Unit 1 Topic 1

MNIT
Topic-1
Introduction
Dr. Anup Malik
anup.mech@mnit.ac.in
1
Contents
Introduction:
 Basic Principles of Engineering Metrology
 Standards of Measurement
 Limits, Fits, and Tolerances
2
Basic Principles of Engineering Metrology
METROLOGY
 The word metrology is derived from the
Greek word ‘metrologia’, which means
measure.
 Metrology literally means science of
measurements.
 In practical applications, it is the
enforcement, verification, and validation of
predefined standards.
 Galileo (1564–1642) has clearly formulated
the comprehensive goal of metrology with
the following statement: ‘Measure
everything that is measurable and make
measurable what is not so.’
Source: https://www.republicworld.com/lifestyle/festivals/world-metrology-day-images-to-forward-to-your-friends-and- 3
family.html
NEED FOR INSPECTION
 Inspection is defined as a procedure in which a part or product
characteristic, such as a dimension, is examined to determine
whether it conforms to the design specification.
 Inspection essentially encompasses the following:
• Ascertain that the part, material, or component conforms to the
established or desired standard.
• Accomplish interchangeability of manufacture.
• Provide the means of finding out inadequacies in manufacture.
• Take the decision to perform rework on defective parts.
• Coordinate the functions of quality control, production, purchasing,
and other departments of the organizations.
• Take the decision to perform rework on defective parts, that is, to
assess the possibility of making some of these parts acceptable after
minor repairs.
• Promote the spirit of competition, which leads to the manufacture of
quality products in bulk by eliminating bottlenecks and adopting better
production techniques. 4
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
 Accuracy is the degree of agreement of
the measured dimension with its true
magnitude.
 Precision is the degree of repetitiveness
of the measuring process.
 In other words, precision is the
repeatability of the measuring process.
 The ability of the measuring
instrument to repeat the same results
during the act of measurements for the
same quantity is known as
repeatability.
Source: https://sixsigmadsi.com/precision-and-accuracy/ 5
 Accuracy gives information regarding how far the measured value is
with respect to the true value,
 Precision indicates quality of measurement, without giving any
assurance that the measurement is correct.
6
SENSITIVITY AND CONSISTENCY
 Two terms are associated with accuracy, especially when one strives
for higher accuracy in measuring equipment: sensitivity and
consistency.
 Sensitivity is the ability of the measuring equipment to detect small
variations in the quantity being measured.
 When successive readings of the measured quantity obtained from
the measuring instrument are same all the time, the equipment is
said to be Consistent.
 A highly accurate instrument possesses both sensitivity and
consistency.
 A highly sensitive instrument need not be consistent.
 An instrument that is both consistent and sensitive need not be
accurate.
7
 As the requirement of accuracy
increases, the cost increases
exponentially.
 Demanding high accuracy unless
it is absolutely required is not
viable, as it increases the cost of
the measuring equipment and
hence the inspection cost.
 Higher accuracy makes the
measuring equipment unreliable
because it increases sensitivity. Relationship of accuracy with cost
Source: Book: N.V. Raghavendra and L. Krishnamurthy, “Engineering Metrology and Measurements”, Oxford University Press. 8
Repeatability v/s Replicability v/s Reproducibility
 Repeatability (same team, same experimental setup): The
measurement can be obtained with stated precision by the same
team using the same measurement procedure, the same measuring
system, under the same operating conditions, in the same location
on multiple trials.
 Replicability (different team, same experimental setup): The
measurement can be obtained with stated precision by a different
team using the same measurement procedure, the same measuring
system, under the same operating conditions, in the same or a
different location on multiple trials.
 Reproducibility (different team, different experimental setup): The
measurement can be obtained with stated precision by a different
team, a different measuring system, in a different location on
multiple trials.
9
OBJECTIVES OF METROLOGY AND MEASUREMENTS
Accuracy of measurement is very important for the production of a
quality product.
Basic objective of any measurement system is to provide the required
accuracy at minimum cost.
 To ensure uniformity of measurements
 To carry out process capability studies to achieve better component tolerances
 To assess the adequacy of measuring instrument capabilities to carry out their
respective measurements
 To ensure cost-effective inspection and optimal use of available facilities
 To adopt quality control techniques to minimize scrap rate and rework
 To establish inspection procedures from the design stage itself, so that the
measuring methods are standardized
 To calibrate measuring instruments regularly in order to maintain accuracy in
measurement
 To resolve the measurement problems that might arise in the shop floor
 To design gauges and special fixtures required to carry out inspection
 To investigate and eliminate different sources of measuring errors 10
GENERAL MEASUREMENT CONCEPTS
Elements of measurement
 Measurand, a physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to

