Class 12 Physics CH 14 notes+IMP+Ex

SUMMARY OF THE LESSON:
1. Wave Nature of Light:

- Light was traditionally explained as a wave, which could account for phenomena like reflection, refraction,
interference, diffraction, and polarization.
- However, certain phenomena, such as the spectrum of black body radiation, couldn't be explained by wave
theory alone, indicating the need for a new approach.
2. Quantization of Energy:
- Max Planck introduced the idea that energy is quantized to explain black body radiation. He proposed that
energy is emitted in discrete packets called quanta. This marked the beginning of quantum theory.
3. Photoelectric Effect:
- Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect, where ultraviolet light causes electrons to be emitted
from a metal surface.
- Experiments revealed that the emission of electrons was instantaneous, depended on the frequency of
light, and couldn't be explained by wave theory alone.
4. Failure of Wave Theory:

- The wave theory failed to explain several aspects of the photoelectric effect, such as the immediate
emission of electrons and the dependence of electron kinetic energy on light frequency rather than intensity.
5. Einstein's Hypothesis:
- Albert Einstein extended Planck's idea by proposing that light itself is quantized into particles called
photons. He explained the photoelectric effect using this concept, showing that light has particle-like
properties.
6. Wave-Particle Duality of Light:

- Compton's experiments on X-ray scattering confirmed that photons have momentum, further supporting
the particle nature of light. However, light also demonstrated wave-like behavior in experiments such as
interference and diffraction.
7. De Broglie Hypothesis:
- Louis de Broglie proposed that if light, traditionally considered a wave, can exhibit particle properties, then
matter, typically considered as particles, might also exhibit wave-like properties. This hypothesis was confirmed
by experiments showing electron diffraction patterns.
8. Davisson and Germer Experiment:

- The wave nature of electrons was experimentally confirmed by Davisson and Germer, who observed
diffraction patterns when electrons were scattered by a crystal. This provided strong evidence for the wave-
particle duality of matter.
1. Wave Nature of Light: Traditional wave theory of light.

2. Quantization of Energy: Planck's proposal of energy quantization.
3. Photoelectric Effect: Observations that couldn’t be explained by wave theory.
4. Failure of Wave Theory: Limitations of wave theory in explaining the photoelectric effect.
5. Einstein's Hypothesis: Introduction of the photon concept.
6. Wave-Particle Duality of Light: Experiments confirming both wave and particle nature of light.
7. De Broglie Hypothesis: Proposal that matter also has wave-like properties.
8. Davisson and Germer Experiment: Experimental verification of the wave nature of electrons.
Ruturaj Jadhav Sir’s
SARASWATI CLASSES for SSC, CBSE, ICSE and MH HSC +91 9588658176
Introduction to the Quantum Nature of Light
Wave Nature of Light:

- Light exhibits various optical phenomena like reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction,
and polarization.
- Traditionally explained by considering light as a wave.
- Similar wave behavior observed in other electromagnetic radiation like X-rays, gamma rays,
infrared, ultraviolet, and microwaves.
- Electromagnetic radiation comprises oscillating electric and magnetic fields, perpendicular to
each other and the direction of wave travel.
- Limitations of Wave Theory:

- Black Body Radiation:
- The spectrum of black body radiation couldn't be explained by wave theory alone.
- These phenomena, involving radiation-matter interactions, require quantum physics for a
complete explanation.
- Quantization of Energy:
- First proposed by Planck to explain the black body spectrum.
- Planck's Model:
- Energy is emitted in discrete packets (quanta).
- At higher frequencies, the energy of each packet is larger.
- Atoms behave like tiny oscillators, emitting electromagnetic radiation in packets when
transitioning between energy levels.
- Energy of a packet is given by ( E = nhv ), where ( v ) is the frequency, ( h ) is Planck's
constant, and ( n ) is an integer.
- Connection to Photoelectric Effect:
- Planck's model formed the foundation for Einstein's theory, which explained the observations
of the photoelectric effect, bridging the gap between classical and quantum physics.
The Photoelectric Effect
- Discovery: Heinrich Hertz (1887): Discovered photoelectric emission while studying

electromagnetic waves via spark discharge.
- Observation: Ultraviolet light incident on a metal electrode caused a high-voltage spark to
pass across electrodes.
- Explanation: Electrons were emitted from the metal surface due to the ultraviolet light.
- Photosensitive Surface:
- A surface that emits electrons when exposed to appropriate radiation is called a
photosensitive surface.
1
- Definition:
- The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a metal surface when radiation of
suitable frequency (e.g., ultraviolet or visible light) is incident on it.
- Metal-Specific Radiation Requirements:

