make it beautiful.
EMERY WALKER."
374
 INSCRIPTIONS ON METAL, STONE, WOOD, &C. Special
Subjects
As the material naturally modifies the shapes of
the letters cut or formed on its surface, and as the
object bearing the inscription affects their arrange-
ment, itis essential that the inscription cutter make
himself familiar with various stones, metals, woods,
&c., with the various chisels and gravers which are
properly employed on them, and with fine inscrip-
tions or examples of good pieces of lettering (see
pp. 388, 237).
A knowledge of penmanship will be found
useful, and the pen may be appealed to to decide
questions of abstract form in regard to letters
which have come from pen forms (e.g. Roman
Small-Letters, Italics, &c.). And in this connec-
tion it may be noted again that the " slanted-pen
forms" (pp. 305, 43) are generally the most
practical.
Engraving on Metal. — Letters incised in metal
may most nearly approach pen forms, as the fine
grain of the metal and the comparatively small
scale of the work allow of fine " thin strokes."
The engraver, however, while following generally
the "thicks" and "thins" of the penman, allows
the metal and the tool and, to a large extent, his
own hand, to decide and characterise the precise
forms and their proportions.
Inscriptions in Stone (see Chap. XVII., Plates
I., II., and XXIV., and pp. 292, 36). — The grain
of stone does not generally allow of very fine thin
strokes, and the " thicks " and " thins " therefore
tend to differ much less than in pen-work. Their
origin, moreover, is much less easily traced to the
tool — i.e. the chisel — and the difference was less in the

375
Special early inscriptions (see Plate II.) than we are now
Subjects accustomed to (see Plate XXIV.) : perhaps it may
be explained as a fashion set by penmanship (see
p. 241).
Inscriptions on Wood are frequently in relief (see
raised letters, p. 377), matching the carved orna-
ment. Incised letters may be painted or gilded to
make them show more clearly.
Sign-Meriting and Brush-Work. — Inscriptions, such
as shop signs, notices, &c., painted on wood or
stone, require — besides a practical knowledge of
materials — a considerable facility with the brush
or " pencil." Directness and freedom of work-
manship are most desirable.1
A suitable brush will make letters closely re-
sembling pen letters. But the pen automatically
makes letters with a uniform precision, which it
is neither desirable nor possible for the brush to
imitate : and greater skill is required to control
the brush, which in the hand of a good " Writer "
will be permitted to give its own distinct
character to the lettering (see also p. 292, and
fig. 164).
The brush is properly used for temporary in-
scriptions, especially on the surface of painted wood
or stone, but, for more important work, incising or
carving (painted if desired) are to be preferred as

1 This is recognised in the Sign-writing profession, where,

I understand, an applicant for work is sometimes given a black-
board or a piece of American cloth, on which he writes out a
short inscription in " sharp white." It is not necessary to
watch the writer ; good, direct workmanship shows itself, and
also every hesitating stroke or fault, every patch or <( touching-
up " or " going over," is made evident.

376
being more permanent l and preserving the original Special
form 2 of the lettering. Subjects
OF INSCRIPTIONS GENERALLY

(See a ho Chapter XIV. and pp. 350-353)

Alphabets. — For practical purposes the best letters
are the Roman Capitals^ Roman Small-Lettersy and
Italics. These are susceptible of very decorative
treatment without loss of legibility. And there
are many varieties of the pure Roman Capital
(see figs. 203 - 207), besides the " Gothicised "
Roman and the simple " Gothic " Capitals, which
are all essentially readable.
Different Sizes of Capitals in inscriptions in wood,
stone, metal, &c., are generally kept approximately
equal in " weight " (see p. 328). NOTE. — A down-
ward decrease in height of the letters is common
in early inscriptions (p. 410).
Incising is generally the most simple, and there-
fore the most natural, method for making an
ordinary inscription. The letters should be large
rather than small, and be deeply cut. Note, how-
ever, an incised stamp or die produces an impression
in relief on clay, &c. This may be seen in the
lettering on Roman pottery.
Raised Letters. — From the earliest times letters
in relief (or litter a; prominentes] have been used for
special purposes. They are generally rather more
legible than the incised letters, and the difference
between " thicks " and " thins " tends to disappear.
1 Brush lettering may be used very effectively on Tiles and
China, &c. (see p. 339), when it is of course rendered per-
manent bybaking.
2 The original form of a painted inscription (not carved)
is inevitably spoilt by re-painting.
377
 t^l

o «^

3
io
t=-j

^
^5

*-i
e=s p4 o
u Vn-4

ao ^O
Q 2
VM
ei-4
o
v^ 45
^

S5^:|
» LX-'^ ~" <
S
1 ^ p^ U^ g ^
>Xi

{— .
I
?
u
&

379
8°
2
 o

383
Special It is quite possible to make a beautiful and char-
Subjects acteristic alphabet of equal-stroke letters, on the
lines of the so-called " Block Letter " but properly
proportioned and finished (such letters may be
Raised^ or Incised or Painted : see incised form, p. 391).
Raised letters, if exposed to wear or damage, may
be protected by being on a sunk panel or having a
raised frame or ornament. The background also
may be left in raised strips flush with the letters,
between the lines of the inscription.
Punctuation. — In early inscriptions the words
were separated by points ; in the more ancient
they are square shaped H, I > •••> ni the
more elaborate, triangular ^ J^ 4, some-
times with curved-in sides W (Plate I.). These

developed later into the ivy leaf £V Vx or

" hederce distinguentes." Such points may be used
occasionally in modern work with fine effect, but
should seldom be used between every word, unless
the words are necessarily so close that distinguishing
marks are required.
Phrasing and Arrangement. — An inscription may
be arranged in sentences or phrases, and occasionally,
by the use of larger letters, greater prominence is
given to a word or phrase (see figs. 197, 204, 21 1).
This method is particularly adapted to the nature
of a set inscription (p. 264), and may help both its
readableness and its appearance, but it must be
borne in mind that to lay stress on any one state-
ment or word may pervert its meaning or attract
too much attention to it.
Any confusion of sense, or accidental word
(p. 259) or phrase, appearing in the setting-out is

384 '
avoided, if possible, by a slight rearrangement of Special
the part, or, if necessary, of the whole inscription. Subjects
Great care is taken that the spelling is accurate : a
pocket dictionary should be carried.
Reading is further facilitated by avoiding, where
possible, the dividing of words at the ends of lines.
It may be observed that in the more ancient in-
scriptions words were generally kept entire.
Exercises in letter form and arrangement, more
profitable than mere paper " designing," might be
devised by the craftsman. Inscriptions might be
cut — on a small scale — in gesso or chalk, or in-
scriptions might be variously spaced and arranged
on a properly coloured surface — such as a drawing-
board covered with light or dark cloth — in letters
cut out of sheet-lead or card.

BIBLIOGRAPHY, &C.

The few books and pamphlets given below are

generally, of recent date, practical, and inexpensive.
The prices quoted are, I believe, those at which
the books are generally sold (not necessarily their
published prices). They are all illustrated, except
Nos. *9, 10, n, and 19.
WRITING, &c. (See also Nos. 8, 12, 14, 19,
28, 29, and 31.)
1. The Story of the Alphabet : Edward Clodd,
1900. 9d.
2. Greek and Latin Palaeography : Edward
Maunde Thompson. 35. 9d. (The ex-
tracts in these pp. 36, 41, 416, &c., are
from the 2nd edition, 1894.)
3. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No.
2726, Feb. 17, 1905 ; Papers on Calli-
2B 385
Special graphy and Illumination : Edward Johnston
Subjects and Graily Hewitt. 6d.
4. Fac-similes de Manuscrits Grecs, Latins et
Francais du Ve au XIVe Siecle exposes
dans la Galerie Mazarine : Bibliotheque
Nationale Departement des Manuscrits. 5s.
5. " A Guide to the Manuscripts" in the British
Museum, 1906 (30 plates). 6d.
6. Bible Illustrations: Oxford University Press^
1896. About 2s.
ILLUMINATION, &c. (See also Nos. 3, 4, 5,
12, 14, 29, and 31.)
7. Illuminated Letters and Borders : John W.
Bradley, 1901 (19 plates). (Price at South
Kensington Museum) is. 8d.
8. English Illuminated Manuscripts : Sir E.
M. Thompson, 1895. (Now out of print.)
*(). The Journal of the Society of Arts, No.
2368, April 8, 1898 ; a Paper on English
Art in Illuminated Manuscripts : Sir E.
M. Thompson. 6d.
*io. The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini
(a contemporary practical treatise on 14th-
century Italian painting) : Translated by
Christiana J. Herringham, 1899. 6s.
*n. Some Hints on Pattern Designing: (lecture,
1881), William Morris, 1899. 2s. 6d.
(11^7. "Books for the Bairns. — No. 50," contains
BOOKS —55 MANUSCRIPT
reproductions of Bewick"1*
& Birds, id.)
PRINTING.
(See also Nos. 2 to 9, and 29 and 31.)
12. Books in Manuscript: Falconer Madan, 1893.
6s. ( Frontispiece draivnfrom this by permission. )
13. The Story of Books: Gertrude Burford
Rawlings, 1901. gd.
 14- The Old Service - Books of the English Special
Church : Christopher Wordsworth and Subjects
Henry Littlehales, 1904. 75. 6d.
15. Early Illustrated Books: Alfred W. Pollard,
1893. 6s.
1 6. Facsimiles [in colour] from Early Printed
Books in the British Museum, 1 897. 75. 6d.
17. A Guide to the Exhibition in the King's
Library (illustrating the History of Print-
ing, Music Printing, and Bookbinding) :
British Museum, 1901 (36 illustrations). 6d.
1 8. "Arts and Crafts Essays by Members of
the Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society"
— Printing : William Morris and Emery
Walker — (ist pub. 1893), l%99- 2S- od-
*I9- "Ecce Mundus," containing The Book Beauti-
ful :T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, 1 902. 2s. 6d.
20. Printing (a technological handbook) : Charles
Thomas Jacobi, 1898. 35. 9d.
21. Bookbinding and the Care of Books (The
Artistic Crafts Series of Technical Hand-
books}^ 1901 : Douglas Cockerell. 55.
22. A Note on Bookbinding : Douglas Cockerell,
1904. id.
HERALDRY, SYMBOLISM, 6v. (See also
Nos. i, 12, 15, 29, and 31.)
23. The Journal of the Society of Arts, No.
2309, Feb. 19, 1897 ; A Paper on The
Artistic Treatment of Heraldry : by W.
H. St. John Hope. 6d.
24. English Heraldry: Charles Boutell, 1867.
6th ed. 1899, about 35. 9d.
25. The Stall Plates of the Knights of the Garter,
1348-1485 : W. H. St. John Ho
(90 coloured plates, Imp. 8vo). About
387
Special 26. Didron's Christian Iconography (or the
Subjects History of Christian Art in the Middle
Ages) : 2 vols. 35. gd. (each).
LETTERING,
to 20.)
&c. (See also Nos. i to 8, and 12

27. Lettering in Ornament : Lewis F. Day,

1902. 5s.
28. Alphabets : Edward F. Strange (ist ed. 1895).
4th ed., 35. 9d.
29. The Pa Ideographical Society's Publications (out
of print), containing hundreds of fac-
similes (chiefly of MSS.), are of great
interest. They may of course be seen
in the British Museum Library. The
New Pa Ideographical Society publishes a
selection of facsimiles annually.
30. Hiibner's
Latinae Exempla
a CaesarisScripturae
dictatorsEpigraphicae
morte ad
aetatem Justiniani (Berlin, 1885, price 465.)
contains many fine outline drawings of
ancient Roman inscriptions (see figs.
203-5). It is kept with the books of
reference in the Reading Room at the
British Museum.
31. Photographs of fine pieces of lettering may
be obtained at the Book Stall in South
Kensington Museum (see footnote, p. 409).
Original MSS. or Inscriptions — from which we
can learn much more than from photographs or
drawings — may be found in most parts of the
country, and in London especially in the British
Museum, South Kensington Museum (see p. 391),
the Record Office (Rolls Chapel, see p. n), and
Westminster Abbey (MSS. in the Chapter-House).

388
 APPENDIX B
CHAPTER XVII
INSCRIPTIONS IN STONE

(By A. E. R. Gill)
Treatment & Arrangement — The Three Alphabets —
Size & Spacing — The Material — Setting Out —
Tools — A Right Use of the Chisel — Incised
Letters & Letters in Relief — The Sections of
Letters — Working in situ.
TREATMENT & ARRANGEMENT

Treatment. — Inscriptions are carved in stone for Inscriptions

many uses : for Foundation Stones and Public In- in Stone
scriptions, for Tombstones and Memorial Inscrip-
tions, for Mottos and Texts, for Names and Advertise-
ments, and each subject suggests its own treatment.
Names and Advertisements should be easily read,
and usually entirely unornamental. The Treat-
ment of Texts, Memorial Inscriptions, Foundation
Stones, &c., may, according to the needs of the
case or the opportunities of the carver, be either
simple or elaborate.
Colour and Gold may be used both for the beauty
of them and, in places where there is little light, to
increase legibility.
Arrangement. — There are two methods of arrang-
ing Inscriptions: the "Massed" and the " Sym- 389
Inscriptions metrical" In the former the lines are very close
in Stone together, and approximately equal in length, and
form a mass. Absolute equality is quite unneces-
sary. Where the lines are very long it is easy to
make them equal ; but with lines of few words
it is very difficult, besides being derogatory to the
appearance of the Inscription. In the " Symmetri-
cal" Inscription the length of the lines may vary
considerably, and each line (often comprising a
distinct phrase or statement) is placed in the centre
of the Inscription space.
Short Inscriptions, such as those usually on Tomb-
stones or Foundation Stones, may well be arranged
in the "Symmetrical" way, but long Inscriptions
are better arranged in the "Massed" way, though,
sometimes, the two methods may be combined in
the same Inscription.

THE THREE ALPHABETS

The Roman Alphabet, the alphabet chiefly in use

to-day, reached its highest development in Inscrip-
tions incised in stone (see Plate I.), and it became
absolutely suited to the material.
Besides ROMAN CAPITALS, it is necessary
that the letter-cutter should know how to carve
Roman small-letters l (or " Lower case ") and Italics,
either of which may be more suitable than Capitals
for some Inscriptions.
Where great magnificence combined with great
legibility2 is required, use large Roman Capitals,
1 With which we may include Arabic numerals.
2 It should be clearly understood that legibility by no means
excludes either beauty or ornament. The ugly form of " Block "
letter so much in use is no more legible than the beautiful Roman
lettering on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.).