be measured
 Comparator, to compare the measurand (physical quantity) with a
known standard (reference) for evaluation
 Reference, the physical quantity or property to which quantitative
comparisons are to be made, which is internationally accepted
CALIBRATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 The process of validation of the measurements to ascertain whether
the given physical quantity conforms to the original/national
standard of measurement is known as traceability of the standard.
 Calibration is a means of achieving traceability.
 If the instrument has an arbitrary scale, the indication has to be
multiplied by a factor to obtain the nominal value of the quantity
measured, which is referred to as scale factor.
 If the values of the variable involved remain constant (not time
dependent) while calibrating a given instrument, this type of
calibration is known as static calibration.
 If the value is time dependent or time-based information is required,
it is called dynamic calibration.
 The main objective of all calibration activities is to ensure that the
measuring instrument will function to realize its accuracy objectives.
12
CALIBRATION OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
 Calibration is achieved by comparing the measuring instrument
with the following:
a) a primary standard,
b) a known source of input, and
c) a secondary standard that possesses a higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated.
 During calibration, the dimensions and tolerances of the gauge or
accuracy of the measuring instrument is checked by comparing it
with a standard instrument or gauge of known accuracy.
 The limiting factor of the calibration process is repeatability,
because it is the only characteristic error that cannot be calibrated
out of the measuring system and hence the overall measurement
accuracy is curtailed.
13
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
 Error can be defined as the difference
between the measured value and the
true value of the quantity measured.
E = Vm − Vt
where E is the error, Vm is the
measured value, and Vt is the true
value Error vs Time
 Accuracy of an instrument can also be
expressed as % error. If an instrument
measures Vm instead of Vt then,
𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓
% 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑽𝒎 − 𝑽𝒕
Or, % 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝒕
14
Source: https://scienceisbeauty.tumblr.com/post/187731287110/precision-vs-accuracy-imagine-an-archer-who-has
Systematic or Controllable Errors
 A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed
amount from the true value of measurement.
 These types of errors are controllable in both their magnitude and
their direction, and can be assessed and minimized if efforts are
made to analyse them.
 The following are the reasons for their occurrence:
1. Calibration errors
2. Ambient conditions
3. Deformation of workpiece
4. Avoidable errors
15
 Calibration errors
 The difference between values indicated by an instrument and
those that are actual.
Source: https://forumautomation.com/t/what-are-the-types-of-instrument-errors-and-what-is-calibration/2394 16
 Ambient conditions
 It is essential to maintain the ambient conditions at
internationally accepted values of standard temperature (20ºC)
and pressure (760 mmHg) conditions.
 Relative humidity, thermal gradients, vibrations, and CO2
content of the air affect the refractive index of the atmosphere.
 Thermal expansion occurs due to heat radiation from different
sources such as lights, sunlight, and body temperature of
operators.
17
 Deformation of workpiece
 Any elastic body, when subjected to a load, undergoes elastic
deformation.
 The stylus pressure applied during measurement affects the
accuracy of measurement.
Elastic deformation due to stylus pressure

 Avoidable errors
 Datum errors
 An estimate of the degree of accuracy in the reported
position of datum.
Effect of datum error

Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Effect-of-datum-error_fig1_3448845 19
 Reading errors
 These errors occur due to the mistakes committed by the
observer while noting down the values of the quantity
being measured.
Source: https://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/ErrorAnalysis/ReadingError.html 20
 Errors due to parallax effect
 Parallax errors occur when the sight is not perpendicular to
the instrument scale or the observer reads the instrument
from an angle.
Source: https://www.miniphysics.com/parallax-error-and-zero-error.html 21
 Effect of misalignment
 These occur due to the inherent inaccuracies present in the
measuring instruments.
 These errors may also be due to improper use, handling, or
selection of the instrument.
Source: https://slidetodoc.com/pdt-1103-metrology-chapter-1-introduction-to-metrology/ 22
 Zero errors
 A zero error is defined as that value when the initial value
of a physical quantity indicated by the measuring
instrument is a non-zero value when it should have
actually been zero.
Source: http://physics401.one-school.net/2009/01/140-measurements-and-error.html 23
Random Errors
 Random errors provide a measure of random deviations when
measurements of a physical quantity are carried out repeatedly.
 When a series of repeated measurements are made on a component
under similar conditions, the values or results of measurements
vary.
 Specific causes for these variations cannot be determined, since
these variations are unpredictable and uncontrollable by the
experimenter and are random in nature.
 Random errors can be minimized by calculating the average of a
large number of observations.
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Random Errors
 The following are the likely sources of random errors:
 Presence of transient fluctuations in friction in the measuring
instrument.
 Play in the linkages of the measuring instruments.
 Error in operator’s judgement in reading the fractional part of
engraved scale divisions.
 Operator’s inability to note the readings because of fluctuations
during measurement.
 Positional errors associated with the measured object and
standard, arising due to small variations in setting.
25
Differences between systematic and random errors
Differences between systematic and random errors
Relationship between systematic and