- Ultraviolet Radiation: Required for metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium.
- Visible Radiation: Sufficient for alkali metals.
- Electrical Energy from Light:

- Photo-emissive Effect: Electrons are emitted from a metal surface upon exposure to light.
- Photo-voltaic Effect: Used in solar cells; involves generating an electrical potential difference
in a semiconductor using solar energy.
Photoelectric Effect: Experimental Set-up

- Equipment:
- An evacuated glass tube with a quartz window.
- E: Emitter (photosensitive metal plate).
- C: Collector (another metal plate).
- Connections:
- Emitter E (cathode) and collector C (anode) are connected to a variable voltage source and an
ammeter.
- Potential Difference (V):
- Maintained between emitter E and collector C.
- C is usually positive relative to E (accelerating potential).
- C can be negative relative to E (retarding potential).
- Light Source (S):
- Monochromatic light with a specific high frequency (wavelength ≤ 10^-7 m).
- Process:
- Light falls on emitter E.
- Electrons (photoelectrons) are ejected from E and collected at C.
- Photoelectrons:
- Ordinary electrons ejected due to incident light.
Summarize and analyze observations from experiments on the photoelectric effect.
Observations from Experiments on Photoelectric Effect

1. Threshold Frequency:
- Ultraviolet Radiation: Photocurrent I observed even at low intensity if frequency ( v > v_0 )
(threshold frequency).
- Threshold Frequency ( v0 ): Specific to the metal used, varies between metals.
- Electrons always emitted if ( v > v0 ), regardless of light intensity.
2
2. Instantaneous Emission:
- No time lag between light incidence and electron emission.
- Photocurrent starts instantly (~10⁻⁹ s) after light shines, stops as soon as light is removed.
3. Intensity and Photocurrent:

- Constant Frequency and Voltage: Increase in light intensity increases photocurrent I linearly.
4. Photocurrent and Voltage:

- Fixed Frequency and Intensity: Photocurrent I depends on the accelerating potential V.
- Current increases with voltage, then levels off, reaching saturation current
5. Saturation Current and Intensity:

- Fixed Voltage and Frequency: Doubling light intensity doubles the saturation current.
6. Kinetic Energy of Electrons:

- Maximum Kinetic Energy (KEmax): Depends on voltage, metal type, and light frequency, but
not on light intensity.
- (KEmax) is constant for a given frequency above ( v0 ), regardless of intensity.
7. Stopping Potential (Vs):

- Applying increasingly negative potentials to the collector decreases the photocurrent.
- At a certain negative potential, called stopping potential (Vs), photocurrent becomes zero.
- Vs indicates that photoelectrons still have energy to overcome retarding potential and reach
the collector.
- Vs is constant for a given frequency, regardless of light intensity, but varies for different
emitter materials.
8. Frequency and Stopping Potential:

- With constant intensity and accelerating potential, changing the frequency alters the
stopping potential ( Vs).
- Saturation current remains unchanged, but ( Vs ) varies linearly with frequency ( v ).
- The slope of the ( V_s ) vs. ( v ) line is the same for different metals, but intercepts differ.
9. Photocurrent and Intensity:

- Photocurrent, and therefore the number of emitted electrons, depends on light intensity,
not frequency.
- This is true as long as the incident frequency is above the threshold frequency ( v0 ) and the
anode potential is higher than the cathode.
3
Failure of Wave Theory to Explain Photoelectric Effect Observations
1. Instantaneous Emission of Electrons:

- Wave Theory Prediction:
- Metal surface absorbs energy continuously over time.
- Electrons near the surface absorb energy until enough is accumulated to be emitted.
- Emission expected to take minutes to hours, depending on light intensity.
- Observation: Electrons are emitted instantaneously, contradicting wave theory.
2. Work Function of Metals:

- Definition:
- The minimum energy required to remove an electron from a metal surface.
- Denoted by (phi), and depends on the metal's properties and surface nature.
- Higher light intensity should reduce the time needed for electrons to be emitted.
- Lower intensity should increase the time needed, which was not observed.
3. Kinetic Energy of Electrons:

- Higher light intensity should result in electrons being emitted with greater kinetic energy.
- Frequency should not influence the kinetic energy of photoelectrons.
- Observation: Maximum kinetic energy of electrons depends on the frequency, not the
intensity.
4. Threshold Frequency:
- Electrons should be emitted at any frequency if light intensity is high enough.
- Observation:
- No electrons are emitted below a certain threshold frequency ( v0 ), regardless of
intensity.
- Electrons are emitted if the frequency is above ( v0 ), even at low intensity.
These inconsistencies with the wave theory led to the development of a new understanding of
light and the photoelectric effect.
Einstein's Postulate of Quantization of Energy and the Photoelectric Equation