390
Incised or in Relief, with plenty of space between Inscriptions
the letters and the lines. in Stone
Where great legibility but less magnificence is
required, use " Roman Small-Letters " or " Italics,"
or Roman Capitals, either small, or close together,
or both.
All three Alphabets may be used together, as, for
instance, on a Tombstone, one might carve the
Name in Capitals and the rest of the Inscription in
Small-Letters, using Italics for difference.
Beauty of Form may safely be left to a right use
of the chisel, combined with a well-advised study
of the best examples of Inscriptions : such as that
on the Trajan Column (see Plates I., II.) and
other Roman Inscriptions in the South Kensington
and British Museums, for Roman CAPITALS ;
and sixteenth and seventeenth century tombstones,
for Roman small-letters and Italics.1 If the simple

A with

FIG. 209.

1 Roman small-letters and Italics,

letters, are still better understood if the being
carver originally
knows how pento
use a pen, or, at least, has studied good examples of manuscripts
in which those letters are used.
Inscriptions elementary form of the letter be cut firmly and
in Stone directly, it will be found that the chisel will suggest
how that form may be made beautiful. This may
be shown, for example, by an attempt to carve a
quite simple Incised letter with no Serifs and with
all the strokes equally thick. In making the ends
of the strokes nice and clean it will be found that
there is a tendency to spread them into Serifs, and
the letter is at once, in some sort, beautified (see
fig. 209).

SIZE & SPACING

Drawing out. — Take paper and pencil, or what

you will, and write out the words of the Inscription
in Capitals, or small-letters (or both), without any
regard to scale or the shape of the space the Inscrip-
tion is to go in. The carver will then see easily
of what letters and words his Inscription is com-
posed. Next draw the shape of the Inscription
space (say to i inch or ij inch scale), and in that
space set out the Inscription, either "Massed" or
" Symmetrical"
should be neither as hasscribbled
been decided. The drawingA
nor elaborated.
good plan is to cut the lead of the pencil to a
chisel shape. The natural thicks and thins of the
letters (see p. 44) may then be produced easily
and quickly. The carver will thus be able, after
a little experience, to calculate quite easily what
size he will be able to carve his letters, what space
he will be able to leave between the lines, and
what margins he can afford.1
1 Some advice from the letter-cutter might be useful to the
client as to the number of "words and the space they -will occupy in
cases where it is possible to adapt the one to the other.

392
 The Size of Lettering depends on where it is to Inscriptions
go (i.e. outdoors or indoors, far away or near), the in Stone
material to be used, and the space at the carver's
disposal.
Out of Doors letters should not, as a rule, be less
than i J inch high, more if possible.1
Indoors smaller lettering may be carved, but even
then i inch is quite small enough, and that only
in marble, slate, or the finest stones.
In such stones as Ancaster or Ham-Hill it is not
possible to carve good letters less than 3 inches high.
More than one size of letter may be used in the
same Inscription to give emphasis to certain words,
thus : on a Foundation Stone the Date (see fig. 210),

THISSTONE WAS LAID

ON THE 4-th OF JULY

FIG. 210.

1 Small lettering is less convenient to read out of doors, and

is apt to get filled with dirt or moss.
393
Inscriptions and on a Tombstone the Name (see fig. 211), may
in Stone be made larger than the rest.

To the dor memor of

aughter of John &

dSeth Smith of~^
this porish.Shedied
August i4* ipoi, Agedid
FIG. 211.

Spacing. — Proper spacing is essential to a good

Inscription. As a general rule, Roman letters
should not be crowded together. Space should
be left between each, varying according to the
letters — a narrower space between two O's, for
example, and, generally, a wider space between two
straight letters. The lines may be about the height
of the lettering apart (see Plate I.) or pretty close
together (see Plate XXIV.).
Margins. — If the Inscription is to be carved in a
panel, the surrounding mouldings take the place of
margins, and the lettering may fill the panel (see
fig. 21 1). If any space be left, let it come, as it
394
naturally will, at the bottom. If the lettering is Inscriptions
in Stone
not to be in a panel, the margins depend primarily
on what the carver can afford, and where the In-
scription isto go. Every case must be treated on
its own merits, but as a general rule one may say
that the bottom margin should be the widest and
the top margin the narrowest.

THE MATERIAL

The best quality a stone can have, from a letter-

cutter's point of view, is fineness or closeness of
texture, combined with freedom from holes and
flints or occasional shells, and the letter - cutter
will do well to choose the stone himself, if possible,
having regard to this quality.
The following is a list of a few of the best stones
for outdoor and indoor use :—
Outdoors or Indoors. Indoors only.

Portland. — Especially good for ( Very fine and deli-

lettering on account of its \ cate work ma7 be
fineness and its excellent / done in these.
weathering qualities, for it Bath. — A cheap stone, and
not only hardens on the easily carved ; but unsuit-
surface, but also becomes able for small lettering.
quite white if exposed to Marbles and Alabasters. — Ex-
windand rain, thus showing cellent for Inscriptions in-
very clearly any differences doors, but much colour or
of light and shade.
Fine and hard : lettering. tends to confuse
veining

good weather-
Hoptonwood ing qualities.
Slate Great delicacy
mayed inbethese.
attain-

g='}^."""' 395
Inscriptions SETTING OUT
in Stone r^,, , . , r ,
1 he stone being ready for the setting out, i.e.
smoothed and cleaned, lines are ruled on it for the
lines of lettering and margins with a pencil or point.
If the Inscription is to be arranged " Symmetrically"
a centre line is ruled from top to bottom.
The carver should rule and set out one line and
carve that before ruling another, as pencil marks are
liable to be rubbed off by the hand in carving.1
In "Setting Out" the spacing of the letters
is thought of rather than their forms. And though
the beginner may find careful drawing helpful, the
forms which may best be produced with the chisel
are found only by practice and experience (p. 399).
TOOLS
The chisels needed for simple work are flat chisels
of the following sizes :—
TY inch, J inch, f inch, \ inch, i inch.
The shanks should be about 7 inches long.
It will he found useful to keep a few " Bull-
nosed" chisels (see 7, fig. 212) for use in cutting
curves, and a few "skewed" chisels (8, fig. 212) for
use in cutting the background of Raised letters, as
a chisel of that shape is more easily used in a
corner.
The chisels are either Hammer-headed or
Mallet-headed^ or they may have wooden handles
1 Whenever it is possible the carver should not be bound
to follow a drawing strictly, but should do his work in the
straightforward manner described above. Unfortunately he
is often obliged to set out the whole Inscription exactly before
carving it, and in such a case it is usual to carve the bottom
line of letters first and to work upwards, cutting the first line
last.

396
(see fig. 212, and pp. 401-2). The Hammer-headed Inscriptions
are the most used, and a good number should be in Stone

t
2, Section of No. I
3 Straight
Hammer- headed
4 Enlarged section

5 SecoMi of Hamm er-

head enlarged to

FIG. 212.
Bull
78* Sk ' ed'
edos
ew-n

procured. The best are made with cupped ends, to

prevent them from slipping on the hammer (see 5,
fig. 212).
397
Inscriptions Temper and Sharpness. — Above all things the
in Stone chisels must be of the right temper, and sharp.1

Dunrmy

Hammer
FIG. 213.

They may be tempered by a smith or tool-maker —

if the craftsman can do it for himself, so much the
1 Really sharp, i.e. sharp enough to cut a piece of paper
without tearing it.

398
better. They are sharpened on a piece of Grit-stone Inscriptions
(hard York stone, for instance) with water. The in Stone
Temper of a chisel may be seen by the colour (blue
shows a soft or low-temper, straw colour a hard or
high temper), and felt by the way it rubs on the Grit-
stone (ahard tool will slide easily over the stone,
while a soft one will seem to stick or cling).1
Mallets. — A wooden mallet or Me II, a Zinc
mallet or Dummy, and an iron or steel hammer are
required (fig. 213).
The Mell is made wholly of wood, and should,
for letter cutting, be about 5j inches in diameter.
The Dummy has a head of zinc and a wooden
handle. It should be about 2-J inches in diameter.
The hammer should be about the same size and
weight as the Dummy.
A RIGHT USE OF THE CHISEL
The workman must find out, for himself, how
best to use his tools. In the ordinary way, it is
best to hold the chisel at an angle of about 45° with
the surface of the stone — in the manner shown in
fig. 214 — in cutting both straight stems and curves.
The chisel is held firmly (usually in the left hand,
with the little finger about an inch from the cutting
end of the chisel) and tapped rather than banged,
and lightly rather than heavily.
The best way to cut a letter is to start at the
extreme left-hand point of the bottom Serif, and,
working upwards, to cut the left side of the stroke
first. Then start similarly at the extreme right-
hand point of the bottom Serif, and cut the right
side of the stroke. Then finish the Serifs.
1 The harder the stone to be carved, the more highly tempered
will the chisels need to be.

399
Inscriptions When cutting a curve, cut the inside first (fig.
in Stone

FIG. 214.

214), and start as near the narrowest part of the

curve as possible.
In Incised letters unnecessary junctions of the
parts may be avoided (see fig. 215). Where they
are necessary, as in a capital E, or in a small y, cut

400
away from the junction or down on to it, rather Inscriptions
than towards it. in Stone

Ncte points A
showing h<nv
jonctums may be
avoided, in stme

FIG. 215.

The Mallet-headed and wooden-handled chisels

are used with the Mell for large work and for
cutting surfaces.
2 C 401
Inscriptions The Hammer-headed chisels are used with the
in Stone hammer for ordinary work, and with the Dummy
for small and delicate work.
A Mallet or Dummy is not used in carving
chalk, but the chisel is pushed ; the right hand
doing the pushing, and the left hand guiding and
steadying the chisel (see fig. 216). If the chisel

FIG. 216.

402
were struck, the surface of the chalk would flake Inscriptions
off. in Stone
In cutting an Incised Inscription with the ordi-
nary "V" section (see fig. 217), use one size of
chisel throughout. The width of the chisel should
generally be about the width of the letter stem
required. More elaborate sections necessitate the
use of several sizes of chisels.

INCISED LETTERS & LETTERS IN RELIEF

Inscriptions may be Incised or in Relief, that is,

sunk or raised.1 The modus operandi and the time
spent in carving the actual letters are the same in
either case, but whereas when the Incised letter is
carved there is nothing more to be done, after the
carving of the Raised letter there is still the stone
surrounding it (i.e. the background) to be dealt
with, and this may simply be carved smooth,2 or,
if our imagination be strong enough, and our hand
have the cunning, it may become under the tool
a field of roses and lilies in which the letters are set.
Other things being equal, it becomes a question
of economy which form of lettering one will carve,
as the necessity of dealing with the background of
a Raised Inscription, while more than doubling the
opportunities of the carver, at least doubles the time
spent in carving.
Raised lettering will show out more clearly than
Incised lettering where there is little light.

1 In learning to cut Inscriptions one would naturally begin

with Incised letters.
2 Where the ground between the letters is left plain, an absolute
flatness and evenness is not necessary. The common method
of jabbing or "pecking" the background is objectionable. 403
Inscriptions Roman Capitals are more adapted for carving in
in Stone Relief than are Roman small-letters or Italics, which
are directly derived from the pen.
Raised lettering is more allied to ordinary
carving, while Incised lettering may be thought
of as writing in stone.

I ferorduury

work*

For large vwrft

1404
 THE SECTIONS OF LETTERS Inscriptions
in Stone
For Inched letters, a " V " section (I , fig. 217) of
about 60° is best for regular use ; deeper rather than
shallower. The letters may with
advantage be cut a little deeper
towards the Serifs (see fig. 218).
Although the simple " V " sec-
tion is the most useful, other
sections may be used for large
letters (i.e. letters more than 6
inches high), or letters in a very
fine material (2 & 3, fig. 217). On
If the lettering is to be gilded, FIG. 218. ly
and the stone will permit of it,
Section 4 (fig. 217) is a good one to use.
the curved part is to be rilded, and not the small
bevelled sides.
For Raised letters^ the best and most useful section
is No. 5 ; the slightly bevelled sides tell as part
of the letter. Experience, and the weathering
conditions, will suggest the amount of Relief to be
given. For letters i^- inch high, out of doors, T\
inch of relief is ample, and if there be good light
J inch is enough. Excessive relief looks clumsy.
Sections Nos. 6 and 7 are suitable only for large
letters ; and elaborate sections should as a rule be
used only for letters standing alone.
WORKING IN SITU
If possible the carver should work in situ.
When that is impracticable,1 he should consider
most carefully where his Inscription is to go.
1 E.g. Tombstones and Memorial Slabs are not usually fixed
until finished.
405
Inscriptions In an Inscription which is much above the eye
in Stone level, the letters may be narrower in proportion
to their height, and the horizontal strokes extra
thick to allow for foreshortening. (See also pp.
351,270.)
The advantages of working in situ are great,
for by so doing the carver sees his job as he
works under the same conditions of light and
environment that it will finally be seen under, and
the work is more likely to become a part of the
place because it has grown there.
And it is good to carve an Inscription on the
actual wall of a fine building, and better still to
work in the inspiriting atmosphere of building in
progress, or to work in the open air where the
artificial notions of workshop or studio are dissi-
pated and the feeling of life and freedom gained.

406
NOTES ON THE
COLLOTYPE PLATES
 NOTES ON THE COLLOTYPE PLATES Notes on the
(NOTE. — In order to make the illustrations ["whether of facsimiles or pi
enlargements^ as large and as full as possible, I have sacrificed " appear-
ance " to use and alloived most of the collotype plates, and many of the
diagrams in the book, to encroach en the margins. — E, J.)

GENERAL NOTE.— All the plates are in facsimile as

to size (or nearly so, allowing for errors in reproduction)
except I., II., XXIL, and XXIV., which had to be
reduced, and therefore only portions of the MSS. can be
shown. NOTE.— All the MSS. are on "Vellum" (see
p. 173). In order to get a better impression of the size
and general proportion of a MS., the student might
reconstruct it— or at least mark off the margins, text,
&c. — on paper, from the measurements given. Or a
sheet of paper might be cut to the size of the given page
or opening, with an aperture (in its proper place) through
which the plate might be viewed.
The plates are arranged in chronological order as
nearly as possible. They are intended briefly to illus-
trate the Development of the Formal Book Hands from the
Roman Capital and the General Development of the Illumi-
nated MS. : I hope, moreover, that, fragmentary as they
are, they will prove usefully suggestive in regard to the
Arrangement of Text and Lettering and Ornament. The
wonderful effect of the colouring cannot be given here,
but, in any case, the illuminator should look at some
original MSS. Several of the MSS. from which the
plates are taken are exhibited in the British Museum.

