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About the Cover page xiii
Preface to the First Edition xv
Preface to the Second Edition xvii
1 Vector and Tensor Calculus 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Definition of a Vector 1
1.3 Vector Operations 1
1.4 Decomposition of a Vector with Respect to a Basis
5
1.5 Some Mathematical Preliminaries on Second-
Order Tensors 10
Exercises 13
2 The Concepts of Force and Moment 16
2.1 Introduction 16
2.2 Definition of a Force Vector 16
2.3 Newton’s Laws 18
2.4 Vector Operations on the Force Vector 19
2.5 Force Decomposition 20
2.6 Drawing Convention 24
2.7 The Concept of Moment 25
2.8 Definition of the Moment Vector 26
2.9 The Two-Dimensional Case 30
2.10 Drawing Convention for Moments in Three
Dimensions 33
Exercises 34
3 Static Equilibrium 39
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Static Equilibrium Conditions 39
3.3 Free Body Diagram 42
Exercises 51

viii Contents
4 The Mechanical Behaviour of Fibres 56
4.1 Introduction 56
4.2 Elastic Fibres in One Dimension 56
4.3 A Simple One-Dimensional Model of a Skeletal
Muscle 59
4.4 Elastic Fibres in Three Dimensions 62
4.5 Small Fibre Stretches 69
Exercises 73
5 Fibres: Time-Dependent Behaviour 79
5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Viscous Behaviour 81
5.2.1 Small Stretches: Linearization 84
5.3 Linear Visco-Elastic Behaviour 85
5.3.1 Superposition and Proportionality 85
5.3.2 Generalization for an Arbitrary Load History 88
5.3.3 Visco-Elastic Models Based on Springs and
Dashpots: Maxwell
Model 92
5.3.4 Visco-Elastic Models Based on Springs and
Dashpots:
Kelvin–Voigt Model 96
5.4 Harmonic Excitation of Visco-Elastic Materials 97
5.4.1 The Storage and the Loss Modulus 97
5.4.2 The Complex Modulus 99
5.4.3 The Standard Linear Model 101
5.5 Appendix: Laplace and Fourier Transforms 106
Exercises 108
6 Analysis of a One-Dimensional Continuous Elastic
Medium 116
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Equilibrium in a Subsection of a Slender Structure
116
6.3 Stress and Strain 118
6.4 Elastic Stress–Strain Relation 121
6.5 Deformation of an Inhomogeneous Bar 122
Exercises 129
7 Biological Materials and Continuum Mechanics 133
7.1 Introduction 133
7.2 Orientation in Space 134
7.3 Mass within the Volume V 138
7.4 Scalar Fields 141
7.5 Vector Fields 144
7.6 Rigid Body Rotation 149
Exercises 151
8 Stress in Three-Dimensional Continuous Media 155
8.1 Stress Vector 155
8.2 From Stress to Force 156
8.3 Equilibrium 157
8.4 Stress Tensor 164
8.5 Principal Stresses and Principal Stress Directions
172
8.6 Mohr’s Circles for the Stress State 175
8.7 Hydrostatic Pressure and Deviatoric Stress 176
8.8 Equivalent Stress 177
Exercises 178
9 Motion: Time as an Extra Dimension 183
9.1 Introduction 183
9.2 Geometrical Description of the Material
Configuration 183
9.3 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions 185
9.4 The Relation between the Material and Spatial
Time Derivatives 188
9.5 The Displacement Vector 190
9.6 The Gradient Operator 192
9.7 Extra Rigid Body Displacement 196
9.8 Fluid Flow 198
Exercises 199
10 Deformation and Rotation, Deformation Rate and
Spin 204
10.1 Introduction 204
10.2 A Material Line Segment in the Reference and
Current
Configurations 204
10.3 The Stretch Ratio and Rotation 210
10.4 Strain Measures and Strain Tensors and Matrices
214
10.5 The Volume Change Factor 219
10.6 Deformation Rate and Rotation Velocity 219
Exercises 222
11 Local Balance of Mass, Momentum and Energy 227
11.1 Introduction 227
11.2 The Local Balance of Mass 227
11.3 The Local Balance of Momentum 228

