FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE:

 Protect internal organs

 Provide rigid kinematic links and muscle attachment sites
 Facilitate muscle action and body movement

NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF BONE:

Bone has an excellent capacity for self repair and can alter its properties and
configuration in response to changes in mechanical demand (Wolf’s law)

 Bone consists of cells and an organic extracellular matrix of fibers and ground
substance produced by the cells
 The distinguishing feature is its high content of inorganic materials in the form of
mineral salts which combine with the organic matrix.
 The inorganic component of bone makes the tissue hard and rigid, while the
organic component gives bone its flexibility and resilience.
 Composition depends on the site, age, diet, presence of disease.
 In normal human bone the mineral or inorganic portion of bone consists
primarily of calcium and phosphate in the form of small crystals resembling
synthetic hydroxyapatite crystals. These minerals account for 60% of its weight
and gives the bone its solid consistency.
 Water makes up 10%
 The organic matrix is predominantly type 1 collagen which makes up the other
30%
 The proportions of substances in terms of VOLUME are 40% mineral, 25% water
and 35% collagen.
 Bone serves as a reservoir for essential minerals in the body – calcium.
 The gelatinous ground substance surrounding the mineralized collagen fibers
consists mainly of protein polysaccharides, or glycosaminoglycans primarily in
the form of complex macromolecules called proteoglycans. The GAGs serve as a
cementing substance between layers of mineralized collagen fibres.

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  At the macroscopic level, all bones consist of two types: cortical bone (compact)
and cancellous bone (trabecular). Cortical forms the outer shell or cortex, while
cancellous forms the inside and is composed of a thin loose meshy structure.
 Bone is found in two forms at the microscopic level: woven and lamellar. Woven
is considered immature and is found in the embryo, newborn and fracture callus,
as well as in the metaphyseal region of growing. Lamellar bone begins to form
one month after birth and actively replaces woven bone, meaning it is a more
mature form of bone.
 Fun fact: denaturing of collagen results in a 60% reduction in bone’s overall
strength

BIOMECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF BONE

Biomechanically, bone tissue may be regarded as BIPHASIC.
The mineral is one phase, and the collagen and ground substance is the other. For example,
in fiber glass, a strong brittle material is embedded in a weaker more flexible one. Together,
they are stronger than either substance being alone.

LOADING OF BONE
Loading causes deformation – a change in dimensions of the structure. When a load in a
known direction is imposed on a structure, the deformation of that structure can be
measured and plotted on a load-deformation curve. Although the mineral component of the
bone is thought to give strength and stiffness to the bone, it has been shown that type 1
collagen is most important in conferring the fundamental toughness and postyield
properties to bone tissue.

STRESS STRAIN CURVE OF BONE

WHAT IS STRESS AND STRAIN?

Stress refers to the amount of load applied
Strain refers to the amount of deformation experienced

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Linear strain is measured as the amount of linear deformation (lengthening or shortening)
of the sample divided by the sample’s original length. It is a non- dimensional parameter
expressed as a percentage (e.g., centimeter per centimeter). Shear strain is measured as the
amount of angular change in a right angle lying in the plane of interest in the sample. It is
expressed in radians (one radian equals approximately 57.3°) (Inter- national Society of
Biomechanics, 1987).

BRITTLE VS DUCTILE
Brittle means hard but easy to break
Ductile means able to bend a lot before it breaks
For example, glass deforms very little before it fails so it is brittle
Aluminium is ductile because it bends a lot before it breaks

BONE TOUGHNESS IS DEFINED BY THE AREA UNDERNEATH THE STRESS/STRAIN CURVE,

KNOWN AS THE MODULUS OF TOUGHNESS.

 The initial (straight

line) portion of the
curve is the elastic
region. It reveals the
elasticity of the
structure Which is
defined as its ability
to return to its
original shape after
the load is removed.
 As the load is applied,
deformation occurs
but is not permanent.
As the deformation
further continues, the

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 outermost fibres begin to yield. This yield point signals the elastic limit of the
structure. As the load exceeds this limit, the structure exhibits plastic behaviour,
whereby the structure will no longer return to its original dimensions when the load
is released. If loading is increased beyond this point, it will fail at some point and a
fracture occurs. This point is indicated by the ultimate failure point of the curve.