PLATE I. — Portion of Inscription on base of Trajan

Column^ Rome, circa 114 A.D. Scale approx. ^th linear.
THE STONE (within the internal line of the
moulding) : 3 feet 9 inches high, and 9 feet f inch long.

1 There is a cast (No. 1864-128) in the Victoria and Albert

Museum, South Kensington, where also the photograph of the
inscription is obtainable, from portions of which Plates I. and
II. are reproduced. 409
Notes on the THE BORDERS — The lettering practically fills
Collotype the panel (see p. 352) : the surrounding moulding is
Plates approx. 4 inches wide.
THE LETTERS (for their forms see next note),
^^ • fFirst two lines: 4^ inches high.
Approxi-
rr 0
oecond , two lines :
mate -{ ^.c
Fifth, line
,. :
heights Last line :
THE S
•'ACES (between Lines) decrease from 3
inches to 2f inches. A decrease in the height of the
letters from the top to the foot line is common in early
inscriptions (see figs. 203—205). Several reasons for
this suggest themselves : (<z) (Sometimes the beginning
words, being farther from the reader, may require to be
larger). (£) The architectural beauty of a large head-
ing (comp. stem heads, p. 288). (c) The importance of
beginnings generally (there is very often a marked differ-
ence between the upper lines containing important words
and the rest of the inscription : comp. figs. 197, 91).
NOTE. — The WORDS are separated by triangular
points (p. 384).

PLATE II. — Alphabet from Trajan Inscription. (Circa

114 A.D.) Scale approx. fyh linear. (See note above.)

THE "TRAJAN" ALPHABET.— Very fine

letters for inscriptions in stone : possibly painted before
incision (see p. 292) ; see also remarks on Roman
Capitals, pp. 268-296, and note :—
SERIFS.— Small and carefully curved.
THIN PARTS about half the width of the thick
stems (pp. 375, 285).
A (M and N), pointed (p. 280).
B — a very beautiful form, with large lower bow (p. 278).
C, G, and (D) — Upper parts rather straight (p. 281).
E and F — mid arm slightly shorter than upper arm.
E and L — loiver serif pointed out (p. 282).

4IO
 LO (shown sideways in collotype) and LT show L's arm Notes on the
projecting under next letter. Collotype
M — pointed: slightly spread (p. 284), distance apart of points
above equal to inside distance of stems below. Plates
N — pointed: practically no difference in thickness of vertical
and oblique parts (p. 285).
O — very beautiful : -width slightly less than height (p. 270) ;
slightly tilted (as are all the other curved letters : see p. 285).
P — Boiv not joined to stem below (first P rounder topped).
Q — tail carried under y (U).
R — large boiv : straight tail, with finishing-curve (p. 291).
S — leans forward slightly (p. 286).
Proportions OCDGMNQ width slightly less than height.
of -widths ARTV width approx. £th less than height.
to heights BX width rather more than half height.
(comp. P width approx. equal half height.
with pp. LS width slightly less than half height.
269-273) EF width approx. ^ths of height.

H, (J), K, (U), W, Y, Z are not present in the

inscription. A rough diagram (fig. 219) is giren below
showing approximately suitable forms for these (Re
junction of U in stone ; see p. 400, & fig. 215).

FIG. 219.

411
Notes on the PLATE HL— Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth
Collotype Century. (VirgiF s " JEneid"}.
(From a facsimile in the Palasographical Society's
Publications, ist Series, Vol. II., PI. 208, of a MS.
in the library of S. Gall, Switzerland. See also " Greek
and Latin Palaeography," p. 185.)
LETTERS. — Simple- written (slanted-pen) Roman
" Square Capitals."
WORDS in early MSS. were not separated (p. 112).
LINES ruled with a hard point (p. 343). The
letters appear .to have been written between every alter-
nate pair (p. 299), but slightly over the line.
A very handsome writing which might still be used
for special MSS. (see pp. 304, 300, 299).

PLATE IV. — Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or

Seventh Century. (Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum,
Harl MS. 1775.
(Shown in Brit. Mus. No.
Department
n.) of MSS., Case G,

THE VOLUME contains 468 leaves (7 inches by

4| inches).
MARGINS, Approx. : Inner |- inch, Head | inch,
Side ~ inch, Foot ~ inch. (They may have been cut
down by the binder.)
WRITING.— A fine round- Uncial MS. (pp. 38,
302), arranged in long and short lines.
NOTE. — On many of the letters there are fine hair-line
curved tails and flourishes, which are scarcely visible in
the photograph. (These tails were also used in the
earlier Uncial shown in fig. 5 — see also Addenda, p. 23.)
SECTIONS.— Marked bybuilt-up lettersof an Uncial
type, and numbered, mR cxxiiii to mR cxxvi (with references
to " Harmonies"). The passage is S. Mark xi. 21-25.

412
PLATE V.——
1TE V. Uncial Writing, probably Continental Seventh Notes on the
tt
Century. (Gospel of S. John). Ex libris Stony hurst Collotype
College. (See also enlargement, Jig. 169.) Plates
(From a facsimile in the Palasographical Society's
Publications, ist Series, Vol. II., PL 17.)
THE VOLUME contains 90 leaves, approx. 5f
inches by 3J- inches. The Inner margin is approxi-
mately inch
^ wide.
WRITING.— A very beautiful pointed (slanted-pen)
Uncial. The " pointed " character of the letters, which
yet retain their typical roundness, give this writing a
peculiar charm. Note the top of the P has a marked
angle, and the M and H, and even the O, have this
slightly or strongly.
RULING. — Single lines, rather wide (p. 305).
ARRANGEMENT.— Certain of the lines are in-
dented one letter (p. 264).
LARGE LETTERS.— On verso COL marking a
" Chapter " is built-up in red, on recto the three large
letters (marking sections) are simply written with the text
pen (p. 299). (The passage is S. John xi. 46-56.)

PLATE VI.— Half-Uncial (Irish), Seventh Century.

" Book of Kells " (Latin Gospels). Ex libris Trinity
College, Dublin.
(From a facsimile — part of PI. XLVII. — in « Celtic
Ornaments from the Book of Kells," by the Rev. Dr.
T. K. Abbott.)
THE LEAVES — which are cut down and much
damaged — measure 13 inches by 10 inches.
WRITING.— A beautifuland highly finished (approx.
straight pen) Half-Uncial (pp. 40, 304), tending to orna-
mental and fanciful forms whenever opportunity offered.
(Note the treatment of ixde.)
ARRANGEMENT.— Long and short lines: wide
spacing.
Notes on the THE LETTERS combine extreme gracefulness
Collotype with an unusual appearance of strength. This is mainly
Plates due to the ends of all the strokes being finished ; the
thick strokes have large, triangular heads (p. 327) on
the left, and bases broadened by an additional stroke
below on the right (thus 9ft ). And the horizontal thin
strokes are either finished with a triangular terminal (p.
246), or run on into the next letter — -joining the letters
together.
The extreme roundness of the letters is contributed to
by their being written between DOUBLE LINES (pp.
304, 88), the upper line of which tends to flatten the tops.
The pen not being quite " straight " (see footnote,
p. 304), together with a tendency to pull the left
hand curves, gives a characteristic shape to the letters
a.c,b,e,q,i:.
THE ILLUMINATION throughout the book is
most elaborate and beautiful. Each division has an
entire Initial page occupied with the first few letters.
The COLOURS were "paled green, red, violet, and
yellow, intense black, and white, but no gold" : see de-
scription of Celtic MSS., p. 40, Bradley's " Illumi-
nated Letters and Borders," and also the Palaeographical
Society's ist Series, Vol. II., PL 55-58, 88, 89.
This notable book may be taken as an example of the
marvellous possibilities of pen- work and complex colour-
work (see p. 216).
In considering the value of the writing as a model,
it may be noted that its highly finished nature demands
practised skill on the part of the copyist, and that though
modern Irish writing (for which it would be an excellent

model) would
letters still be
employs A , peculiar
apt to look b , 'p , inJ*. ^ , |* , The
English. "C , Kells
these

MS. a, c,e.1),Tr),t),o, i>,q,|V, S , u,

however, might be used, and a very beautiful ornamental
hand (p. 304) might be founded on this writing.
414
PLATE VII. —Half -Uncial (English), circa 700 A.D. Notes on the
"Durham
Cotton MSS.Book"
Nero (Latin
D. IV.Gospels). Brit. Mus., Collotype
Plates
THE VOLUME contains 258 leaves (13^ inches
by 9| inches).
THE WRITING is an English— or rather Anglo-
Irish — Half-Uncial, written at Lindisfarne (Holy I.)
under Irish influence (p. 40). ARRANGEMENT
— two columns of 24 lines — long and short — to the page
(note how eis is got into the fifth line) : wide spacing.
The writing bears a strong resemblance to that of the
" Book of Kells," but is generally much plainer ; it is
also less graceful, being heavier and 'wider in proportion.
The « Book of Kells " O is a circle, while the « Durham
Book " O is considerably wider than its height, and all the
other letters are correspondingly wide. The RULING
in both books consists of double lines, ruled with a hard
point on both sides of each leaf.
THE ILLUMINATION also resembles that of
the " Book of Kells " (see opposite), but a small amount
of gold is employed in it. (See also Palaeographical
Society's 1st Series, Vol. II., PI. 3-6, 22.)
NOTE. — The " Gloss," or interlinear translation, is in
the Northumbrian dialect, and was put in in the tenth
century, more than 200 years after the book was written.
A hand founded to some extent on the "Durham
Book " hand is given in Chap. IV. as an easy copy : see
figs. 49, 50.

PLATE VI II.— English Tenth-century Writing. (Psalter).

Brit. Mus., HarL MS. 2904. (See enlargement, Jig.
172). (Shown B. M. Grenville Lib. Case 2, No. 9.)
THE VOLUME contains 214 leaves (13^ inches by
10 inches), 18 lines to the page; probably written at
Winchester in late tenth century. (PI. reduced scale ^ths.)
WRITING.— An extremely good, formal, " slanted-
pen " writing, having great freedom (note the very slight
415
Notes on the slope forward) and simplicity. This type of letter may
Collotype be regarded as a link between the Half-Uncial and the
Plates Roman Small-Letter (see p. 310).
THE RULING: single lines (see footnote, p. 305).
THE LETTERS show very strongly the effects of
the "slanted pen" (see pp. 43, 305). Note the heavy
shoulders and feet in n, b, &c., and the thick horizontals
in r*C- The curved tops or arches are flatfish and
strong : the thick strokes end in points and are hooked
below, thin strokes scarcely appear except as the finishing
strokes of a, C, 6,1, "C , while d, (h), i, m, n, U end in
small heavy hooks. Note generally the tendency to internal
angles and external roundness (examples, f and o)«
Note particularly the junctions and accidental crossings of
the strokes (seen best in the enlargement, fig. 172) as bear-
ing on the mode of construction of the letters (see p. 84).
Note the fine shape of the ampersand (& : 3rd line).
THE ILLUMINATION (see Characteristics of
Winchester Illumination, or " Opus Anglicum," pp. 82, 83,
Bradley : " Illuminated Letters and Borders "). All
the CAPITALS beginning the verses are in raised,
burnished gold, in the margin. The titles are in red in
fancy " Rustic Capitals" (p. 297). The Line-Fillings
consist of groups of red dots, in threes (.-. .•. .•.).
This extremely legible MS. would form an almost
perfect model for a modern formal hand (s being substi-
tuted for long f, and the straight t for the curved "^ (see
fig. 183): the removal of the e flourish would also help
readableness). And though it is somewhat large and
heavy for ordinary use, it is good for practising, and
might be developed into a form resembling any of the
more difficult later forms (Plates IX., X., XX.).
PLATE IX. — English Writing, dated 1018. Two
portions of a Charter of C NUT. Brit. Museum. (See
also enlargement, Jig. 173.)
No. 3.) [PI. reduced scale ±±ths.]
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case V.,

THE WRITING resembles that in Plate VIII.

416
(see above), but is more slender and rounder — the pen Notes on the
being a little less slanted, and the arches more curved, Collotype
and showing more of the thin stroke. The ascenders Plates
and descenders are longer, the heads are more marked,
and there is a general elegance and distinction, due per-
haps to the MS. being a charter. Charter-hands are
generally more showy and less legible than Book-hands,
but in this hand there is great legibility, and a very few
changes (similar to those suggested above) would make it
quite suitable for modern use. Its relation to the Roman
Small- Letter is obvious.
NOTES. — The (black) ^ V and U were probably built-
up with the writing pen.
The forms of a, e, g1, (h), r, may be noted as differing
considerably from the tenth- century hand.
The combined ra (in the 4th line) is curious ; and the
r in Anglorum — this r (which represents the Bow and
Tail of R) commonly follows the round letters b, O, p,
in " Gothic " writing : there is another curious form in
the linked rt in cartula (last line).
The word CNUT and several other names are in
ornamental "Rustic" Capitals (see p. 297).
The two lines of English from another part of the
charter have very long stems and ornamental serifs, giving
a very decorative effect (see footnote, p. 326).