x Contents
11.4 The Local Balance of Mechanical Power 230
11.5 Lagrangian and Eulerian Descriptions of the
Balance Equations 231
Exercises 233
12 Constitutive Modelling of Solids and Fluids 235
12.1 Introduction 235
12.2 Elastic Behaviour at Small Deformations and
Rotations 236
12.3 The Stored Internal Energy 242
12.4 Elastic Behaviour at Large Deformations and/or
Large Rotations 244
12.4.1 Material Frame Indifference 244
12.4.2 Strain Energy Function 250
12.4.3 The Incompressible Neo-Hookean Model 252
12.4.4 The Incompressible Mooney–Rivlin Model 255
12.4.5 Compressible Neo-Hookean Elastic Solid 256
12.5 Constitutive Modelling of Viscous Fluids 261
12.6 Newtonian Fluids 262
12.7 Non-Newtonian Fluids 263
12.8 Diffusion and Filtration 264
Exercises 264
13 Solution Strategies for Solid and Fluid Mechanics
Problems 270
13.1 Introduction 270
13.2 Solution Strategies for Deforming Solids 270
13.2.1 General Formulation for Solid Mechanics
Problems 271
13.2.2 Geometrical Linearity 272
13.2.3 Linear Elasticity Theory, Dynamic 273
13.2.4 Linear Elasticity Theory, Static 273
13.2.5 Linear Plane Stress Theory, Static 274
13.2.6 Boundary Conditions 278
13.3 Solution Strategies for Viscous Fluids 280
13.3.1 General Equations for Viscous Flow 281
13.3.2 The Equations for a Newtonian Fluid 282
13.3.3 Stationary Flow of an Incompressible
Newtonian Fluid 282
13.3.4 Boundary Conditions 283
13.3.5 Elementary Analytical Solutions 283
13.4 Diffusion and Filtration 285
Exercises 287
14 Solution of the One-Dimensional Diffusion
Equation by
Means of the Finite Element Method 292
14.1 Introduction 292
xi Contents
14.2 The Diffusion Equation 293
14.3 Method of Weighted Residuals and Weak Form
295
14.4 Polynomial Interpolation 297
14.5 Galerkin Approximation 300
14.6 Solution of the Discrete Set of Equations 307
14.7 Isoparametric Elements and Numerical
Integration 308
14.8 Basic Structure of a Finite Element Program 312
Exercises 319
15 Solution of the One-Dimensional Convection–
Diffusion
Equation by Means of the Finite Element Method 327
15.1 Introduction 327
15.2 The Convection–Diffusion Equation 327
15.3 Temporal Discretization 330
15.4 Spatial Discretization 333
Exercises 338
16 Solution of the Three-Dimensional Convection–
Diffusion
Equation by Means of the Finite Element Method 342
16.1 Introduction 342
16.2 Diffusion Equation 343
16.3 Divergence Theorem and Integration by Parts 344
16.4 Weak Form 345
16.5 Galerkin Discretization 345
16.6 Convection–Diffusion Equation 348
16.7 Isoparametric Elements and Numerical
Integration 349
16.8 Example 353
Exercises 356
17 Shape Functions and Numerical Integration 363
17.1 Introduction 363
17.2 Isoparametric, Bi-Linear Quadrilateral Element
365
17.3 Linear Triangular Element 367
17.4 Lagrangian and Serendipity Elements 370
17.4.1 Lagrangian Elements 371
17.4.2 Serendipity Elements 373
17.5 Numerical Integration 373
Exercises 377

xii Contents
18 Infinitesimal Strain Elasticity Problems 382
18.1 Introduction 382
18.2 Linear Elasticity 382
18.3 Weak Formulation 384
18.4 Galerkin Discretization 385
18.5 Solution 391
Exercises 394
References 399
Index 401
 1 Vector and Tensor Calculus

1.1 Introduction
Before we can start with biomechanics, it is necessary
to introduce some basic
mathematical concepts and to introduce the
mathematical notation that will be
used throughout the book. The present chapter is
aimed at understanding some
of the basics of vector calculus, which are necessary
to elucidate the concepts of
force and momentum that will be treated in the next
chapter.

1.2 Definition of a Vector

A vector is a mathematical entity having both a
magnitude (length or size) and a
direction. For a vector a, it holds (see Fig. 1.1), that:

a = ae. (1.1)
The length of the vector a is denoted by |a| and is
equal to the length of the arrow.
The length is equal to a, when a is positive, and equal
to −a when a is negative.
The direction of a is given by the unit vector e
combined with the sign of a. The
unit vector e has length 1. The vector 0 has length
zero.