Three parameters for determining the strength of a structure reflected on the curve
(1) The load the structure can sustain before failing
(2) The deformation it can sustain before failing
These two^, are referred to as ultimate strength and are indicated on the curve by the
ultimate failure point
(3) The energy it can store before failing – this is represented by the area underneath
the entire curve. The larger the area, the greater the energy that builds up in the
structure as load is applied.

The stiffness of the structure is indicated by the slope of the curve in the elastic region.
Steeper slope = stiffer material.
BIOMECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF BONE
Bone’s behaviour under the influence of forces is affected by:
1. Mechanical properties
2. Geometric characteristics
3. Loading mode applied
4. Direction of loading
5. Rate of loading
6. Frequency of loading

Bone is anisotropic because its behaviour depends upon the direction in which it is loaded
from.

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INFLUENCE OF MUSCLE ACTIVITY ON STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN BONE
When bone is loaded in vivo, the contraction of the muscles attached to the bone alters the
stress distribution in the bone. This muscle contraction decreases or eliminates tensile stress
on the bone by producing compressive stress that neutralizes it either partially or totally.

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FATIGUE OF BONE UNDER REPETITIVE LOADING
Bone fractures can be produced by a single load that exceeds the ultimate strength of the
bone or by repeated applications of a lower-magnitude load. A fracture caused by a
repeated load application is called a fatigue fracture.

Fatigue fractures fall into two main subcategories: Fatigue-type stress fractures are seen in
normal bone after excessive activity, whereas insufficiency-type fractures are brought on by
normal activity and are frequently caused by osteoporosis and osteomalacia, thus appearing
most commonly in the elderly (Case Study 2-4). Each of these forms of stress fractures falls
into two further subcategories: tension and com- pression fatigue fractures. The more
dangerous of the two is a tension fracture, which is caused by debonding of osteons and
appears as a transverse crack—“the dreaded black line”—that will continue to completion
and ultimately displacement if activity is continued. In compression fractures, on the other
hand, bone fails through the formation of oblique cracks, which isolate areas of bone,
leading to devascularization. Compres- sion fractures often appear more slowly and most
can heal on their own

BONE REMODELING
Bone has the ability to remodel, by altering its size, shape, and structure, to meet the
mechanical demands placed on it (Buckwalter et al., 1995). This phenomenon, in which
bone gains or loses cancellous and/or cortical bone in response to the level of stress
sustained, is sum- marized as Wolff’s law, which states that the remodel- ing of bone is
influenced and modulated by mechanical stresses (Wolff, 1892).

INFLUENCE OF BONE GEOMETRY ON BIOMECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

The geometry of a bone greatly influences its mechani- cal behavior (Wright and Maher,
2008). In tension and compression, the load to failure and the stiffness are proportional to
the cross-sectional area of the bone. The larger the area, the stronger and stiffer the bone.

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The length of a bone also influences its strength and stiffness in bending. The longer the
bone, the greater the magnitude of the bending moment caused by the application of a
force

SUMMARY:

 Bone is a complex two-phase composite material. One phase is composed of

inorganic mineral salts and the other is an organic matrix of type I collagen and
ground substance. The inorganic component makes bone hard and rigid, whereas
the organic component gives bone its flexibility and toughness.

 Bone is an anisotropic material, having a grain like wood and exhibiting different
mechanical properties when loaded in different directions. Mature bone is
strongest and stiffest in compression.

 Muscle contraction affects stress patterns in bone by producing compressive stress

that partially or totally neutralizes the tensile stress acting on the bone.

 Bone is a viscoelastic material. It is therefore stiffer, sustains higher loads before

failing, and stores more energy when loaded at higher physiologic strain rates.

 Living bone fatigues when the frequency of loading precludes the remodeling
necessary to prevent failure.

 Bone remodels in response to the mechanical demands placed on it; it is laid down
where needed and resorbed where not needed, as defined by Wolff’s law.

 With aging comes a marked reduction in the amount of cancellous bone and a
decrease in the thickness of cor- tical bone. These changes diminish bone
toughness, as well as its strength and stiffness.

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. The skeleton is made up of cortical and trabecular bone. (A) describe the physiologic
and anatomic differences between the two. (B) Explain the biomechanical properties
of the two types of bone.
2. Bone is anisotropic. What does that mean?
3. Bone can remodel. Discuss when, how and where bone is remodeling
4. With age, bone density changes. How does this change affect the biomechanical
properties of cortical and trabecular bone?
5. What are the best ways to maintain and increase bone density? Mention both
negative and positive factors for bone health.