PLATE X.— Italian (first half of] Twelfth -century

Writing. (Homilies and Lessons}. Brit. Mus.,
Harl. MS. 7183. (See also enlargement, Jig. 174.)
(Shown in Brit. Mus., Department of MSS., Case C
[lower part], No. 101.)
THE VOLUME.— Homilies and Lessons for Sun-
days and Festivals from Advent to Easter Eve — contains
317 leaves (approximately 21 J inches by 15 inches);
two columns, each of 50 lines, to the page. The
MARGINS are, approximately, Inner ij inch, Head
2D 417
Notes on the i^ inch, Side 3^ inches, Foot 4^ inches (between
Collotype columns \\ inch : see Plate). The portion of a page,
Plates shown in Plate X., consists of the last eleven lines, second
column, of folio 78.
WRITING.— This has all the qualities of good
writing (p. 239) in a marked degree, and I consider
it, taken all round, the most perfect and satisfactory
penmanship which I have seen.
Its simplicity and distinctiveness are very marked, so
also are its character and freedom. There is an almost
entire absence of artificial finish — the terminals are natural
hooks, beaks and " feet " made with a fine sleight of hand
(p. 311 )— and its very great beauty of form is the natural
outcome of good traditions and eminently satisfactory
craftsmanship.
NOTES. — The letters are very wide, and the inside
shapes differ considerably from those of the tenth-century
MS. (above) — with which, however, there is a consider-
able affinity (see p. 416).
The f is longer than the f, the g has a very fine form
with a closed loop, the r is sharpened, the t straight.
Small (Uncial) CAPITALS um follow the Versal ;
the serifs on the S and E are made with dexterous move-
ments of the nib (p. 246), and resemble those on the
Versal C. Vand U are both used for the consonant (V).
There are very few VERSAL S in this book : the C
shown is in red (which has been smudged).
The large "ILLUMINATED INITIALS" in
the book are in yellow, blue, and red, and appear to me
to be comparatively poor, at least, to fall short of the
perfection of the MS.
Of this writing, Sir Edward Maunde Thompson
("Greek and Latin Palaeography," pp. 271-2) says: —
" The sense of grace of form which we perceive in the Lom-
bardic writing of Italy is maintained in that country in the
later writing of the new minuscule type, which assumes under
the pens of the most expert Italian scribes a very beautiful and
round even style. This style, though peculiarly Italian, extended

418
its influence abroad, especially to the south of France, and Notes on the
became the model of Spanish writing at a later time. We Collotype
select a specimen from a very handsome MS. of Homilies of the p,
first half of the I2th century (Pal. Soc. ii. pi. 55), written in
bold letters of the best type, to which we shall find the scribes
of the fifteenth century reverting in order to obtain a model for
their MSS. of the Renaissance. The exactness with which the
writing is here executed is truly marvellous, and was only rivalled,
not surpassed, by the finished handiwork of its later imitators.
" It will of course be understood that this was not the only
style of hand that prevailed in Italy. Others of a much rougher
cast were also employed. But as a typical book-hand, which
was the parent of the hands in which the greater proportion of
carefully written MSS. of succeeding periods were written in
Italy, it is to be specially noticed."
(P. 284) — " we give a specimen of a hand of the Italian Re-
nais ance, arevival of the style of the eleventh or twelfth century,
and a very successful imitation of a MS. of that period. It was
this practice, followed by the scribes of the Renaissance, of
reverting to that fine period of Italian writing (see p. 272) to
find models for the exquisitely finished MSS. which they were
compelled to produce in order to satisfy the refined taste of
their day, that influenced the early printers of Italy in the
choice of their form of type."*
(P. 285) — " in the comparatively small number of extant
literary MSS. of a later date than the close of the [fifteenth]
century it is noticeable that a large proportion of them are
written in the style of the book-hand of the Italian Renaissance
— the style which eventually superseded all others in the print-
ing press. The scribes of these late examples only followed
the taste of the day in preferring those clear and simple
characters to the rough letters of the native hands."

* The specimen hand given is of date 1466. Plate XVIII.

may here be taken as an example of the Renaissance revival ;
Plate XX. and fig. 175 as examples of later MSS.

PLATE XL— English (late) Twelfth-century Writing,

with flourished Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus.,
Royal MS. 2.A.X.
(Shown in Brit. Mus.,No.
Department
in.) of MSS., Case D,

THE VOLUME— sometimes called the St. Albans

419 by
or Albanus Psalter — contains 200 leaves (6J inches
Notes on the 4§ inches) ; twenty-seven lines to the page, some pages
Collotype have two columns. MARGINS, approximately, Inner
Plates | inch, Head under J inch (see Plate), Side i J inch (part
occupied by Versals), Foot i^ inch.
THE WRITING is fairly legible, but approaches
Black Letter (p. 331) too nearly to be of use to us for
ordinary purposes. Note the ornamental Semi- Rustic
Capitals in text. Note the RULING of the two head
lines and of the foot line is carried into the margin.
THE VERSALS.— The main interest lies in the
varied forms of the Versals, which are most beautifully
made in red and green alternately. There is one elaborate
gold initial in the book, and several Versals in blue and
white (hollow : see p. 208).
The five O>s — anc^ t^e -^ *n ^ne *ext — °n this page
(folio 85b) by no means exhaust the varieties of D alone,
and there are very many varieties of the forms of the
other letters. On some pages each line begins with a
small Versal, while the more important Initials are much
larger, varying in size and ornament.
THE CONSTRUCTION of the Versals is un-
usually slender, curved, and gradated. A rather fine pen
seems to have been used (p. 292), and though the letters
are upright, the natural tendency to slant the pen can be
detected in the thickening of the thin parts — above, on the
right, and below, on the left — giving the suspicion of a tilt
to the O.
The O-part of each Q was made first, and the tail \
added. This is very obvious in the D in the text, where
a stem | was added to O to make D.
Note the dots inside the Versals, one above and one
below. Originally these may have been intended to
effect — or hide — the junction of the thin strokes, by a
twirl of the pen at the end of the first stroke and the
beginning of the second, thus (, *). Their use is very
common in Versal forms (see fig. 189), and besides being
decorative in the ordinary sense, they may be said to

420
strengthen the thin parts (much as the weakest part of Notes on the
the loop in an old key was thickened for strength). Collotype
Note the right-hand Bows of the O 's are made thinner,
as though the Rubricator had been afraid of running into
the text in making their last curves — such an expert,
however, may well have had a better reason for it.
PLATE XII.— Illuminated Initial in a Flemish MS.
A.D. 1148. (Latin Bible). Brit. Museum, Addl.
MS. 14790.
(Shown in Brit. Museum,No.Department
91.) of MSS., Case C,

THE VOLUME — the third, and most interesting,

of this MS. Bible (Numbered 14788-89-90) — contains
223 leaves (17 inches by ii-J inches). MARGINS,
approximately, Inner i^ inch, Head (cut) I inch, Side 2^
inches, Foot 3-^ inches. (Between columns ^f inch.)
THE WRITING is a not very legible "Gothic."
The zigzag tendency exhibited, especially by the word
niniuen (Niniveh), second line, is unsuited for such formal
writing (see p. 484). The rapid placing of the Heads of
the letters is such that they appear broken and partly de-
tached from the stems. The VERS ALS are of a good
type.
THE INITIAL is a monogrammatic ET. The
arms of the round 6 terminate in leaves folded back, its
form is holloiv and inwoven (p. 208), and gives rise to
foliage, which fills the interior — passing over the fish and
behind Jonah. Note also how the jaws of the fish are
interlaced, and how compactly all the parts are put
together.
The close application of the background to the curves
adds to the general compactness, and together with its
spacing from the straight front balances the masses
(p. 424) : it may be compared to the even spacing of
curved and straight strokes (see fig. 53). There is an
extension of the background to hold the fish's tail.

421
Notes on the THE COLOURS—
Collotype Initial, Foliage, Fish : red : outlined ( Parchment
Plates Jonah : black: /& lined ( left plain.
Bands on Initial,
Hollows in Initial, gold, outlined red.
Backs of folded leaves
Outer background :
red.
Dots on outer ground : paled green,
Inner background :
We may not, I think, attemptpaledtoblue.
imitate the complex
12th-century decoration of this initial (see p. 196), but
the treatment of the elements of form and colour is very
suggestive, and the whole piece of lettering is characteristic
of the grand style in which a book was at that time begun.
The ARRANGEMENT of the letters themselves is
very simple, and might be made good use of (fig. 220).

INCIPIT-JONASiPPHAf
(fropheta)

A
C
T
U
M.

E
S
T.

verbum d(<w«)ni ad jonam filiu(w) amathi

dicens. Surge & vade in niniven civi-
tatem magnam. & pr(«)edica in ea.

422 FlG- 22°-

PLATE XIII.— English (2nd half) Thirteenth-century Notes on the
Writing and Illumination. (Latin Bible). Ex libris Collotype
S. C. Cockerel!. Plates

THE VOLUME— probably written at York— con-

tains 427 leaves (8 inches by 5^ inches) : two columns to
the page : MARGINS, approx. : Inner f inch, Head
|- inch, Side | inch, Foot i~^ inch. (Between the
columns f- inch. ) The pages have been cut down.
THE WRITING is very small, and there are many
contractions.1 In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
the whole Bible, written in this fashion, was often small
enough to be carried in the pocket. Note the closed &
and the 7 form of &. The page is RULED with 50
lines ; the 49 lines of writing lie between these, so that
in each case the ascenders touch the line above, and the
descenders, the line below. Note the double lines in the
Foot margin (see p. 343).
VERSALS. — A very narrow type is used in the
narrow margins : the example shown is in red, flourished
blue ; it begins the second chapter (Erange/o ephesi, &c. ),
which is also marked by coloured Roman Numerals at
the
smallside
red (II).
and blueThe page heading is " APOCA " in
Versals.
THE ILLUMINATED INITIAL is "histori-
ated " — i.e. it contains a picture illustrating the text, viz.
a representation of S. John writing to the Seven Churches
— purely conventional forms, or rather symbols, for the
most part, are used and beautifully fitted into the available
space. The greater size and more careful drawing of
the human figure (the centre of interest) is characteristic
of a fine convention. The slope of the vellum page on
which S. John is writing, and even the manner in which
the quill is held, are such as would naturally be employed
by a scribe (see frontispiece, & p. 67).

1 The Apocalypse here begins " APocalipfis igu xi" (for

IHU XPI, derived from the Greek and used as a mediaeval Latin
contraction for Jesu Christi), 423
Notes on the The capitals of the pillars mark the position of the
Collotype cross-bar of A. The top serif is carried up and forms
PJates a bud, which gives rise to leaf-like flourishes ; the free
thin stem runs down forming a grotesque, which gives out
a leaf-like tongue. In either case the object — in every
sense recreative — is a renewal of interest in the designed,
elongated, growth of the forms.
Note the curved thickening of AJs left stem ends
nearly level with the foot of the right stem. This gives
balance to the letter (see R, fig. 81 & A, fig. 189), and
preserves the essential form, which suffers no distortion by
the thinner continuation below.
Note the balancing of the background mass on the
straight and curved sides of the Initial (as in Plate XII.,
see above) ; also the extension and shape of the back-
ground accompanying the drawn out parts of the letter.
COLOURS of Initial-
Right stem : red ) with white lines
Left stem and serif: blue j and patterns.
L. stem, lower half, & dragon : pale " lake."
The back- ( outer : pale " lake"
ground I inner : blue,
{counter- | lower extension : blue,
charged} [ final flourish : pale " lake."
Band (dark) down left side, (
dragon's wings, 6 "berries," < burnished gold.
halo, seat, tops of pillar caps: (
Leaves (dark) & pillar caps : red.
Small stems & leaves : green.
Here again no natural work would come of a modern
attempt to imitate so complex a " design " — natural and
even inevitable 600 years ago. But the spirit of delicacy
and fantasy, the ingenious contrivance, and the balancing
and disposal of form and colour shown by the antique
art, may well be matter for imitation by the modern
draughtsman-illuminator, and even by the mere penman.
424
PLATE XIV. — Thirteenth-century Line- finishings : Pen- Notes on the
'work. (Psalter]. Brit. Museum, Royal MS. Collotype
i. D. x. Plates

THE LINE-FINISHINGS (seep. 205), of which

there are very many throughout the book, all in red or
blue pen-work, are very varied. Nine kinds are shown
in the plate (which represents about a quarter of a page),
and three others from the same MS. are given in figs.
87 (£) and 1 26 (/,£).
The directions of the thick and thin strokes indicate
a pen held at right angles to its usual position (almost
" upside down," in fact: see fig. 126, <§r), and the
penmanship exhibits great speed and lightness of hand —
the rapidity and skill are indeed quite remarkable (e.g.
in the Lion in the eighth line).
Note that, though the writing occasionally runs into
the margin, the line-finishings stop at the marginal-line.
The photograph shows red dark and blue light : e.g.
the Bird is red, the Lion and the Fish are blue. The
fifth Line-finishing is a red filigree with blue " berries "
— it can hardly be described as a " floral growth," as the
" branching " is reversed : the rubricator gained speed and
uniformity by the simple repetition of the whorls all along
the line — the upper branches were probably put in after-
wards, and the " berries " were added later when he was
making the blue Line-finishings.
The more complex decoration (not shown in the plate)
in this MS. is inferior to the penmanship : the small
background Capitals with which the verses begin — pre-
sumably putin by a different hand — are more pretentious,
and do not match the Line-finishings.
General Note. — When a space occurs at the end of a
line of writing, it is often best to leave it, and in a plain
MS., if it be " well and truly " written, there is no objec-
tion to varying lengths of line (see pp. 263, 371). But
a book, such as a Psalter, divided into many short verses
— in which the last line usually falls short of the marginal
425
Notes on the line — offers a fair field for such simple and effective
Collotype decoration. (See also pp. 428, 486, fig. 130, and
Plates Plate XXIII.)

P L> ATE XF. — English Writing and Illumination, circa

1284 A.D. (Psalter). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS.
24686.

THE WRITING is a fine, freely formed, « Gothic "

331). Note, the i's are " dotted." Note the double
ARGINA L LINES (p. 343).
THE SMALL INITIALSare of the«Lombardic"
type (p. 210), in which the Serifs are much thickened
and ornamented. Note the tails of the Q's are turned to
the left to clear the writing. The LINE-FILLINGS
match the small initials (p. 193).
THE LARGE INITIAL, &c.— The plate shows
the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth

Psalm (O omine quitf Ijabitabit). Note "Arabic"

numerals (15) in margin.
The tail of the Initial fo is formed of a dragon, the
head of which rests on the O-part : its wings project into
the inner margin (and these in the plate, which shows a
fragment of a verso page, run into the fold between the
pages) : the tail (together with the background) descends
till a convenient point is reached from which the lower
scroll-work springs. The tail, wing, and claws above,
belong to a magpie which is perched on the initial.
THE DRAWING : see reference to this at p. 203,
and below.
Sir Edward Maunde Thompson (p. 39, " English
Illuminated MSS.") says of this —
" — the Additional MS. 24686 in the British Museum, known
as the Tenison Psalter, from its having once formed part of the
library of Archbishop Tenison. This psalter is one of the most
beautiful illuminated English manuscripts of its time, but un-
fortunately only in part, for it was not finished in the perfect

426
style in which it was begun ... in the first quire of the text Notes on the
the ornamentation is of peculiar beauty. . . ." x Collotype
" — the progress of the art [since the earlier part of the pi
thirteenth century] . . . is . . . manifest. There is more
freedom in the drawing, the stiffness of the earlier examples
is in great measure overcome ; and the pendant has thrown out
a branch which has already put forth leaves. A great variety
of colours, blue, rose, vermilion, lake, green, brown, as well
as burnished gold, is employed in the composition of the large
initial and its accompanying pendant and border, and the small
initials are of gold laid on a ground of blue or lake, and filled
with lake or blue ; while the ribbons which fill up the spaces
at the ends of the verses are alternately of the same colours and
are decorated with patterns in silver on the blue and in gold on
the lake."
"The group of the dismounted knight despatching2 a
gryphon, which has proved too much for the horse, upon
whose dying body the expectant raven has already perched,
is tinted in lighter colours. It is an instance of the use to
which marginal space was put, particularly by English artists,
for the introduction of little scenes, such as episodes in romances
or stories, games, grotesque combats, social scenes, &c., often
drawn with a light free hand and most artistic touch. Without
these little sketches, much of the manners and customs, dress,
and daily life of our ancestors would have remained for ever
unknown to us."