- Planck's Hypothesis:
- Initially used to explain black body radiation.
- Proposed energy is quantized in discrete units or quanta.
4
- Einstein's Extension (1905):
- Applied quantization to all electromagnetic radiation.
- Proposed light behaves as particles (photons) under certain conditions.
- Photon Energy: ( E = hv ), where:
- ( E ) = Energy of the photon
- ( v ) = Frequency of light
- ( h ) = Planck's constant 6.626 x 10-34 J·s)
- Significance of Einstein's Relation:

- Connects particle-like property (energy ( E )) with wave-like property (frequency ( v )).
- Known as Einstein's relation: ( E = hv ).
- Applicable across the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
- Implications:
- Energy of radiation is directly proportional to its frequency.
- Energy is inversely proportional to wavelength
The explanation using Einstein's postulate of quantization of energy for the observations
mentioned is given below:
1. Photon-Electron Interaction:
- When a photon hits a metal surface, it transfers all its energy (hν) to an electron.
- If the energy is equal to or greater than the material's work function (φ0), the electron is
ejected.
- A minimum frequency (ν0) is needed for electrons to be emitted. If the frequency is below
ν0, no electrons are emitted.
2. Instantaneous Energy Transfer:

- Energy transfer from photon to electron is immediate, so electrons are emitted instantly
when light hits the surface.
- Emission stops immediately when the light source is turned off.
3. Effect of Radiation Intensity:

- Increasing the intensity of light increases the number of photons, thus more electrons are
ejected, leading to higher current if ν > ν0.
- Lower intensity means fewer photons, fewer ejected electrons, and lower current.
4. Impact of Accelerating Potential:
- Higher potential at the collector attracts more electrons, increasing current up to a limit.
- Beyond this limit, increasing potential does not increase current, leading to a saturation
current (I0).
5
5. Saturation Current and Intensity:
- Higher incident intensity increases the saturation current.
6. Kinetic Energy of Ejected Electrons:

- If the photon's energy exceeds the work function, the excess energy becomes the electron's
kinetic energy.
- Maximum kinetic energy (KEmax) is given by Einstein’s photoelectric equation: KEmax = hν -
φ0.
7. Variation in Electron Kinetic Energy:

- Electrons have different kinetic energies due to factors like varying energy levels, depths
inside the metal, and collisions.
- If the collector potential is low, some electrons may not reach it, causing the photocurrent
to drop to zero.
8. Stopping Potential (V0):

- Stopping potential is the point where electrons no longer reach the collector, and
photocurrent stops.
- V0 depends on the incident frequency and the material but not on the intensity of light.
9. Photocurrent Dependence:
- Photocurrent magnitude depends on light intensity and collector potential but not on light
frequency as long as ν > ν0.
- Einstein's Hypothesis:
- Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by proposing that light consists of energy bundles
called photons.
- Despite being proposed in 1905, his hypothesis wasn't initially accepted by the scientific
community.
- Experimental Confirmation:
- In 1909, Millikan measured the charge of an electron, and the value of Planck's constant (h)
from Einstein’s equation matched the known value, leading to the acceptance of Einstein’s
hypothesis.
- The work function values for some metals were also confirmed using this equation.
- Nobel Prizes:
- Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921, and Millikan received it in 1923 for their respective
contributions.
- Photon Energy:
- According to Einstein, the energy of radiation with frequency ν is hν, and for a light beam
6
with n photons, the total energy is nhν, where n is an integer.
- This raises the question of whether it's possible to vary the incident energy continuously and
why we don't observe individual photons.
- Wave-Particle Duality:
- Light interacts with matter as packets of energy called quanta.
- Later studies confirmed that these quanta (photons) also have momentum, leading to the
question of whether light can be considered a particle.
- Compton's Experiment:
- In 1924, Compton's experiments on X-ray scattering confirmed that photons have momentum,
just like particles.
- Photons are neutral and not affected by electric or magnetic fields. They can collide with
other particles, transferring energy and momentum.
- Photons can be absorbed or created during collisions, and they always move at the speed of
light with zero rest mass.
- Wave Nature of Light:

- The wave nature of light is evident in experiments like interference and diffraction, especially
when slit widths are comparable to the wavelength of light.
- Larger slit widths make the wave nature less obvious.
- Dual Nature of Light:

- Some phenomena (e.g., interference and diffraction) are explained by light's wave nature,
while others (e.g., photoelectric effect and black body radiation) require considering light as
photons.
- Both wave and particle models are necessary to explain different observations.
- This concept is known as the wave-particle duality, and it applies to the entire
electromagnetic spectrum.
- Photo Cell Overview:

- A photo cell converts light energy into electrical energy using the photoelectric effect.
- It consists of a photosensitive metal plate (cathode) and a wire loop collector (anode) inside
an evacuated glass or quartz bulb.
- The electrodes are connected to a circuit with a high-tension battery and a microammeter.
- Operation:
- When light of the right wavelength hits the cathode, it emits photoelectrons.
- These electrons are attracted to the anode, creating a photocurrent that is measured by the
microammeter.
7
- Uses of Photocell:
- Control Systems: Used in devices to operate control systems.
- Light Meters: Measures light intensity in photographic cameras.
- Automatic Lighting: Can switch street lights on or off automatically.
- Applications:
- Security and Counting: Interrupting the light beam to the photocell can trigger alarms or
operate counters.
- Traffic Control: Can be used to identify traffic law violators by setting off alarms when the
light beam is interrupted.
- De Broglie Hypothesis:
- In 1924, Prince Louis de Broglie proposed that if light (radiation) has both wave and particle
properties, matter might also exhibit dual nature.
- Normally, we think of matter as particles, but under certain conditions, it can show wave-like
properties, as seen in electron diffraction experiments.
- De Broglie's Proposition:
- De Broglie connected the wave properties (frequency ν and wavelength λ) with particle
properties (energy E and momentum p).
- For a photon, momentum (p) = , and wavelength (λ) =
- Matter Waves:
- De Broglie suggested that moving particles, like electrons, have waves associated with them,
called matter waves.
- The wavelength of matter waves is given by , known as the De
Broglie wavelength.
- Relation for Kinetic Energy:

- For a particle of mass ( m ) moving with velocity ( v ), the kinetic energy
- For a charged particle accelerated through a potential difference ( V ), the kinetic energy
, where ( q ) is the charge.
- De Broglie Wavelength for Electrons:

- For an electron moving through a potential difference ( V ) (in volts), the De Broglie
wavelength is calculated using the formula:
8
- This relation applies to any charged particle, but when the speed of the particle approaches
the speed of light, the equation no longer holds, and relativistic effects must be considered.
The wave properties of electrons:
- Wave Properties of Sub-Atomic Particles:

- After photons were discovered, it was found that electrons, protons, and neutrons also
exhibit wave properties.
- The wavelength of an electron with energy of a few eV is about a few Ångströms (Å).
- Observation of Electron Waves:

- To observe electron waves, the slit width or objects causing diffraction must be of the same
order (few Å).
- In 1927, Davisson and Germer (America) and in 1928, George P. Thomson (England)
confirmed the wave nature of electrons by diffraction experiments using metal atoms.
- Experimental Results:
- The experiments showed that electrons can create constructive and destructive interference
patterns, similar to waves.
- Some directions had no electrons (destructive interference), while others had a maximum
number of electrons (constructive interference).
- Nobel Prizes:
- Louis de Broglie received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929 for his work on matter waves.
- Davisson, Germer, and Thomson shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1937 for their
experimental confirmation of electron wave behavior.
- Interestingly, J. J. Thomson, who discovered the electron as a particle, had a son, G. P.
Thomson, who demonstrated that electrons also behave like waves.
Davisson and Germer Experiment:
- Experimental Setup:
- The experiment was conducted in an evacuated chamber.
- An electron gun was used to produce electrons by heating a tungsten filament with a battery.
- Electrons were accelerated by applying a suitable potential across a cylindrical anode and
then focused into a beam.
- This electron beam was directed at a nickel crystal, where the electrons were scattered in
different directions.
- Detection and Measurement:

- The scattered electrons were detected by an electron detector, and the current was
9
measured using a galvanometer.
- The detector was moved on a circular scale to change the scattering angle (θ), measuring the
intensity of scattered electrons for different angles.
- Observations:
- The intensity of the scattered electron beam was not uniform, forming a diffraction pattern
with peaks (constructive interference) and troughs (destructive interference).
- This diffraction pattern confirmed that electrons, like light, could exhibit wave-like properties.
- The experiment was performed by varying the accelerating potential from 44 V to 68 V.
- A significant peak in scattered electron intensity was observed at a scattering angle of 50º for
a potential of 54 V.
- The wavelength of the matter waves associated with the electrons was calculated using the
de Broglie relation and was found to be approximately 0.167 nm.
- The experimentally measured wavelength was 0.165 nm, which closely matched the
theoretical value.
- Conclusion:
- The Davisson and Germer experiment provided strong evidence for de Broglie’s hypothesis of
wave-particle duality, verifying that particles like electrons can exhibit wave-like behavior under
certain conditions.
Wave-Particle Duality of Matter:

- Material Particles: They can show wave-like behavior under certain conditions—this is called
wave-particle duality.
- Classical Descriptions: Waves are described by frequency (ω) and wave number (k), while
particles are described by mass (m) and momentum (p).
- Duality Concept: Moving particles have an associated frequency and wave number; waves have
associated energy and momentum.
- Quantum Behavior: Wave-particle duality is noticeable in very small objects (sizes ≤ 10⁻⁶ m).
- Macroscopic Objects: For larger objects like a running child or a car, the associated wavelength
is too small to measure or affect daily life.
- Microscopic Particles: For tiny particles like electrons, the associated wavelength is significant
and can be comparable to the size of objects they interact with.
- Photon Behavior: Energy and momentum transfer in photons follows Newtonian mechanics,
even though they also have wave properties.
- When to Use Newtonian Mechanics: When wavelengths are much smaller than obstacles or are
unmeasurable, Newtonian mechanics applies.
- Conclusion:
- Particle Nature: Dominant during interaction with matter.
- Wave Nature: Dominant when particles are confined in spaces similar in size to their
wavelength.
10
1 mark questions: MCQ

1. The electrons are emitted in the photoelectric effect from a metal surface.
only if the frequency of radiation is above a certain threshold value
only if the temperature of the surface is high.
at the that is independent of the nature of metal.
with a maximum velocity proportional to the frequency of incident radiation.
2. As the intensity of incident light increases ______

photoelectric current increases
photoelectric current decreases.
the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons increases.
the kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons decreases.
3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends only on ______

Potential.
frequency
incident angle.
Pressure.
4. According to De-Broglie, the waves are associated with ______

moving neutral particles only.
moving charged particle only.
electrons only.
all moving matter particles
5. The work function of a metal is 4.2 Ev. Its threshold wavelength will be ______
4000 Å.
3500 Å.
2959 Å
2500 Å.
6. Ultraviolet radiation of 6.2 eV falls on an aluminium surface (work function 4.2 eV). The kinetic
energy in joules of the fastest electron emitted is ______
3.2 × 10-21.
3.2 × 10-19
3.2 × 10-1.
3.2 × 10-15.
7. Planck's constant is 6.6 × 10-34 Js. The momentum of each photon is given radiation Is 3.3 × 10-
29 kg/s. The λ of radiation is ______.
2 × 1010 m.
2 × 107 m.
2 × 105 m.
2 × 10-5 m
8. A photocell is used to automatically switch on the street lights in the evening when the sunlight
is low in intensity. Thus it has to work with visible light. The material of the cathode of the
photocell is ______.
Zinc. Aluminum. Nickel. Potassium
9. Polychromatic (containing many different frequencies) radiation is used in an experiment on
the photoelectric effect. The stopping potential ______.
Will depend on the average wavelength.

Will depend on the longest wavelength.
Will depend on the shortest wavelength
Does not depend on the wavelength.
10. An electron, a proton, an α-particle, and a hydrogen atom are moving with the same kinetic
energy. The associated de Broglie wavelength will be longest for ______.
Electron
Proton.
α-particle.
Hydrogen atom.
11. f NRed and NBlue are the numbers of photons emitted by the respective sources of equal power
and equal dimensions in unit time, then ______.
1. NRed < NBlue.
2. NRed = NBlue.
3. NRed > NBlue
4. NRed ≈ NBlue.
12. The equation E = pc is valid ______.

For all sub-atomic particles.
is valid for an electron but not for a photon.
is valid for a photon but not for an electron
is valid for both an electron and a photon.
1 mark questions: Short questions
Define photoelectric effect.

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when radiation of appropriate frequency
is incident on it, is known as the photoelectric effect.
Define threshold frequency.

The minimum frequency of incident radiation required to start photoemission in any photosensitive
material is known as the threshold frequency.
What is cut-off or stopping potential?

If increasingly negative potentials were applied to the collector in the experiment of the photoelectric
effect, the photocurrent decreases and for some typical value (– V0), photocurrent becomes zero. This
value of V0 is termed as cut-off or stopping potential.
Define the work function of the metal.