random errors with measured value
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
 Direct method
 In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly
compared with the primary or secondary standard.
 Scales, vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are
used in the direct method.
 Indirect method
 In this method, the value of a quantity is obtained by measuring
other quantities that are functionally related to the required
value.
 Some examples of indirect measurement are angle measurement
using sine bar, measurement of strain induced in a bar due to
the applied force, determination of effective diameter of a screw
thread, etc.
28
 Comparative method
 In this method, as the name suggests, the quantity to be
measured is compared with the known value of the same
quantity or any other quantity practically related to it.
 The most common examples are comparators, dial indicators,
etc.
 Transposition method
 This method involves making the measurement by direct
comparison, wherein the quantity to be measured (V) is initially
balanced by a known value (X) of the same quantity; next, X is
replaced by the quantity to be measured and balanced again by
another known value (Y). If the quantity to be measured is equal
to both X and Y, then it is equal to
𝑽 = 𝑿𝒀
 An example of this method is the determination of mass by
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balancing methods and known weights.
 Coincidence method
 This is a differential method of measurement wherein a very
minute difference between the quantity to be measured and the
reference is determined by careful observation of the
coincidence of certain lines and signals.
 Measurements on vernier caliper and micrometer are examples
of this method.
 Deflection method
 This method involves the indication of the value of the quantity
to be measured directly by deflection of a pointer on a
calibrated scale.
 Pressure measurement is an example of this method.
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 Complementary method
 The value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a
known value of the same quantity. The combination is so
adjusted that the sum of these two values is equal to the
predetermined comparison value.
 An example of this method is determination of the volume of a
solid by liquid displacement.
 Null measurement method
 In this method, the difference between the value of the quantity
to be measured and the known value of the same quantity with
which comparison is to be made is brought to zero.
 Example is Wheatstone bridge.
31
 Substitution method
 This method involves the replacement of the value of the
quantity to be measured with a known value of the same
quantity, so selected that the effects produced in the indicating
device by these two values are the same.
 The Borda method of determining mass is an example of this
method.
 Contact method
 In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the
sensor or measuring tip of the instrument.
 Examples of this method include measurements using
micrometer, vernier calliper, and dial indicator.
32
 Contactless method
 As the name indicates, there is no direct contact with the
surface to be measured.
 Examples of this method include the use of optical instruments,
tool maker’s microscope, and profile projector.
 Composite method
 The actual contour of a component to be checked is compared
with its maximum and minimum tolerance limits.
 The use of a GO screw plug gauge to check the thread of a nut
is an example of this method.
 Fundamental or absolute method
 In this case, the measurement is based on the measurements of
base quantities used to define the quantity. 33
 To ascertain that the newly developed components are
comprehensively evaluated and designed within the process.
 To ensure uniformity of measurements.
 To carry out process capability studies to achieve better component
tolerances.
 To assess the adequacy of measuring instrument capabilities to
carry out their respective measurements.
 To ensure cost-effective inspection and optimal use of available
facilities.
 To adopt quality control techniques to minimize scrap rate and
rework.
 To establish inspection procedures from the design stage itself, so
that the measuring methods are standardized.
34
 To calibrate measuring instruments regularly in order to maintain
accuracy in measurement.
 To resolve the measurement problems that might arise in the shop
floor.
 To design gauges and special fixtures required to carry out
inspection.
 To investigate and eliminate different sources of measuring errors.
35
Standards of Measurement
STANDARDS AND THEIR ROLES
 It is necessary to define a unit value of any physical quantity under
consideration such that it will be accepted internationally.
 It is not sufficient to only define these unit values of physical
quantities; these should also be measureable.
 A good system of standards is essential for fair international trade
and commerce.
 It also helps accomplish complete interchangeability of
manufacture.
 Standards play a vital role for manufacturers across the world in
achieving consistency, accuracy, precision, and repeatability in
measurements and in supporting the system that enables the
manufacturers to make such measurements.
36
BASIC UNITS OF SI SYSTEM
MATERIAL STANDARD
 The problem with material standards used earlier was that the
materials used for defining the standards could change their size
with temperature and other conditions.
 Yard (1853)
 The imperial standard yard is a bronze bar 1 sq. inch in cross-
section and 38 inches in length, having a composition of 82% Cu,
13% tin, and 5% Zn.
 The bar contains holes of ½-inch diameter × ½-inch depth.
 Yard is then defined as the distance between the two central
transverse lines of the plug maintained at a temperature of 62°F.
38
MATERIAL STANDARD
 Yard
MATERIAL STANDARD
 Metre (1875)
 It is defined as the distance between the centre positions of the
two lines engraved on the highly polished surface of a 102 cm
bar of pure platinum–iridium alloy (90% platinum and 10%
iridium) maintained at 0 °C under normal atmospheric pressure
and having the cross-section of a web.
DISADVANTAGES OF MATERIAL STANDARDS
 Material standards are affected by changes in environmental
conditions such as temperature, pressure, humidity, and ageing,
resulting in variations in length.
 Preservation of these standards is difficult because they must have
appropriate security to prevent their damage or destruction.
 Replicas of material standards are not available for use at other
places.
 They cannot be easily reproduced.
 Comparison and verification of the sizes of gauges pose considerable
difficulty.
 While changing to the metric system, a conversion factor is
necessary.
41
WAVELENGTH STANDARD (1960)
 By using wavelengths of a monochromatic light as a natural and
invariable unit of length, the dependency of the working standard on
the physical standard can be eliminated.
 According to this standard, metre is defined as 1,650,763.73 ×
wavelengths of the red–orange radiation of a krypton 86 atom in
vacuum.
 This standard can be reproduced with an accuracy of about 1 part
in 𝟏𝟎𝟗 and can be accessible to any laboratory.
Modern Metre (1983)
 According to this, the metre is the length of the path travelled by
light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a
second.
 This standard is technologically more accurate and feasible when
compared to the red–orange radiation of a krypton 86 atom. 42
SUBDIVISIONS OF STANDARDS
 Primary standards
 For defining the unit precisely, there shall be one and only one
material standard.
 Primary standards are preserved carefully and maintained under
standard atmospheric conditions so that they do not change
their values.
 This has no direct application to a measuring problem
encountered in engineering.
 These are used only for comparing with secondary standards.
 International yard and international metre are examples of
standard units of length.
43
 Secondary standards
 These are derived from primary standards and resemble them
very closely with respect to design, material, and length.
 These are kept at different locations under strict supervision
and are used for comparison with tertiary standards (only when
it is absolutely essential).
 These safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary
standards.
 Tertiary standards
 Tertiary standards are used as the first standards for reference
in laboratories and workshops.
 These standards are replicas of secondary standards and are
usually used as references for working standards.
44
 Working standards
 These are used more frequently in workshops and laboratories.
 When compared to the other three standards, the materials used
to make these standards are of a lower grade and cost.
 These are derived from fundamental standards and suffer from
loss of instrumental accuracy due to subsequent comparison at
each level in the hierarchical chain.
 Working standards include both line and end standards.
45
LINE AND END MEASUREMENTS
Comparison of line and end standards
Limits, Fits, and Tolerances
CONCEPT OF INTERCHANGEABILITY
 When one component assembles
properly (and which satisfies the
functionality aspect of the
assembly/product) with any
mating component, both chosen
at random, then it is known as
interchangeability.
 Interchangeability ensures the
universal exchange of a
mechanism or assembly.
 Another parallel terminology,
‘exchangeability’ is the quality
of being capable of exchange or Examples of interchangeability
interchange.
Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay 47
SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY
 The term selective assembly describes any technique used when
components are assembled from subcomponents such that the final
assembly satisfies higher tolerance specifications than those used to
make its subcomponents.
Bearing assembly on a shaft