1 It is supposed that the book was at first intended as a

marriage gift for Alphonso, son of Edward I.
2 The characteristic over and under arrangement of the
gryphon's upper and lower bill, makes this doubtful.

PLATE XVI.— Italian Fourteenth-century MS., Brit.

Mus., Addl. MS. 28841.
THE VOLUME : one of two (the other numbered
27695), a Latin treatise on the Virtues and Vices (The
miniatures, drawings, &c., probably by "the Monk of
Hyeres," Genoa). The vellum leaves have been sepa-
rated, and are now preserved in paper books. The leaf
illustrated shows a margin of vellum of less than T3^- inch
all round (the plate).
The decorative borders are much more naturalistic 427 in
Notes on the form and colouring than any other old illumination that I
Collotype have seen (see reference to Plate XVI., p. 203).
Plates The foliage is a delicate green, the berries are dark
purple, the single fruits plain and pale orange-red ; the two
beetles in crimson and brown are made darker and too
prominent in the photograph. The bands of small
" Lombardic " Capitals are in burnished gold.
Note how skilfully and naturally the upper corners of
the border are managed, and also the beautiful way in which
the branches run into and among the text (see p. 213).

PLATE XVII. — French Fifteenth-century Writing, 'with

Illuminated Borders. Ex libris E. Johnston.
THE PAGE 9j inches by 6i inches : MARGINS,
approx. : Inner \\ inch, Head i| inch, Side 2f inches,
Foot 2| inches (the edges have been slightly cut down).
The marginal lines (from head to foot of the page) and
the writing lines are RULED in faint red.
THE WRITING is a late formal "Gothic"— the
thin strokes have evidently been added (p. 47). The
written Capitals are blotted with yellow (see p. 140).
The ILLUMINATED INITIAL Q is in blue,
white lined, on a gold ground, contains a blue flower and
five ornaments in "lake." The LINE-FILLINGS
are in blue and "lake," separated by a gold circle,
triangle, or lozenge.
THE FILIGREE ILLUMINATION springs
from the initial in the narrow margin, and from a centre
ornament (see " knot," fig. 127) in the wide side margin.
The side margins are treated similarly on either page
(see p. 213); the inner margins are generally plain.
This repetition gives to the pages a certain sameness —
which is a characteristic rather than a fault of the
treatment.
The border on the recto of the vellum leaf shows
through on the verso or back of the leaf. The main
lines of the first border, however, are freely traced and

428
followed on the verso (and so nearly hidden) by the Notes on the
second border. This is also suggestive of the more Collotype
rapid methods of book production in the 1 5th century. Plates
COLOURS-
Stems, tendrils, &c. : black.
T J ivy- shaped (burnished gold, out- I plain.
'8 | lanceolate : \ lined black (p. 187). \furred.

Flowers, buds, centre Jf^»pered"^",?r white, ^T

withcolour S7~A
and shade d
ornaments,
/c &c. : ) with pure
(oee p. 1 02. x
i i i r ; white mark-!• j
V mgs ; the forms not outlined.
This type of illumination is discussed in pp. 197-202.
Its chief points are its simplicity and rapidity. A penman
or a novice in illuminating can, by taking a little pains,
beautify his MSS. easily and quickly ; and he may per-
haps pass on from this to " higher " types of illumination.

PLATE XV I I L— Italian Fifteenth-century Writing and

Illumination. (Perotti's translation of Polybius}. Ex
libris H. Tates-Thompson.
THE VOLUME consists of 174 leaves (13^ inches
by 9 inches) ; 35 lines to the page. The plate shows
a portion of the upper part of the Initial (recto} page.
THE WRITING.— The Capitals are simple- written,
slanted-pen " Roman " — slightly ornamental — forms.
They are freely copied on a large scale in fig. 168 : see
p. 297. The Small-letters match the Capitals — they are
" Roman " forms with a slight " Gothic " tendency.
Both these and the Capitals would make very good
models for free Roman hands.
THE INITIAL is a "Roman" A in burnished
gold. Note the exceedingly graceful shaping of the
limbs, the ornamental, V-shaped cross-bar, and the
absence of serifs (see fig. 116). 429
Notes on the The " White Fine Pattern" (see p. 202), most deli-
Collotype cately and beautifully drawn, interlaces with the letter
Plates and itself, and covers the BACKGROUND very evenly.
The interstices of the background are painted in blue,
red, and green, and its edge is adapted to the slightly
projecting flowers and leaves. There are groups (.'. and
. . . ) of white dots on the blue parts of the background.
THE BORDER (of which a small part is shown)
is approximately \ inch wide in the narrow margin at
the side of the text — it is separate from the Initial. It
extends above and below the text, where its depth is
greater, matching the greater depth of the margins. Its
treatment is similar to, though perhaps a little simpler
than, that of the Initial decoration.

PLATE XIX.— Italian MS., dated 1481. Ex libris

S. C. Coderell

"Part of a [verso] page from a book containing the

Psalter of St. Jerome and various Prayers, written and
decorated by Joachinus de Gigantibus of Rotenberg in
1481 for Pope Sixtus IV. Joachinus was employed at
Naples by Ferdinand I., and there are other fine examples
of his work at the British Museum and the Biblioth£que
Nationale, Paris. In each of these, as well as in the
present book, he states that he was both scribe and
illuminator."— [S. C. C.]
THE VOLUME contains 31 leaves (6J inches by
4^ inches) : MARGINS, approx. : Inner J inch, Head
•| inch, Side ij inch, Foot I J inch. (The head margin,
together with the edge of the book-cover, is shown in the
plate. )
THE WRITING.— Very clear, slightly slanted-pen
" Roman." Note the blending of b and p with e and o
(see fig. 76, & p. 77). The CAPITALS are quite simple
and plain, made (in (A)NIMA CHRISTI and in text)
in black with the text pen. Note the long, waved serifs
[Continued on p. 48 1 .
THE COLLOTYPE
PLATES
 StNATV
Ik 1 V A1 V* \ f ^ A T-* '
M 1r C ^~;J Ax\ L~,
^

I fw\
All \ Tl ~\ T~ S — ^ A ^
A DL)
>w ^ j-v / j\,r - *L
V^ ^ ;<^--y ^ \ H

Plate I. — Portion of Inscription .on base of Trajan Column, Rome,

circa 114 A.D. Scale approx. Jth linear. (See also Plate II.)

7 foot. 2 feet.433
Plate II.— Alphabet from Trajan Inscription Circa 114 A.D.)
Scale approx. \ linear. (See also Plate i). Note.—L and O are
shown sideways in the 2nd line.

435
5 3 i'r1 1X *icr
>". <£ ULJ -

OH

©- &^^.G

Cfl **)'ft

Plate III.— Written Roman Capitals, Fourth or Fifth Century.

(Virgil's "jEneid"). 437
 ecce p i cxi s cxi i
. tn x: is i J ?VR<J i r

; iDeoiT>T
o Ot ice ixi r
IV>O>I'I I l^^ ICIOJ,

ei XCJCRI r

o
xi
ci
re Re
L- cL
O R Xj^l I Id T I S

oi ocieNieM ICIOB
-^ leticYisi XJBI i IS

ri

Plate IV.— Uncial Writing, probably Italian Sixth or Seventh Century.

(Latin Gospels). Brit. Museum, Harl. MS. 1775.
 1 III
H Z to

f? v Z - = v
K^8$Sl»
a> en X, -£

Plato Y'rVncXal r^ritin§' Probably Continental Seventh Century fig. 169.)

b. John). Ex Libns Stonyhurst College. (See also enlargement, (Gospel of
 iUicm<
••..,JI

US

cesil

i eacba
niutros
Plate VI.— Half Uncial (Irish), Seventh Century, "Book of KeHs'
(Latin Gospels). Ex Libris Trinity College, Dublin.
 ST
<v fptYMVf ^m

ivrmjui oquioQU1sao

8Tt7Uo6lS

pGogtnseum
yn*^ $or*
iu*k J'l
Sicerapuos o
es
sapcficur^

Plate VII.— nan uncial (English), circa 700 A.D. "Durham Book

446
 cA>

5^-U 1 r--ifcf
\ .
_»t

•s-i i^lxl
\ <^.
6^6
>-H
Plate VIII.— English Tenth-century Writing.
«
(Psalter).
Harl. MS. 2904. (See enlargement fig. 172.)
Brit. Mus.,
Plate IX.— English Writing:, dated 1018. Two portions of a Charter of
CNUT. Brit. Museum. (See also enlargement, fig. 173.)
449
 **•*.- c-'-iii. 1 i* . .- .
Plate X.— Italian (first half of) Twelfth-century Writing. (Homilies and
Lessons). Brit. Mus., Harl. MS. 7183. (See also enlargement, fig. 174).
 :xltgni efftoamur ad opuotuf tujp
omforao . ?drim . Yiotu lofiis bapnftpX
onfps ds . ur famtUaniap uiainfi
Uraf mctdao.c^ bean lo^is^prccurffeis^
.addi quon pttdpic
emaT'. Aritn nrm
qui prpfcm£ die bonmaftilcm
obif tn bcaa io6is naaurcaccftafti.cla,
poptfe tutf fpuaUu giam^audioi): . ce omniu

Uk aptto^ ruo^ bcaroy:

s qut nx>bif \iolu
Pern o^ PauU tiacaliaagti
^ fa pttnt conccdtf .mbut cjs rhm uoffcmp cf
V bgicftaif ptjacnm jc^ oaanonibuf adiuuan.
| |squibodicrnidicmaptby.uiQy:lHftti
^ ^ p«n (t pauli margmo confeocdh.da,
^c&f uif co# m omnit?; lequt prcctptii .pquo
~f-~ mf fumpfrcpCQMliu .?. Comemo^ Eivli
^squimutanidmc^nraubcan PauU
^ ^ 'ape pttdicaaontdoaiifh.danobif qsr"
>%o uc oiiurnaratiaacoUnuircf apudtr pamoq
Vtuafaraamuf.?. Oa sci lofiisj)lqu^fai
/ |scumfd£tperabeam PoruntOcf JLpJtb;
^^ambiUanitmftjuctife ncmcrgtttr osbt.
c^ coap«n ouf Paula xtrao najufra^amcdcp
ftindo pctagi libdxiutr.^iaudt nofppiouf &
concede ur amboi^
Plate XI.— English (late) Twelfth-century Writing, with flourished
Capitals. (Breviary). Brit. Mus., Royal MS. 2. A.X.
453
 trwtgn4m.<« pttdta tti
Plate XII.— Illuminated Initial in a Flemish MS. A.D. 1148 (Latin
Bible). Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 14790.
455
 ubu ?k Ttcfttmoniamttfttt

Plate XIII.— English (2nd half) Thirteenth-century Writing and Illumination

(Latin Bible). Ex. Libris S. C. Cockerell.
dte tongt^atwrntf me'qu

Plate X IV.— Thirteenth-century Line-finishings:

Brit. Museum, Royal MS. i, D.X.Penwork. (Psalter).

460
Plate XV.— English Writing and Illumination, circa 1284 A.D. (Psalter).
Brit. Museum, Addl. MS. 24686.
462
"->IS
iL

&«

W?
.V S..
-AW-
s^^S^ilBS
V%<
itCitnKNt|^M(t4^o

'fi

Plate XVI.— Italian Fourteenth-century MS , Brit. Mus., Addl. MS. 28*41.

464
9BMT *^~: *~^. ^"^ , BMP ^^ , F— " C

w a « « 4* wS §*

Plate XVII.— French Fifteenth-century Writing-, with

Illuminated Borders. Ex. Libris E. Johnston.
465
Plate XVIII.— Italian Fifteenth-century Writing and Illumination
(Perotti's translation of Polybius). Ex libris H. Yates-Thompson,467
 IMJ^ CHRIST!

cbn/ti^ lalua
cbrtftx m e;
briamcr/ Ac^ua laterts cbrt{)i
lauame;. Sudorutiltxxs xpt
defende; me/. Ta/Tto ckrtfb
TvLors ctrtAt.
Utctatncr- Sapienna, cbnfk
doce me;- Oboner tefu
dttncf-ltv
j

Plate XIX -Italian MS. dated 1481. Ex libris S. C. Cockerell.

469
 Content hoc pfjlterLurrt: et
ranumctcrny-
! {cipe-diorLerisdoii Oro>
miner cteus ommpotcns
iftos t>£iLmos coniecnitos c[s
eoo tiid.ipnLL5 d.ecAii-cai-e^ca -
~Z
poto i IT n o nore/n o nun is tut
clomme':'

Ciio rum_ p ro m erm j.icrmio

fta, famulo too : et p

Plate XX.— One page of an Italian (late) Fifteenth-century MS.

Ex. libris S. C. Cockerell. 47
 P mope in uifla oltra lusato offoa ;
Tal, cba noia ct <Ju<%no bebbt me (Icjio

Frmo I'ardir ; con mortc (tcerfea ctdura ,

A ttoqwljui molujiatt prcpo ,
Tfufcir d'a-ffanno htini corta maprcfa. •
H or cbiamo ; cf ncn jo/ar a/f r« dj/cjn ;
Pur lui ; chc lomlrasua. lasciando mcco

morirlui, cbfjulmo corr':

tucn daltro, cfjc (ifl tradtjrr^uat •

non u^ltfl batter col mto do/ore

Injin d/twiia dal^wrno ultimo aumto •.

E t tanto ilpianytro, tju&ntwthmat • .
Dehptrchcinanzi aluinonmifyo^luu
L a mortal qonna;no mcnutfti nnma ?
S^aluiucrfuiudocc,Dcrchc tardo
S ono a/ i??0nr : un dardo

P arimcnfc amto »ot traffitto et ro^o :

cfcejicomcunuolerjcmpri? nttcnnt
Viutndo; C03i jjenft anchor nhaucfse

[?o aljuo tempo, o <juc/

Plate XXI.— Italian (early) Sixteenth-century "cursive" or "Italic" MS.