The minimum amount of energy required to be provided to an electron to pull it out of the metal from
the surface is called the work function of the metal.
Can microwaves be used in the experiment on photoelectric effect?

No, using microwaves in the photoelectric effect experiment is not possible.
The microwave frequency is in the range of 109 Hz to 1012 Hz. This frequency range is insufficient to
provide energy for the photoelectric effect.
Using the values of work function given in the following table, tell which metal will require the
highest frequency of incident radiation to generate photocurrent.
Typical values of work function for some common metals
Metal Work function (in eV)

Potassium 2.3
Sodium 2.4
Calcium 2.9
Zinc 3.6
Silver 4.3
Aluminium 4.3
Tungsten 4.5
Copper 4.7
Nickel 5.0
Gold 5.1
ANSWER: GOLD.
Wave-particle duality - Where does it apply?

It can be applied to any phenomenon.
The wave nature and particle nature are liked by the de Broglie relation λ = h/p, where λ is the
wavelength of matter waves, also called de Broglie waves/Schrodinger waves, p is the magnitude of
the momentum of a particle or quantum of radiation and h is the universal constant called Planck's
constant.
The minimum frequency for photoelectric effect on metal is 7 × 1014 Hz, Find the work function of
the metal.
Work function, ϕ0 = hν0
= 6.63 × 10−34 × 7 × 1014
= 4.641 × 10−19 J
Find the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, if in photoelectric effect energy of incident Photon
is 4 eV and work function is 2.4 eV.
K.E.max = hν − ϕ 0
= 4 − 2.4
= 1.6 eV.
Find the energy of photon which have momentum 2 × 10-16 gm-cm/sec.

Given, P = 2×10−16 gm−cm/sec; c = 3 × 1010 cm/sec
E = pc
= 2 × 10−16 × 3 × 1010
= 6 × 10–6 erg
State the importance of Davisson and Germer experiment.

The Davisson and Germer experiment are probably one of the most important experiments ever
since it substantiated de Broglie’s hypothesis of wave-particle duality. It verified that De Broglie's
“matter wave” hypothesis applied to matter (electrons) as well as light.
2 marks questions:
Explain the term ‘wave-particle duality' of matter.
i. De Broglie proposed that if radiant energy (light) has both the wave nature and particle
nature, then particle (matter) must have a wave associated with its motion.
ii. ii. He believed that energy and matter must have some symmetrical character. This gave rise
to the concept of the wave-particle duality of matter.
iii. Material particles show wave-like nature under certain circumstances. This phenomenon is
known as wave-particle duality of matter.
Draw a neat labelled diagram of a schematic of the experimental setup for the photoelectric effect.
What is meant by the dual nature of matter?

i. Material particles show wave-like nature under certain circumstances. This phenomenon is
known as wave-particle duality of matter or the dual nature of matter.
ii. The wave associated with matter is called matter-wave. The wavelength associated with the
matter of mass m moving with velocity v is given by,
Explain the concept of the photoelectric effect.

i. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when radiation of
appropriate frequency is incident on it, is known as the photoelectric effect.
ii. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons and the resulting current in the circuit due
to them is called photoelectric current.
iii. When ultraviolet radiations fall on the emitter plate, electrons are ejected from it.
iv. They are attracted towards the positive collector plate by the electric field. Thus, light falling
on the surface of the emitter causes a current in the external circuit.
If the total energy of radiation of frequency 1014 Hz is 6.63 J, Calculate the number of photons in
the radiation.
Given:
E = 6.63 J, ν = 1014 Hz,
We know, h = 6.63 × 10–34 Js.
To find: Number of photons (n)
Formula: E = nhv Hence, n = E/hv
Calculation:
Using formula,
n=
∴ n = 1020
The number of photons emitted in the radiation is 1020.
An electron is accelerated through a potential of 120 V. Find its de Broglie wavelength.
Calculate the stopping potential when the metal with the work function 0.6 eV is illuminated with
the light of 2 eV
Explain what you understand by the de Broglie wavelength of an electron. Will an electron at rest
have an associated de Broglie wavelength? Justify your answer.
An electron exhibits wave nature under certain conditions. Matter waves, de Broglie waves, and
Schrodinger waves are all names for waves associated with a moving electron. The de Broglie
wavelength of these matter waves is given by λ = h/p, where h is Planck's constant, and p is the
magnitude of the electron's momentum.
When an electron is at rest, its momentum is zero, and the corresponding de Broglie wavelength is
infinite, indicating that there is no matter wave. This, however, is not possible according to quantum
mechanics/wave mechanics.
3 marks question
State Einstein photoelectric equation. Explain 2 characteristics of the photoelectric effect on the
basis of Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
Einstein’s photoelectric equation: K.E.max = (hν – φ0)
Two characteristics of the photoelectric effect:
i. The photoelectric work function φ0 is constant for a given emitter. Hence if the frequency ‘ν’
of the incident radiation is decreased, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectrons decreases, till it becomes zero for a certain frequency ν0. Therefore, from
Einstein’s equation,
0 = hv0 - ϕ0
∴ φ0=hv0 .....….(1)
This shows that the threshold frequency is related to the work function of the metal and
hence it has different values for different metals.
ii. The photoelectric equation is,
1
2
mv2max = hv - ϕ0 .....….(2)
where, hν = energy of the photon of incident radiation.
ϕ0=hv0 = photoelectric work function of the metal.
Thus, both the terms on the R.H.S of equation (2) depends on the frequency and not on the
intensity of radiation. Hence, the maximum kinetic energy with which photoelectrons are
emitted is independent of the intensity of radiation. However, since φ0 and h are constants,
the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency.
With the help of a circuit diagram describing an experiment to study the photoelectric effect.
A laboratory experimental set-up for the photoelectric effect consists of an evacuated glass tube with
a quartz window.
The glass tube contains photosensitive metal plates. One is the emitter E and another plate is the
collector C.
The emitter and collector are connected to a voltage source whose voltage can be changed and to an
ammeter to measure the current in the circuit.
A potential difference of V, as measured by the voltmeter, is maintained between the emitter E and
collector C. Generally, C (the anode) is at a positive potential with respect to the emitter E (the
cathode). This potential difference can be varied and C can even be at a negative potential with
respect to E.
When the anode potential (V) is positive, it accelerates the electrons. This potential is called
accelerating potential. When the anode potential (V) is negative, it retards the flow of electrons. This
potential is known as retarding potential.
A source S of monochromatic light of sufficiently high frequency (short wavelength ≤ 10–7 m) is used.
What is the photoelectric effect? Define stopping potential and photoelectric work function.
i. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when radiation of
appropriate frequency is incident on it, is known as the photoelectric effect.
ii. If increasingly negative potentials were applied to the collector in the experiment of the
photoelectric effect, the photocurrent decreases and for some typical value (– V0),
photocurrent becomes zero. This value of V0 is termed as cut-off or stopping potential.
iii. The minimum amount of energy required to be provided to an electron to pull it out of the
metal from the surface is called the work function of the metal.
Calculate De Broglie's wavelength of the bullet moving with speed 90m/sec and having a mass of 5
gm.
State Einstein’s photoelectric equation. Explain all characteristics of the photoelectric effect, on the
basis of Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
EXPLAIN 7
Explain De Broglie’s Hypothesis.

i. De Broglie proposed that a moving material particle of total energy E and momentum p has a
wave associated with it (analogous to a photon).
ii. He suggested a relation between properties of the wave, like frequency and wavelength,
with that of a particle, like energy and momentum.
𝐸 ℎ𝑣 ℎ
p=𝐶= 𝐶
=𝜆
iii. Thus, the frequency and wavelength of a wave associated with a material particle, of mass m
moving with a velocity v, are given as
𝐸 ℎ ℎ
v = = ℎ and λ = 𝑝
= 𝑚𝑣…….(1)
iv. De Broglie referred to these waves associated with material particles as matter waves. The
wavelength of the matter waves, given by equation (1), is now known as de Broglie
wavelength and the equation is known as de Broglie relation.
Is it always possible to see the photoelectric effect with a red light?
No, it is not possible but due to present technology it may be possible.