SYSTEM’S TERMINOLOGIES
 Shaft & Hole
 When an assembly is made of two parts, one is known as the male
(outer element of the part) surface and the other one as the female
(inner element of the part) surface.
 The male surface is referred as ‘shaft’ and the female surface is
referred as ‘hole’.
Conventional diagram

 Shaft & Hole
Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay

Conventional diagram 50
 Basic Size
 The basic size or normal size is the standard size for the part and is
the same both for the hole and its shaft.
 This is the size which is obtained by calculation for strength.
 Actual Size
 Actual size is the dimension as measured on a manufactured part.
 Zero Line
 It is a line of zero deviation and represents the basic size.

 Maximum Limit
 The maximum limit or high
limit is the maximum size
permitted for the part.
 Minimum Limit
 The minimum limit or low limit
is the minimum size permitted Conventional diagram
for the part.
 Deviation
 It is the algebraic difference
between a size (actual, limit of
size, etc.) and the corresponding
basic size.
52
Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay Deviations and tolerance
 Upper Deviation
between the maximum limit of
the size and the corresponding
basic size.
 Lower Deviation
between the minimum limits of
size and the corresponding basic
size.
 Mean Deviation
 It is the arithmetical mean
between the upper and lower
deviation.
53
 Fundamental Deviations (FD)
 It is the minimum difference
between the size of a component and
its basic size.
 This is identical to the upper
deviation for shafts and lower
deviation for holes.
 It is the closest deviation to the Conventional diagram
basic size.
54
 Tolerance
 It is the difference between the
upper limit and the lower limit of
a dimension.
 Tolerance Zone
 It is the zone bounded by the two
limits of size of a part in the
graphical presentation of Conventional diagram
tolerance.
 Allowance
 It is an intentional difference
between the maximum material
limits of mating parts.
 For a shaft, the maximum material
limit will be its high limit and for
a hole, it will be its low limit.
Tolerance and allowance
55
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM METAL LIMITS
 Maximum metal limit (MML)
 Minimum or least metal limit (LML)

Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gwEJ1WyEMfk&list=RDCMUCjE5YLiSC3zZAP15TUtzOfg&index=24&ab_channel=AniMech
EFFECT OF WORKING TOLERANCE ON PRODUCTION COST
 It is very clear that production cost
and tolerance have an inversely
proportional relationship.
 This is because, as closer tolerances
are specified, to achieve that
practically we have to use:
 very high-precision machines
and tools,
 trained and highly skilled
operators,
 highly precise and accurate
testing and inspection devices,
 close supervision and control.
57
TOLERANCES SYSTEMS
 Unilateral Tolerances System
 In this type of system, the part dimension is allowed to vary on
one side of the basic size, i.e., either below or above it.
 Bilateral Tolerances System