Ex. libris S. C. Cockerell. (See enlargement, fig. 178.)
474
Plate XXII.— "Communion Service" written and illuminated by
E. Johnston, Hastings).
1902 A.D. ("Office
Reduced Book,"
(nearly Holy Trinity Church,
f scale).

476
 but he bestired himself as well;
tied hi& boree up with hie other
turned over on hid side , 60
on into the
tf>rouo/h a chink in Hie bower, a
in the sVy ; and he daw one there
the re$tt and he beo;an to da>? : ^
if d

ttlc etarr %8$i eee thee plain t3ti

e woon drawd to her tra

colette 16 vmth thee there ,

love. of" the orolden hair.

Plate XXIII.— The story of Aucassin and Nicolette, written and

illuminated by W. H. Cowlishaw, 1898 A.D.

478
Plate XXIV.— Inscription cut in Stone by A. E. R. Gill, 1903 A.D.
Reduced (Tsff scale). Note.— To view these incised letters have the
light on the left of the plate (or cover with thin tissue paper).

480
(see p. 289). The last two lines of the preceding Notes on the
prayer are made in burnished gold with a larger pen. Collotype
THE INITIAL A, its frame, the frame of the Plates
border, and the "furred" berries (.*.) are all in bur-
nished gold, outlined black. The "white vine pattern"
is rather simpler, and has a rather thicker stalk (in pro-
portion) than that in the previous plate (see above). Its
treatment is very similar, but it may be noted that the
border is in this case attached to the Initial, and the
pattern has almost an appearance of springing from the
Initial. The pattern — save one escaped leaf — is straitly
confined, by gold bars, throughout the length of the text,
but at the ends it is branched out and beautifully flourished
in the free margins above and below. These terminals
of the pattern having a broad blue outline (dotted white)
may be said to carry their background with them.
The (recto) page opposite that shown in the plate has
an initial D and a border similarly treated, and each one
of the Psalms and Prayers throughout the book is begun
in like manner.

PLATE XX. — One page of an Italian (late] Fifteenth-

century MS. Ex libris S. C. CockerelL
" From a book containing the Penitential Psalms in
Italian, the Psalter of St. Jerome, and various prayers.
Written with great delicacy by Mark of Vicenza for
someone named Evangelista [see nth line] in the last
quarter of the fifteenth century. Other works of this
accomplished scribe are known." — [S. C. C.]
THE VOLUME — of which a complete (recto) page
is shown — contains 60 leaves (5! inches by 3f inches) :
MARGINS, approx. : Inner \ inch, Head f inch, Side
IT3^ inch, Foot iij inch.
This very fine WRITING is typical of the practical
style and beautiful workmanship which should be the aim
of a modern scribe (see pp. 47, 310).
It is written with a very narrow nib, hence the pen-
2 H 481
Notes on the forms are not so obvious as in some early formal hands ;
Collotype and for this reason alone it would be better to practise
Plates such a hand as the tenth-century MS. (Plate VIII.)
before seriously attempting to model a hand on the above
(see^pp. 416, 311, 324).
The use of a fine pen is apt to flatter the unskilled
penman, and he finds it hard to distinguish between
delicate pen-work which has much character, and that
which has little or none. And he will find, after some
knowledge of penmanship gained in practice with a broad
nib, that the copying of this fine Italian writing — while
in reality made much more feasible — may even appear
more difficult than before.
CONSTRUCTION.— The pen has a moderate slant
— see thin stroke in e« The letters are very square, the
tops flat (especially in m, n> and r)> and the lower parts
flat (as in u)- This shows the same tendency that there
is in the tenth century and other hands to avoid thin or
high arches in the letters.
The feet in some of the letters (in i, for example) are
in the nature of stroke-serifs, but the pen probably made
these with an almost continuous movement — from the stem,
Note — the fine form of the a ;
that b and 1 have an angle where the stem joins
the lower part ;
that f was made something like t> and the upper
part was added : this was a common mode
— see fig. 1 80 (the f shown in plate is un-
fortunately not a good specimen) ;
that g — a very graceful letter — lacks the coup-
ling serif;
that i, p, u have triangular heads, and m, n, r
hooks ;
that the ascenders have triangular heads, and the
descenders p and q, stroke-serifs ;
that the ascending and descending stems are
longer than the bodies, and the writing is in
consequence fairly widely spaced.

482
 Like most of the finest writings, this bears evidences Notes on the
of considerable speed (see pp. 84, 311). Besides the Collotype
great uniformity of the letters, the coupling strokes are Plates
occasionally carried over the succeeding stroke, the arches
of b, h, m, n, p, r (and the heads of the ascenders) fre-
quently are separated from the stems, and the o and b
occasionally fail to join below. These broken forms are
the results of speed, and are not to be imitated except as
to that which is both a cause and a result — their uniformity
(p. 254).
The RULING is in faint* ink: there are two verti-
cal marginal lines on the left and one on the right of
every page.
The DECORATION of the MS. is very simple.
The Initial (here shown) is in green and powder-gold,
on a lake ground, with white pattern : there is a very
fine brownish outline, probably drawn first. The two
upper lines of writing and ||ofO are in red.

PLATE XXL — Italian (early) Sixteenth - century

"cursive" or "Italic" MS. Ex libris S. C.
Cocker ell. (See enlargement, Jig. 178.)
" From the Poems of Cardinal Bembo, a fine example
of the cursive writing perfected in Italy in the first half
of the sixteenth century. The book measures 8J by 5^
inches, and contains 79 leaves." — [S. C. C.J
THE MARGINS of the page from which the plate
is taken are approximately : Inner f inch, Head ^ inch,
Side 2 inches, Foot ij inch. Note. — The lines of writing
begin as usual at the left margin, but do not extend to the
(true) margin on the right, hence the latter (the side
margin on the recto, and the inner margin on the verso)
would appear unnaturally wide, but the effect is carried
off by the (true) side margins being already exceptionally
wide (and by the writing on the backs of the leaves
showing through the semi-transparent vellum and so
marking the true margins).
483
Notes on the This mode is very suitable for a book of poems, in
Collotype which the lengths of the lines of writing may vary con-
Plates siderably, because the •writing-line being longer than the
ordinary line of writing allows room for extraordinarily
long lines, and any appearance of irregularity is carried off
by the extra wide side margins.
THE WRITING is very beautiful, clear, and rapid
— made with a " slanted pen " (see " Italics," p. 311, and
fig. 178). Note the slightness of the slope of the letters
(especially of the Capitals), and the length of the stems
and the wide spacing.
Note, also, the flatness of the curves in a c d e g o q
and the horizontal top stroke in a d g q, oblique in e c
(giving angular tops). The branching away from the stem
of the first part of the arch in b h m n pr (seen also reversed
in a d g q #), and the pointed, almost angular, quality of
the arch. This, which is apt to become a fault in a
more formal upright hand (see note on Plate XXII.) is
helpful in a more rapid running hand, and gives clearance
to the junctions of the strokes (r j,) — see fig. 182.
The heads, simple or built-up, hooks tending to become
triangular.
The letters in this MS. are rarely coupled.
The very graceful g has a large pear-shaped lower loop
touching the upper part.

PLATE XXII. — " Communion Service " written and

illuminated by E. Johnston, 1902 A.D. (" Office
Book" Holy Trinity Church, Hastings). Reduced
(nearly f scale).
The MS. on 160 leaves (i 5 inches by 10 inches) of fine
parchment ("Roman Vellum," see p. 173), contains the
Communion Service and many collects, epistles, and
gospels for special festivals, &c. MARGINS : Inner
i\ inch, Head ij inch, Side ^\ inches, Foot 3J
inches.
484
 THE WRITING— after tenth century model (see Notes on the
Plate VIII.) — has the fault (referred to at p. 421) of Collotype
showing too much thin line (running up obliquely), the Plates
upper and lower parts of the letters are not flat enough.
The tail of the g is inadequate, and the lines of writing
are too near together. The writing is readable, however,
and fairly regular. The CAPITALS are Uncials
(after Plate V.) and occasional " Romans."
The RUBRIC (" U Then shall be said or sung ") is in
red, fitted in beside the round initial and marking the top
left-hand corner of the page (see footnote, p. 211).
The word "GLORY" (and decoration)— and also
the F and T, showing in recto page — are in raised bur-
nished gold, which, it will be seen, has cracked consider-
ably in the G (see p. 164).
The STAVES are in red (p. 140), the notes above
GLORY in raised gold, those in the lower stave, black.
The BOOK was of a special nature (see pp. 344-5),
being intended for use in a certain church and on certain
special festivals : hence a considerable degree of orna-
ment and a generally decorative treatment was permitted
(p. 330). The Prayer of Consecration, together with a
miniature, occupied a complete opening, the eight margins
of which were filled with solid, framing borders (p. 213)
in red, blue, green, and gold. Coats-of-arms and other
special symbols and devices were introduced on the Title
page and in other places.

PLATE XX I I I. —The Story of Aucassin and Nicolette,

written and illuminated by W. H. Coiulishaiv,
1898 A.D.
THE VOLUME consists of 50 + leaves of" Roman
Vellum " (7 J inches by 5! inches).
MARGINS, approx. :. Inner } inch, Head if inch,
Side i|^ inch, Foot 2 inches.
THE WRITING, very legible, rather "Gothic-
Roman."
485
Notes on the THE CAPITALS are illuminated throughout the
Collotype text in gold on blue and red grounds. The backgrounds
Plates are square, with edges pointed or indented, outlined blacky
and lined inside 'white. The INITIAL II is in gold on
blue : the moon and stars are in white and gold and white.
THE LINE-FINISHINGS, mostly in black pen-
work, consist of little groups (sometimes of sprays) of
flowers, &c. Sprays from the border separate the
" Song " from the " Tale."
THE MUSIC.— Staves black; Clefs, gold; Notes, red.
THE BORDERS (in the opening from which the
plate is taken) frame the text on both pages — nearly
filling the margins (see p. 213) : the side and foot edges
of the (verso) page are shown in the plate. The main
pattern is a wild rose, flowers and all, outlined with a
rather broad blue line : the stalks and leaves (lined
white) are apple-green, the flowers are painted white with
raised gold hearts, the thorns are red. Through the wild
rose is twined honeysuckle and woody nightshade : stalks —
(h) red, (wn] black; and flowers — (h} red with yellow
spots, (w«) purplish red with gold centres.
The whole effect is very brilliant and charming. The
freedom and naturalness of the "design " remind one of a
country hedgerow (p. 213), and show that vital beauty
which is the essence of true illumination.

PLATE XXIV. — Inscription cut in Stone by A. E. R.

Gill, 1903 A.D. Reduced (j\ scale). NOTE. — To
view these incised letters have light on the left of plate
(or cover with thin tissue-paper}.

The STONE— a slab of " Hopton Wood" (p. 395),

30 inches by 18 inches by 2 inches, is intended to go
over a lintel. It has a simple moulding. Note how the
INSCRIPTION occupies the space (pp. 352, 394): the
LETTERS have approximately the same apparent 'weight
(p. 328) — the large stems are more than twice the height
of the small ; they are only ^ wider.

486
 Note the strongly marked and elegantly curved serifs ; Notes on the
the straight-tailed R ; the I drawn out (marking the word Collotype
IN) ; the beaked A, M, and N ; the Capital form of U. Plates
The letters DEO would be rather wide for ordinary
use (p. 270), but as special letters, occupying a wide
space,1 are permissible.
Even in the collotype, I think this inscription shows
to what a high level modern inscription cutting might be
raised by the use of good models and right and simple
methods.

1 Letters in early inscriptions separated as these are indicated

each •'a. word (contracted), as S. P. Q. R. (Senatus PopulusQue
Romanus}.

487
INDEX
 INDEX

Index A, 189, 271, 274, 280, 410-11 "Arabic Numerals," 82, 426
A, Ancient & Modern, 195- Arms or branches, I2O (v. Letters")
196 Arrangement of Lettering, 88,
Abbott, Rev. Dr. T. K., 413 122, 239, 255-268, 389
Accidental words, 259, 384 " Ascenders " and Ascending
Acquiring a Formal Hand : strokes, 79,97, 119, 300, 314
(1) Tools, 48 As iso (gesso), 1 66
Azzuro delta magna, 179
(2) Methods, 61
(3) Models, 70 267 272,
(4) Practice, 85 B, 189, 273, 275-279,
Addenda & Corrigenda, 23
Addresses, Illuminated, 353 280, 410-11
Backgrounds, 184, 186, 188-
Advertisements, &c., 340, 352,
193, of
Bands 211-213
lettering, 123, 136,
389
Alabaster & Marbles, 395
Alcuin of York, 41 " Barbaric " illumination, 194
Aldus, 311, 373 Bath
" Basket work,"
(stone), 395 208, 209
Alphabet, derivation of the, 36
Alphabets, useful kinds of, Beauty, 237-240, (12)
Beauty of Arrangement, 255
267^ 377 > 390
Aluminium leaf, 165
,, ,, Form, 252
Amperzand (&), 361, 416 ,, ,, Uniformity, 254
Bibliography, &c. , 385
(Amperzand ; Examples. —
Figs. 50, 79, 148, 172, 173, Binding books, 346, 103, 106,
208 & Plates) no, in, 171, 185, 197
Analysis of Versals, 115 Black and Gold, 185, 202
Analysis of Writing, 72 Black and Red, 127, 328
Ancaster (stone), 393, 395 " Black letter," 118, 141, 263,
Angles in Writing, 43, 46,
1$I,S64
Black outlines, 182, 88,
118, 253, 416 ^
Anglo-Saxon writing, 326 212
Annotations, &c., 144, 315, Blake, William, (footnote) 343
3 '7> 344 « Block letter," 384, 390