1.3 Vector Operations

Multiplication of a vector a = ae by a positive scalar α
yields a vector b having
the same direction as a but a different magnitude α|a|:

b = αa = αae. (1.2)
This makes sense: pulling twice as hard on a wire
creates a force in the wire
having the same orientation (the direction of the wire
does not change), but with
a magnitude that is twice as large.
2 Vector and Tensor Calculus

e
a

Figure 1.1
The vector a = ae with a > 0.

b
c

Figure 1.2
Graphical representation of the sum of two vectors: c
= a + b.
The sum of two vectors a and b is a new vector c,
equal to the diagonal of the
parallelogram spanned by a and b (see Fig. 1.2):
c = a + b. (1.3)
This may be interpreted as follows. Imagine two thin
wires which are attached
to a point P. The wires are being pulled at in two
different directions according
to the vectors a and b. The length of each vector
represents the magnitude of the
pulling force. The net force vector exerted on the
attachment point P is the vector
sum of the two vectors a and b. If the wires are aligned
with each other and the
pulling direction is the same, the resulting force
direction clearly coincides with
the direction of the two wires, and the length of the
resulting force vector is the
sum of the two pulling forces. Alternatively, if the two
wires are aligned but the
pulling forces are in opposite directions and of equal
magnitude, the resulting
force exerted on point P is the zero vector 0.
The inner product or dot product of two vectors is a
scalar quantity, defined as
a · b = |a||b| cos(φ), (1.4)
where φ is the smallest angle between a and b (see
Fig. 1.3). The inner product is
commutative, i.e.

a · b = b · a. (1.5)
The inner product can be used to define the length of a
vector, since the inner
product of a vector with itself yields (φ = 0):
a · a = |a||a| cos(0) = |a|

2. (1.6)

3 1.3 Vector Operations

φ
a
b

Figure 1.3
Definition of the angle φ.

Figure 1.4
Vector product c = a × b. The direction of vector c is
determined by the corkscrew or right-hand rule.
If two vectors are perpendicular to each other the
inner product of these two
vectors is equal to zero, since in that case φ = π
2:
a · b = 0, if φ = π

2 . (1.7)
The cross product or vector product of two vectors a
and b yields a new vector
c that is perpendicular to both a and b such that a, b
and c form a right-handed
system. The vector c is denoted as

c = a × b . (1.8)

The length of the vector c is given by

|c| = |a||b|sin(φ), (1.9)

where φ is the smallest angle between a and b. The
length of c equals the area of
the parallelogram spanned by the vectors a and b. The
vector system a, b and c
forms a right-handed system, meaning that if a
corkscrew were used rotating from
a to b the corkscrew would move into the direction of
c (see Fig. 1.4).
The vector product of a vector a with itself yields the
zero vector, since in that
case φ = 0:

a × a = 0. (1.10)
4 Vector and Tensor Calculus
The vector product is not commutative, since the
vector product of b and a yields
a vector that has the opposite direction to the vector
product of a and b:
a × b = −b × a. (1.11)

The triple product of three vectors a, b and c is a

scalar, defined by

a × b · c = (a × b) · c. (1.12)
So, first the vector product of a and b is determined
and subsequently the inner
product of the resulting vector with the third vector c is
taken. If all three vectors
a, b and c are non-zero vectors, while the triple
product is equal to zero, then the
vector c lies in the plane spanned by the vectors a and
b. This can be explained
by the fact that the vector product of a and b yields a
vector perpendicular to the

plane spanned by a and b. Conversely, this implies

that if the triple product is non-
zero then the three vectors a, b and c are not in the
same plane. In that case the

absolute value of the triple product of the vectors a, b

and c equals the volume of
the parallelepiped spanned by a, b and c.

The dyadic or tensor product of two vectors a and b

defines a linear transfor-
mation operator called a dyad ab. Application of a
dyad ab to a vector p yi elds

a vector into the direction of a, where a is multiplied by

the inner product of b
and p:
ab · p = a (b · p). (1.13)
So, application of a dyad to a vector transforms this
vector into another vector.
This transformation is linear, as can be seen from
ab · (αp + βq) = ab · αp + ab · βq = αab · p + βab · q.
(1.14)
The transpose of a dyad (ab)

T is defined by
(ab)
T · p = ba · p, (1.15)

or simply

(ab)
T = ba. (1.16)
An operator A that transforms a vector a into another
vector b according to
b = A · a, (1.17)
is called a second-order tensor A. This implies that the
dyadic product of two
vectors is a second-order tensor.
In three-dimensional space, a set of three vectors c1,
c2 and c3 is called a basis
if the triple product of the three vectors is non-zero,
hence if all three vectors are
non-zero vectors and if they do not lie in the same
plane:

Find the Full Original Textbook (PDF) in the link

below:

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