Explanation:
1. The energy required to rip an electron out of its orbital is equal to the electron's work
function, and photons in red light lack this energy.
2. Because light behaves like particles rather than a continuous stream, even very high-intensity
red light will never be able to overcome an electron's work function (in this case), because
each individual photon fails to do so.
3. This demonstrates the particle behaviour of light; because light behaves like a wave, red light
can overcome the electron's work function with high intensity or for a long time.
Explain the inverse linear dependence of stopping potential on the incident wavelength in a
photoelectric effect experiment.
When a beam of light of a specific wavelength (or frequency) strikes the metal's surface, the total
number of electrons ejected and the kinetic energy of each electron is given by,
ℎ𝑐
K.Emax = 𝜆
–Φ
Where, V0 is stopping potential.
ℎ𝑐
So, V0e = 𝜆
–Φ
where V0 is the stopping potential, e is the charge magnitude on the electron, h is Planck's constant,
c is the speed of light in free space, λ is the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation incident on
a metal surface and Φ is the work function for the metal, h, c and e are constants. For a specific
metal, Φ is constant.
1
Hence, it follows that as λ increases, V0 increases.
1
The plot of V0 verses λ is linear. This is due to the fact that the energy associated with a quantum of
radiation (photon) is directly proportional to its frequency and thus inversely proportional to its
wavelength of radiation.
It is observed in an experiment on the photoelectric effect that an increase in the intensity of the
incident radiation does not change the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons. Where does the
extra energy of the incident radiation go? Is it lost? State your answer with explanatory reasoning.
1. Electrons are emitted when electromagnetic radiation with a frequency greater than the threshold
frequency strikes a metal surface.
2. Not every incident photon can release an electron.
3. The number of electrons emitted per second is much lower than the number of photons incident
per second.
4. Photons that do not liberate electrons are either:
- Reflected (or scattered), or
- Absorbed, causing the metal surface's temperature to rise.
5. The maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons depends on:
- The frequency of the incident radiation, and
- The metal's threshold frequency.
6. The intensity of the incident radiation does not affect the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
7. However, as the intensity of radiation increases, the number of electrons emitted per second also
increases.
FORMULA:
• P = mv
• E = hv
• V0e = hv - hv0
ℎ ℎ ℎ
• λ = p = mv = where K is Kinetic energy
√2𝑚𝐾
• 1
KE or Ve = 2 mv2
• KE ∝ √𝑉
• λ (electron)= λ (proton)
𝑐
• λ > λ0, v < v0 (threshold frequency). And λ0 = v0 and Φ = hv0
∴ hv < hv0
1 1
• Maximum kinetic energy of electrons ejected = hc ( λ − λ0
) or
ℎ𝑐
= hv - λ0

Class 12 Physics CH 14 notes+IMP+Ex

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Class 12 Physics CH 14 notes+IMP+Ex

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Class 12 Physics CH 14 notes+IMP+Ex

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SUMMARY OF THE LESSON:

1. Wave Nature of Light:

4. Failure of Wave Theory:

6. Wave-Particle Duality of Light:

8. Davisson and Germer Experiment:

1. Wave Nature of Light: Traditional wave theory of light.

Wave Nature of Light:

- Limitations of Wave Theory:

The Photoelectric Effect

- Discovery: Heinrich Hertz (1887): Discovered photoelectric emission while studying

- Metal-Specific Radiation Requirements:

- Electrical Energy from Light:

Photoelectric Effect: Experimental Set-up

Observations from Experiments on Photoelectric Effect

3. Intensity and Photocurrent:

4. Photocurrent and Voltage:

5. Saturation Current and Intensity:

6. Kinetic Energy of Electrons:

7. Stopping Potential (Vs):

8. Frequency and Stopping Potential:

9. Photocurrent and Intensity:

1. Instantaneous Emission of Electrons:

2. Work Function of Metals:

3. Kinetic Energy of Electrons:

Einstein's Postulate of Quantization of Energy and the Photoelectric Equation

- Significance of Einstein's Relation:

2. Instantaneous Energy Transfer:

3. Effect of Radiation Intensity:

6. Kinetic Energy of Ejected Electrons:

7. Variation in Electron Kinetic Energy:

8. Stopping Potential (V0):

- Wave Nature of Light:

- Dual Nature of Light:

- Photo Cell Overview:

- Relation for Kinetic Energy:

- De Broglie Wavelength for Electrons:

The wave properties of electrons:

- Wave Properties of Sub-Atomic Particles:

- Observation of Electron Waves:

Davisson and Germer Experiment:

- Detection and Measurement:

Wave-Particle Duality of Matter:

1 mark questions: MCQ

2. As the intensity of incident light increases ______

3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons depends only on ______

4. According to De-Broglie, the waves are associated with ______

Will depend on the average wavelength.

12. The equation E = pc is valid ______.

1 mark questions: Short questions

Define photoelectric effect.

Define threshold frequency.

What is cut-off or stopping potential?

Define the work function of the metal.

Can microwaves be used in the experiment on photoelectric effect?

Metal Work function (in eV)

Wave-particle duality - Where does it apply?

Find the energy of photon which have momentum 2 × 10-16 gm-cm/sec.

State the importance of Davisson and Germer experiment.

What is meant by the dual nature of matter?