49°
Blue, 176-180, 181, 182 Capitals, simple -written, 113, Index
Book-hands, 36 179 302
Book Marks, 142 297,
Capitals, sizes of, 108, 119,
Books, binding, 346, 103, 106, 122

no, in, 171, 185, 197 Carbonate of Copper (blue),

Books, Manuscript, 98, 341,
&c. Carolin (or Carlo
Books, size and shape of, 100-
e
Writing, 41-43, 45,vin305
gian)
101 Caslon, William, 373, (26)
Books, size of writing in, Cennino Cennini, 165, 184,
101, 107
Book typography, founda- Chalk, 395, 402
tions of, 13, 98 Chapters, beginnings of, 125,
Borders, Illuminated, 98, 198— (footnote l) 342, (2) 343
203, 211,214, 4*7-43° 386 237-240, 323
Character,
Borders, penwork, 25 " Characteristic Parts," 247,
Bows & Curves, 121
Brasses, 137, 340, 375 252, 280
Characterization of letters, 278
Brazil-Wood, 175 Charlemagne, 41
British Museum, MSS. in, Charter hands, 417
386, 409, &c. Chequers, 191, 197, 215-217
Broadsides, 338, 350 Chinese printing, 372
Brushes, 172 Chinese Vermilion, 178
Brush-made (painted) letters, Chinese White, 180
376, 280, (118), 292, 384 Chisel-made letters, 36, 196,
Bubbles, in size, 148 278, 280, 292, 375, 391,
" Built-up " letters, 291, 118-
119, 254, 289, 331 Chisel-shape of nib, 57, 63
396, 410Press, the, 374
Chiswick
Burnished gold, 160, 184 (see
also Gold} Chronograms, 363
Burnisher, the, 158, 166, 171 Church Services, &c., 140,
Burnishing slab, 146, 153
345, 387; 484
Close spacing, 262—267
C, 270, 281, 410-11 CNUT, charter of, 416
Cake colours, 175 Cobden-Sanderson, T. J., (13),
Calligraphy, 14, 368 368, 387
Cane, or Reed pens, 52 Cockerell, Douglas, 171, (on
Capitals (see also Letters) limp vellum bindings) 346,
Capitals, arrangement of, 256, 387
258 ; (in Lines, Headings & Cockerell, S. C.,423, 430-483
Pages) 125-126, 128-136, Collotype plates, the, 407, 431
299, 422 Colophons, 142, 342
Capitals, coloured, 113, 118, Coloured " Inks," 172, 322
122, 123, 134, 185 ,, Letters (see Capitals, &
Contrasts)
Capitals & Small letters, 40,
H2, 122, 302 Colour, cake & powder, 175
Capitals, severe type of, 294 ,, pan & tube, 176
 Decorative Contrasts, 327, 363
Index Colour, preparations, 175-180
,, for Penwork, 176 Decorative use of Red, 144
,, proportions of, 182 214
" Descenders," and Descending
,, 177
Repetition & Limita- strokes, 79, 97, 300, 314
tion of, 181 "Design," Decorative, 177,
Colours, Tints few & constant,
(183), 201, 210, 214-222
"Design" in illumination,
,, Use of, 195, 202, 203,
216, 422,424, (389) Designing in type, 365, 371
Desk, the, 49
194
Colour- work Illumination, 17,
,, Position of, 61
Column double, 104, 134, ,, Writing level on, 62
s,
J36» 37° „ Different slopes of, 68
'95
Commonplace, the, 268 ,, Slopeybr colour, 118
Complex and simple forms, Development of g, 325
Development of illumination,
Construction of writings, 73, 1 6, 127, 204, 409
83-85, 118, 292, 311 (see Development of illuminated
also the Notes on the Collotypes) initial, 48, 114, 205, 423
Continental Writing, 41, 413 Development of Versals, 112
Contrasts, Decorative, 327, 363 Development of Writing, the,
,, „ of Colour, 327, 336
,, „ of Form, 330, 336, 35, s409,
Device in Letters , 362
& Author' s Preface
144
Diaper patterns, 192, 215-217
,, ,, of Red & Black, " Display types," 352
Distinct lines of writing, 326
"Conventionalism," 220 Distinctiveness, 221, 247, 256
" Copy book " hands, 304, 305 Divisions of the text, 123, 138,
Copyingahand,7i,82, 311,323 256
Copying early work, 83, 114, Dividing Words, 258, 385
!95> 3*3> 4H-4I7, 422~4M, Dots, groups of, 188, 213
482 ^ Drawing, 165, 203, 220, 227
Correcting mistakes, 174, 344 Drawing letters, 118, 1*6,
Countercharging, 188,216,424 146, 292, 293
Coupling-strokes,
ters, 73 joining let- "Durham Book," 41, 71, 215,

Cowlishaw, W. H., 485

Cursive Writing, 37, 317, 483 E, 272, 273, 281, 410-11
Cutting sheets, 99 Edges of Books, rough, or
Cutting-slab, 61 smooth and gilt, in
Cutting the Pen, 52-60 Egg, white of, 163, 165, 166,
" Cyphers" & Monograms, 361 '75, «79» l83
Egg, yolk of, 175, 179, 180
D, 270, 281, 410-11 Egypt, Hieratic writing of, 36
' ' Deckle " edge, 1 1 1 Eleventh Century Writing,
Decoration of Print, 194, 364, Elzevirs,
46, 47> the,
3°5> 373
4i6
371, 374

492
English Half-Uncials, 40 Freedom, 122, 126, 239, 258, Index
English, Writing, 40, 46, 47, 264, 324, 327, 342, 369, 21
3°3> 3°5, (335)> 4I5-4'7> " French chalk," 167, 174
419, 423, 426 French Writing, 41, 305, 428
English, modern, writing in, Froben, (footnote) 365, 373
300, 326, 484, 485
Engraving, Metal, 365, 375 G, 270, 282, 410-11
" Essential Forms," 240, 275 g, Development of, 325
Even Spacing, 265, 219 " Geometrical " patterns, 205
Gesso Sottile, 1 66
"Expression," 240
Gilding (see Gold)
F, 272, 274, 282, 410-11 Gill, A. E. R., 383, 486, (on
" Face," of type, 373, (26) Inscriptions in Stone) 389
Fifteenth Century Writing, Gilt edges, in
46,47. (3*6)> 33J> Gold-leaf, 151, 165, 169
" Filigree" Illumination, 197, Gold-leaf, Laying & Burnish-
ing. HS-1?1. l84
428 the Pen, 51, 69
Filling « Gold Ink," 165
" Fine Writing" and "Mas- Gold letters, 148, 166, 168,
186, 188, 299, 416, (405)
sed Writing," 260, 265, 299
Fine Pen Writing, 59, 86, Gold powder, "paint," or
311,324,482, 26 matt gold, 163, 183, 187
Firth, C. M., 179 Gold, spots, bars, frames, 183
Flemish MS., 421 Gold, use of, 183-193 (see
Floral Ornaments & Decora- 127-145)
also Other Colour Schemes,
tion, 182, 187, 191, 192, Gold Writing, 164, 299
198-203, 219
Fly-leaves, in, 346 " Golden Psalter," the, 218
"Folder," 64, 99,348 " Gothic lettering," 46, 118, 282,
Folding sheets for books, 99, 33*. 336, 373
Greek Writing, 36, 320
101-103, 1IX
Folio, IOZ Green, 176-178,181, i82,(2O2)
Gum arabic, 147, 175
Foot margin, 106, 352, &c. Gutenberg, 372
Formal Hand, acquiring a —
(1) Tools, 48
(2) Methods, 61 H» 27J> z.73» 28*, 4"
Half-Uncials, 37, 40, 71, 238,
(3) Models, 70
(4; Practice, 85 302,
Ham- 413-415
Hill (stone), 393, 395
Formal Writing, 36, 317, 323
Formal Writing, Modern, 71, Hand-made paper, in, 51
86, 114, 310, 315, 323, Handwriting, ordinary, 14, 15,
414-417, 481 77, 280, 315, 323, 374
Foundation Stones, 393 Headings in Capitals and
Fourteenth Century Writing, Colour, 125, 132, 134, 297,
(footnote 2) 343, 353
46, (114), 423, (427)
Framed parchments, 356 Heads, feet, serifs, 84, 244, 311,
Framing borders, 25, 213, 371 414, 416, 418, 482 493
Index Heraldry, 216, 360, 361, 336 Inks, 51, 70 (see also Coloured
Herbal, A, 221, 369 " inks " and Gold)
Herringham, Christiana J., Inner margin, 106
165, 386 Inscription, modern, 487
Hewitt, Graily, 386, (Appen- Inscriptions, size & arrange-
dix :On Gilding) 167 ment of, 88, 265, 351, 392
Historiated Initial, 423 Inscriptions in stone, 389
Holding the Pen, 64-68 Inscriptions on metal, stone,
wood, &c., 375, 377, 264
,, ,, shaft,ontal
,, Horiz 6 1, 67
"Inside Shapes," 253, 281 (C)
Hollow letters, 119, 208 Irish Half-Uncials, 40
Holy Trinity Church, Hast- Irish Writing, 34, 40, 302,
ings, Office Book, 484
Hooks, or beats, 244, 280, 289 Italian Writing, 47, 305, 312,
Hoptonwood (Stone), 395, 486
317, 412, 417-419, 429-
Horizontal thin strokes, 65, 484
66, 72, 73, (footnote] 304 Italics, 311, 48, 130, 263
Italic Capitals, 315
Hiibner's Exempla, 378—380, "Italic" Writing, 138, 483

388 283
I, 189, J, 283,411
I for J., use of, 283 Joachinus de Gigantibus, 430
Illuminated Addresses, 353 Jonah & fish, 195, 421
214
Illuminated borders, 199, 211,
K, 273, (stone),
Ketton 284, 401,395411
Illumi Initial 2 (
na s, 14 see Kells, Book of, 413, 40
Initial,tedalso Collotype Notes)
Illumination, 14, 486, 98 Kelmscott Press, the, 364
Illumination, a definition of, Knife for pen cutting, 60
193. *94
Illumination, a theory of, 193
Illumination, heavy, 263 L, 273, 284,
Lamb's skin, 410-11
167, 173-74
Illumination, origin & de- Lapis Lazuli, 178
velopment of,48, 127, 204, Learning to Write, 48
ableness) 86, 390 (see Read-
Legibility,
409, 16
Illumination, tools for, 172
Illustrations in MS. books, Lettering, arrangement of, 88,
13, 14, 221, (374) 122, 239, 255-268, 389
Incised Letters, 377-384, 403- Lettering, construction & ar-
4°5> 39* rangement of,237, 17-19
Indented (set in) lines, 113, 264 Lettering, contrasts of size,
267 &c., 327-328, 353
weight,
Initial, illuminated, develop-
ment of, 48, 114, (134), 205, Lettering, divers uses of, 337
33°. 333> 423 Lettering for Reproduction,
Initials, round or square, 210 365
Initial Pages, &c., 1 12, 128, 365 Letters in Bands, 123, 136,
Initial word (IN), 128
494
Proportions and Methods, Linked letters, 260, 361 Index
100, 221, 256, 267, 358 " Lombardic
210 " Capitals, 119,
Letters, Brush-made, (118),
292, 376 Loumyer, G., 147
Letters, " Built-up, "291, 254,
289, 331, 118-119 M, 61,84
271, 284, 410-11
Letters, Characterization of, Magnifying glass, use of, 57,
*78
,, ,, " Arms & Branches," Majuscules, (footnote} 300
281 (C), 288, 331 Marbles & Alabasters, 395
,, ,, Stems, 288 (drawn Marginal lines, 109, in, 136,
out), 282, 324, 331 343
„ ,, Bows & Curves, 288 Margin, the Foot, 352, (106)
,, „ Serifs, 288 Margins, proportions of, 256,
,, ,, Tails, 289, 251, 331 89»94,95,97, 103,265,394
Letters, drawn,292~93, 146,118 Margins, wide, 89, 103, 213,
Letters, gold (see Gold} 222,265,299,317, 351,483
Letters, "Hollow," 119, 208, " Massed writing," 79, 260
Matt gold, 183, 187
Letters, incised & raised, 377- Methods and Proportions,
384> 4°3 100, 221, 256, 267
Letters in inscriptions, size of, Middle Ages, the, 196
35'»393 Miniatures, 98, 127, 165, 203,
220
Letters, " Lombardic," 119 Minuscule, 37, 302
Letters, monogrammatic, 260
Letters in outline, (294), 378- Models of lettering, 70, 114,
s,
Lette3r80 round (see Round or Modern Handwriting, 315-
Square types) 323 (see also Formal Writing
Letters,
273 Upper & Lower Parts, 15* Hand-writing, Ordinary)
Monograms & Devices, 361,
Letter V t o 1 260
s, aried ypes f, 14,
119, 209, 377; (on one Morris, William, 368, 386-7
Page) 352 MS. Books, 98, 256, 341
Letters, Wide & narrow, 270, Music with red staves, 140, 345
278
' * Library gilt" III N, 271, 285, 410-11
Lighting, 62 Narrow letters, 269-273, 278
Limitation in decoration, 177, " Natural" illumination, 202
181, 198, 215, 220, 352 Nib (see Pen)
" Limner's " Illumination, 202 Notes in red, &c. , 130, 144
Line- Finishings, 205, 123, 134, Numbering pages, no, 142,
193. 263, 425, 486 144, 34*
Lines of Writing, 262. 326, 343 Numerals, "Arabic," 82
Lines, red, 144
Line-spaces in text, 123, 138, O, 270, 285,411
256 " Oblong" shaped book, 103
495
Index Obsolete letters, &c., 86, 323 Pen-knife, 60
Octavo, I O2 Pen-wiper, 61
Openings, IOI, Io6, 213, 365 Pen-work illumination, 197
" Originality," 268, 20 Penmanship (or use of the pen),
Ornament of backgrounds, 191 35-38,84-85,118,197, 198,
,, use of, 123, 222, 204, 218, 238, 239, 241-247,
254. 33° 254,262, 278, 291, 311,317,
Ornament, "woven," 208
Ornaments (see also Design & Preface
Perso
375, 414,
nalit y, 239, & Author's
418, 323
Decoration) Phrasing, 384
Ornamental Letters, 330, 48,
114, 208, 276, 298, 364, 25 " Plain song," 140
Outlines, 186, &c. Planning MS., Spacing, &c.,
,, in black, 182 Methods}
Oxgall, 175 97, 100, 358 (see also Scribes1
Planning sections& pages, 342
P, 273-274, 285, 411 Plaster of Paris, 166
Page, proportions of a, 317 Platinum leaf, 165
Pages in Capitals, 125, 128, Poetry, long lines in, 95, 97,
138.484
132, 299, 363-365
Pages, thickness of, 99 Poetry, general treatment of,
Painted (brush-made) letters, 95, 123, 138, 263, 337, 338,
376, 280, (118), 292, 384
" Pointed " Writing, 40, 41
PaLeographical Society's Pub- Pounce, 145, 146, 167, 174
lications, The, 388,412,413 Portland Stone, 395
Pan colours, 176
Powder Colours, 175
Paper, hand-made, 51, in
Paper Sheets, sizes of, 103 371
Powder gold or " gold paint,"
Paragraphs & Paragraph 183, 187) 170, (see Matt Gold,
146, 163,
marks, 112, 113, 123, 141, 144
Parchment & " Vellum," 173, Practice (in Lettering], 21-22,
38, 107, no, 167
Parchment, framing of, 356 385
Practice, acquiring
hand, 85, 327 a formal
Patterns, elementary, 215, 205
23
Patterns, indented in gold, 191 Practice & theory, 267
Prayer Book, 345
Pens, for colour, 172, 180
,, metal, 60 (footnote, 20) Prefaces in colour, &c., 130,
„ Quill, 52, 54, 59, 172, 20 3J5
" Primary Colour Sensations,"
,, Ree o C 51, 52, 182
d 84r ane,
63, Printed books, Decoration of,
Pen, cutting the, 52-60 i94> 369-372, 374
Pen, holding the, 64-68 Printers' marks, 142
Pen, Nibs shape of, 56, 118 Printers' methods, 101, 113,
,, width of, 84, 1 1 8, 258, 264,367267, 363-374
Printing,
292, 324
Pen, Pressure on, 63, 23 Proportion, 221, 251