 In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary in
both the directions of the basic size.
1
58
FITS
 The relationship between the two mating parts that are to be
assembled, that is, the hole and the shaft, with respect to the
difference in their dimensions before assembly is called a fit.
Detailed classification of fits
FITS
 Clearance Fit
 It is a fit that always enables a clearance between the hole and
shaft in the coupling.
 The lower limit size of the hole is greater or at least equal to
the upper limit size of the shaft.
Clearance fit
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KwpEgwiX850&list=RDCMUCjE5YLiSC3zZAP15TUtzOfg&index=5&ab_channel=AniMech
FITS
 Interference Fit
 It is a fit that always ensures some interference between the
hole and shaft in the coupling.
 The upper limit size of the hole is smaller or at least equal to
the lower limit size of the shaft.
Interference fit
FITS
 Transition Fit
 It is a fit where both clearance and interference may occur in
the coupling.
 Tolerance zones of the hole and shaft partly or completely
interfere.
Transition fit
FITS
Examples of different types of fits
SYSTEM OF FIT
 Hole Basis System
 In this system, the size of the hole is kept constant and the
shaft size is varied to give various types of fits.
 It is more convenient and economical to use standard tools, e.g.,
drills, reamers, broaches, etc. to produce a hole.
Hole basis system (a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-W92o67kGEo&list=RDCMUCjE5YLiSC3zZAP15TUtzOfg&index=4&ab_channel=AniMech
SYSTEM OF FIT
 Shaft Basis System
 The system in which the dimension of the shaft is kept constant
and the hole size is varied to obtain various types of fits is
referred to as shaft basis system.
 It is not suitable for mass production as it is inconvenient,
time-consuming and a costly affair to produce a shaft of exact
size.
Shaft basis system (a) Clearance fit (b) Transition fit (c) Interference fit
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-W92o67kGEo&list=RDCMUCjE5YLiSC3zZAP15TUtzOfg&index=4&ab_channel=AniMech
TOLERANCES GRADES
 Tolerance grade is the degree of accuracy of manufacturing.
 It is designated by the letters IT (stands for International Tolerance).
 Numbers, i.e., IT0, IT01, IT1, follow these letters up to IT16.
 The larger the number, the larger the tolerance.
Tolerances grades for different applications
TOLERANCES GRADES
Machining process associated with ISO IT tolerance grade
67
Source: Book: N.V. Raghavendra and L. Krishnamurthy, “Engineering Metrology and Measurements”, Oxford University Press.
POSITION OF FUNDAMENTAL DEVIATIONS
DESIGNATION OF HOLES AND SHAFTS
 Hole = 55 H 7 means
 55 = the basic size of the hole.
 H = the position of the hole w.r.t zero line. For this case it is on
the zero line.
 7 = the tolerance grade, i.e., IT7. By knowing this value, the
limits for 55-mm size can be found out.
 Shaft = 60 m 9 means
 60 = the basic size of the shaft.
 m = the position of the shaft w.r.t zero line. In this case, it is
above the zero line.
 9 = the tolerance grade, i.e., IT9. By knowing this value, the
limits for 60-mm size can be found out.
69
 The fundamental tolerance unit is denoted as i (in microns).
 It is used to express various IT grades.
 For the values of tolerance grades IT01 to IT1, the
formulae are
For IT01 = 0.3 + 0.008D
For IT0 = 0.5 + 0.012D
For IT1 = 0.8 + 0.02D
 For the values of tolerance grades IT2 to IT4, which are
placed between the tolerance grades of IT1 and IT5, follow
a geometric progression.
70
 For the values of tolerance grades IT5 to IT16
𝟑
𝒊 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝑫 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝑫
Where, D (in mm) = 𝑫𝒎𝒂𝒙 × 𝑫𝒎𝒊𝒏
 The various steps specified for the diameter steps (Dmin - Dmax) are as
follows:
1–3, 3–6, 6–10, 10–18, 18–30, 30–50, 50–80, 80–120, 120–180, 180–250,
250–315, 315–400, 400–500 500–630, 630–800, and 800–1000 mm.
 For the tolerance grades IT6–IT16, each grade increases by about
60% from the previous one, as indicated in Table
Tolerance grades IT5 to IT16
71
LIMIT GAUGES
 Taylor’s Principle
 The GO gauge is designed to check
maximum metal conditions, that is,
LLH (Low limit of hole) and HLS
(High limit of shaft). It should also
simultaneously check as many related
dimensions, such as roundness, size,
and location, as possible. Plug gauge
 The NO GO (NOT GO) gauge is
designed to check minimum metal
conditions, that is, HLH (High limit of
hole) and LLS (Low limit of shaft). It
should check only one dimension at a
time. Thus, a separate NOT GO gauge
is required for each individual
dimension. Snap gauge
Source: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay 72
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfoUdm9WdE4&list=RDCMUCjE5YLiSC3zZAP15TUtzOfg&index=3&ab_channel=AniMech
LIMIT GAUGES
The following points must be kept in mind while designing gauges:
 The form of GO gauges should be a replica of the form of the
opposed (mating) parts.
 GO gauges enable several related dimensions to be checked
simultaneously and hence are termed complex gauges.
 During inspection, GO gauges must always be put into conditions of
maximum impassability.
 NOT GO gauges check a single element of feature at a time.
 In inspection, NOT GO gauges must always be put into conditions of
maximum passability.