496
Proportions and Methods, Roman Writing, 36-40, 297, Index
100, 221, 256, 267, 358
Pumice, powdered, 146 Rooke, Noel, 227, 5
Punctuation marks, 82, 384 " Round ters,"269 and " Square " let-
Purple, 175, 177, 180 412 or Square types of
Purple Vellum, 299 Round
D, E, H, M, U, &c., 40,
270, 286,4x1 119, 132,210,282, 300
e,
ualities of good Writing, 239 Round, Upright, Formal
Quarto, 102 Hands, 65, 302
23 Roundness in Writing, 38, 44,
Quill pens, 52, 54, 59, 172, 20
45.47> 3°4, 4H
Rubricating, 127, 98, 130,
R, 272, 274, 286,401, 411 144, 1 80, 194, 344, 345, 372
"Rules,"
Raised Letters in stone, &c., 144, 364
377, 384, 403 Ruling, double, 88, 304, 414
Raising preparation (or Ruling
108, 258,pages, 299, &c., 89, 99,
343
"Size"), 145, 146, 166, 168 "°, 343
Readableness, 237-240, 254, Ruling stylus, 89, 100, 108,
259, 260, 264, 265
Recto (right-hand page), 105, Rustic Capitali, 38, 297
112, 181, 365 Rustic Capital in Stone, 378
Red (paint), 176-78, 181, 182 Rye, Slate at, 363, 382
Red & Black, 127, 328, 364,
S, 273, 274, 286,411
2
Red 37lines, 144 " St. Albans Psalter," the, 419
Red writing, 130, 144, 194, Sandarach (resin), 174
Scale for ruling, 99, 25
S'5, 328» 345
Reed or Cane pens, 51, 52, Scalpel for pen-knife, 60
63,84 Scribes', methods, 65, 88, 101,
Renaissance, the, and writing, 103, 113, 128, 130,221, 258,
47,419 268
Repetition in decoration, 181, Scriptorium, 4, 368
Scroll work, 203
215, 185, & see Limitation
11 Rivers," (footnote) 262 " Section," " Gathering" (or
Roman Alphabet, the, 36, " Quire"), 102, HO, 346
114, 268, 390 Sections of Letters in stone,
Roman Capitals, 189, 210, 405, 403
238, 294, 297, 299, 302, Semi-formal Writing, 317
377, 39°-39'» 409-41* Semi-Uncials, see Half-Uncials
Roman Capitals, Written, 297, Serifs, 73, 84, 120, 241, 244-
247,288, 311, 314, 392
n" ters, Service Books, 140, 345, 387,
"Rom3a02 charac 118,
241, 263, 278 484
Roman Small Letters, 310, 47 Set Inscriptions, 350
Roman Uncials, 38 Setting out &spacing, 126,128,
'' Roman Vellum " 173 221, 258,351, 384-S»396
* 497
 269

Index Sgraffito, lettering in, 339 "Spring" for pens, 54, 59

Sharpening stones, 61. 399 "Square Capitals" 37, 412
Sheets,
ruling, cutting,
99 folding & "Square and Round" letters,
Sign Writing & Brush-Work, Squar or round types of D,
E, eH, M, U, &c.,4o, 119,
Silver leaf, 165, 299 132, 210, 282, 300
Simple376 and complex forms, Stanzas or Verses, 123, 138
!95, 323 (see also Poetry)
Simple Written Capitals, 123, scriptions, 395 of, for in-
Stones, best kinds
297, 302 Stones, Foundation, 393
Simple-Written Letters, 291
Simplicity, 240, 255 Stonyhurst College, Gospel of
" Size " or Raising prepara- S. John, in Uncials, 413
tion, 145, 146, 166, 168 Straightforwardness, 97, 101,
Size & arrangement of inscrip- 221-22, 258, 264, 267, 327,
tions, 88, 265, 351, 392 342? 344, 35 1» 396
Size & Shape of book, 100-101 " Straight pen," 44, 241, 3°4
Sizes of Capitals, 119, 122,256 Stylographic writing, 317
Sizes of paper sheets, 103 " Swash Letters" 315
Skeleton forms, 240, 247, 275 Symbolical devices, 142
"Sketching," 126, 218, 258, 292 " Symmetrical
264, 389 " arrangement,
"Slanted-Pen " or Tilted Writing,
43,73,241,247,304,310,415
Slate, 382, 395 T, 272, 286, 411
Sleight of hand, 23,85,31 1, 322 Tail-pieces, 142, 342
Small-letters and Capitals, 40, "Tai/iness," 300
112, 122, 302 Tenison Psalter, the, 426
Small or Fine-pen Writing, Tenth Century Writing, 46,
59, 86, 311, 324, 482, 26 130, 295, 305, 325, (326),
Spacing close, 262—67 415,482,485
Spacing evenly, 265, 219 Theory & practice, 267
Spacing letters, words & lines, Thicks & Thins, 43, 63, 83-85,
77, 128, 256, 394: seealso — 118, 292, 317, 375,377,39^
Spacing & planning MS., 89, Thin strokes, horizontal, 65,
66, 72, 304
97
Spacing & setting out, 126, Thirteenth Century Illumina-
128, 221-22, 258, 351, 385, tion, 185, 114, 195, 203?
210, 423-427
Spacing wide, 262-67, 3T4, 327 Thirteenth Century Writing,
396 Books, 300, 304, 344-
Special 46, 114, (116), 331, 423,
346,412,485, 299
Special words and letters, 123, Thompson,
425,
429 426 H. Yates-, 227,
g,
Speed in writin 84, 305, Thompson, Sir E. M., 385
3IX» (quotations from), 36, 37,
352 3*5, 322, 324> 483
Spots, in "design," 187-88 41, 127, 418, 426

498
"Tilted" letters (O, &c.), Varied types of .letters, 114, Index
285, 44, 290 119, 209, 377; (on one
Title pages, 128, 142, 258, page) 352
363 " Vellum " & Parchment, 173,
Tombstones, 237, 394 38, 107, IIO, 167: framing
Tool-forms, 278, 292, 323,
Vellum for bindings, 348
Tools392 and Materials for ac- Verdigris, 178
Vermilion, 177
quiring aformal hand, 48
Tools & Materials for illu- Versal Letters, 34, 112-126,
mination, 172, 20 205, 208, 218, 294, 296, 331,
Tools & Materials for laying 420, 423 (see also Chapter
& burnishing gold, 145
Tools for inscriptions in Versal Letters, Examples of,
stone —
VIII.)(and ' Plates)
114
Chisels, 396-403 Verses, see Versals, Paragraphs,
Mallets, &c., 399-402 Stanzas, &c.
Top margin (or Head), 106, Vicenza, Mark of, 481
iii, 343
Trajan Column, Inscription W, 287, 411
Walker, Emery, 372, 387
on, 409—411
Wall Inscriptions, 350, 406
Turkey's Quill, a, 54
Twelfth Century Illumina- Waterproof Ink, 51, 172
tion, 195, 205, 218, 420- "Weight" of lettering, 327-
3*8, 353, 377
422 Century Writing, 46,
Twelfth Whall, C. W., 17
White, Chinese, 180
47, (116), 305,331,417-422
White, use of, 180, 182, 183,
"Tying up," 260 212
Typography, book, founda-
tions of, 13, 98 "Whiting," 147, 174
Whitelead (biacca), 166
U, 271, 287, 411 White-of-egg, 163, 165, 166,
Ultramarine Ash, 178 175, 179, 183
Uncials (Examples, &c.), 300 "White vine pattern," 202,
,, Roman, 38
„ Script II., 79 Wide
430, Margins,
481 89, 103, 213,
Uniformity, 244, 254, 311, 222,265, 299>3I7» 35^483
324, 181 Wide spacing, 262-67, 314,
Upright Round-hand, 44, 65, 327
Wood Engraving, 364, 365,
70, 302-304, 412, 413-
415
371, (221)
Words in Capitals, 126, 136,
" Upright" shaped book, 103
Spacing)
297 (see also Headings &
V, 271,287, 411
V for U, use of, 283 Words to the line, number of,
Variety, 177, 255, 352 85, 107
Variety in initials, 209 Working in situ, 405
499
 299

Index Writing, ist to 5th century, Writing, Anglo-Saxon, 326

36-39, 412 Writing,
107 Fine & Massed, 260,
„ 6th to gth century,
Writi o H 14,
4°~45> 3°3» 3°Si ng, rdinary and,
(326), 412-415 15, 77, 280, 315, 323, 374
,, loth century, 46, Writing, size of, &c., xox,
'3°, (*95)» 3°S,
Writi t D of,
325, (3l6)» 4155
482, 485 ng, he evelopmen
t
,, nth century, 46, 47, Writing s,
35, 409, constru ction of, 73,
& Author's Preface
3°5,century,
416 83-85, 1 1 8, 292, 311 (see
,, 1 2th 46, 47, also Collotype Notts)
(116), 305, 331, Writing-Level, the, 62
Writing-line, length of, 105,
,, 417-422
i3th century, 46, 107, 109, 262, 343
114, (116), 331, cloth for) 51
" Writing-Pad" 50, (fur or
423, 425, 426
,, I4th century, 46,
("4), 4»3> (4*7) X, 273, 287, 411
„ 1 5th century, 46,
483 Y, 273, 275, 287, 411
Yolk of egg, 175, 179, 180
,, i6th century, 310—
323, (326), 483 I Z, 272, 288, 411
Writing, Analysis of, 72, (115) I Zincotype process, the, 367

THE END

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504
THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
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Extract from Editor's Preface.

** We would have this series put artistic craftsmanship
before people as furnishing reasonable occupation for those
who would gain a livelihood. ... In the blending of
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that men of good education should be brought back into the
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*#* Projected as a Standard Series of Handbooks on the

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505
 ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES

BOOKBINDING, AND THE CARE

OF BOOKS. A TEXT- BOOK FOR
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Handbooks. ' "— Times.
"It would be hard to find any technical book of this kind which gives
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no part of its subject unaccounted for, and is in its own printing, binding,
and illustration, a favourable example of good craftsmanship. Valuable in
itself, it promises well for the series which it opens." — Scotsman.
"A special word of praise must be bestowed upon the illustrations." —
Atkenteum.

" The first of a new series of technical handbooks, and an admirable work
it is."— Pall Mall Gazette.
" In a manner lucid and practical tha whole process of bookbinding is set
forth, the matter being enhanced in usefulness by the drawings for which
Mr. Noel Rooke is responsible. Altogether the volume gives the greatest
promise for the success of the series." — Newcastle Daily J our Hal.
"Workers of all degrees will find the book well worth acquisition alike
from its valuable material and as inciting to a high standard of workman-
ship."— The British Printer.
" Bookbinders and librarians will find much to interest them in this lucid,
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" Contains so much information useful to every book-owner that it will be
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506
 ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES

SILVERWORK AND JEWELLERY. A

TEXT-BOOK FOR STUDENTS AND
WORKERS IN METAL. BY H.
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opening with Mr. D. Cockerell's ' Bookbinding.'" — The Times.
" It teaches not only processes and workshop practice, but
also good taste in the making of objects in which in these days
vulgarity is none too seldom seen. Admirably illustrated, well
written, and practically serviceable, the book should prove
welcome alike to craftsmen and to amateurs." — The Scotsman.
"... The book will have a fascination for all craftsmen,
and may be read with advantage by every one who wishes to
understand the underlying principles of the art crafts." — The
Morning Post.
" Not only to apprentices and learners, but also to experienced
craftsmen, the book can be most cordially commended. Its value
is enhanced by a full glossary and an index." — Gtasgoiv Herald.
" This volume, which belongs to the admirable Artistic Crafts
Series of Technical Handbooks, gives practical instruction in
one of the most beautiful of man's handicrafts." — The Newcastle
Chronicle.

" We cannot imagine a better aid and supplement to practical

experience in the workshop than this handbook. All necessary
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 ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES

WOOD CARVING: DESIGN AND

WORKMANSHIP. BY GEORGE JACK.
With 78 Drawings by the Author, and 16
Pages of Collotype Reproductions. 320
Pages. Price $s. net

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" The study of some form of handicraft has become an important matter
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" In this notable addition to the Handbooks on the Artistic Crafts, Mr.
Jack deals thoroughly not only with the craftsmanship of wood-carving, but
also with the theory of design, and the sul>ject-matter which the artist
should select to carve." — Newcastle Daily Journal.
"The illustrations complete in a very appreciable way the value of one of
the soundest text-books within the reach of the student of wood-carving."—
Glasgow Herald.
" Quite up to the level of its predecessors." — Studio.
" His illustrations from both ancient examples and from his own work
are excellently chosen and reproduced, and show that he has made himself
the master and the pupil of the best traditions of his craft." — Pall Mall
Gazette.

" Clear instruction, profusely illustrated, and admirably presented by the

publisher."— Sheffield Daily Telegraph.
" Mr. Jack's love of his art is evidenced by every one of his chapters.
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Furniture It is exceedingly cheap at the published price of 55." —
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508
THE ARTISTIC CRAFTS SERIES
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STAINED GLASS WORK. A Text-Book

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worthy of the remarkable series to which it belongs, and this, without
reserve, we can affirm to be the case." — Arts and Crafts.
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cess of stained-glass manufacture, with illustrations and a large number of
diagrams." — The Newcastle Daily Journal.
"Apart from the craftsman, also, this book should prove of great service
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taining fine old windows or as architects or clients intent on securing good
modern work." — The Glasgow Herald.
" Students will appreciate the excellent material found in this book and
the beautiful plates that accompany it. " — The Educational Review.

EMBROIDERY AND TAPESTRY

WEAVING : A Practical Text-Book of Design
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510