LIMIT GAUGING
Metal limits for hole gauging
Metal limits for shaft gauging

Advantages of Gauges
 Gauges are free from errors.
 Gauges are portable and independent of power supply.
 Gauges require no auxiliary equipments and set up.
 Various dimensions can be checked.
 Gauges are inexpensive.
 Gauges provide uniform standards.
75
Disadvantages of Gauges
 Some of the components which are within work tolerance limits
may be rejected by the workshop gauges. Hence, they have to be
checked again by inspection gauges and may be accepted after that.
 Some components which are not within the work tolerance limits
may be accepted when tested by inspection gauges.
 The workshop and inspection gauges have to be made separately
since their tolerance zones are different.
76
TYPES OF LIMIT GAUGES
 Gauges in general are classified as non-dimensional gauges and
dimensional gauges.
 Non-dimensional gauges are classified specifically,
a) On the basis of type c) On the basis of geometry of surface
i. Standard Gauges i. Plug Gauge
ii. Limit Gauges ii. Snap/Ring Gauges
b) On the basis of purpose d) On the basis of its design
i. Workshop Gauges i. Single/double Limit Gauge
ii. Inspection Gauges ii. Fixed/Adjustable Gauges
iii. Reference/Master Gauge iii. Solid/ Hollow Gauges
 Dimensional gauges provide quantitative measurements of a product’s or
component’s attributes such as wall thickness, depth, height, length, ID,
OD, taper or bore.
77
Ring gauges
Use of limit plug gauge
(a) Taper ring gauges

Snap gauges (b) Taper plug gauges
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nuCQTABjHLQ&ab_channel=AniMech 78
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjrMR-KrZ9U
Thread gauges
Radius gauge
Splined gauge
Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay Filler gauge 79
Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AUn-X-Bv9Uk&list=RDCMUCjE5YLiSC3zZAP15TUtzOfg&index=3&ab_channel=AniMech
Materials used for gauge with their special properties
 The material used in the manufacture of gauges should be hard and wear
resistant for a prolonged life. This is one of the most important criteria that
should be fulfilled.
 It should be capable of maintaining dimensional stability and form.
 It should be corrosion resistant.
 It should be easily machinable, in order to obtain the required degree of accuracy
and surface finish.
 It should have a low coefficient of expansion, in order to avoid temperature effect.
80
GAUGE TOLERANCE (GAUGE MAKER’S TOLERANCE)
 The tolerance that is allowed in the manufacture of gauges is termed
gauge maker’s tolerance or simply gauge tolerance.
 The normal practice is to take gauge tolerance as 10% of the work
tolerance.
WEAR ALLOWANCE
 According to Taylor’s principle, during inspection the NOT GO side should
not enter or pass. Hence, there is no need to provide an allowance for wear
in case of NOT GO gauges.
 Taylor’s principle also states that the GO side of the gauge should enter the
hole or just pass over the shaft under the weight of the gauge without
using undue force.
 Therefore, the GO gauges suffer wear on the measuring surfaces and thus
lose their initial dimension. Hence, wear allowance is provided for GO
gauges to extend their service life.
 A wear allowance of 10% of gauge tolerance is widely accepted in
81
industries.
Allocation of Gauge Tolerance and Wear Allowance
82
83
84
Numerical
Qus 1
85
Numerical
Qus 2
86
Numerical
Qus 3
87
Numerical
Qus 4
88
Numerical
Qus 4
89
Numerical
Qus 4
90
91

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MNIT

 Measurand, a physical quantity such as length, weight, and angle to

Elastic deformation due to stylus pressure

Effect of datum error

Relationship between systematic and

Bearing assembly on a shaft

Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay 48

Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay 49

Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay

Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay 51

Source: Book: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay

 Bilateral Tolerances System

Detailed classification of fits

Source: Metrology & Measurement by Anand and Vinay 73

Metal limits for hole gauging

Metal limits for shaft gauging

Use of limit plug gauge

(a) Taper ring gauges

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