Nhess 8 187 2008

Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.
, 8, 187–202, 2008
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/ Natural Hazards
© Author(s) 2008. This work is licensed and Earth
under a Creative Commons License. System Sciences
Tree-ring analysis in natural hazards research – an overview

M. Stoffel and M. Bollschweiler
Laboratory of Dendrogeomorphology, Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, Chemin du Musée 4, 1700
Fribourg, Switzerland
Received: 23 November 2007 – Revised: 22 January 2008 – Accepted: 22 January 2008 – Published: 11 March 2008
Abstract. The understanding of geomorphic processes and cesses with tree rings (“dendrogeomorphology”) represents
knowledge of past events are important tasks for the assess- one of the many subfields of dendroecology. The approach,
ment of natural hazards. Tree rings have on varied occasions first described by Alestalo (1971) and further developed by
proved to be a reliable tool for the acquisition of data on Shroder (1980), Braam et al. (1987a, b), Butler (1987) and
past events. In this review paper, we provide an overview Shroder and Butler (1987), takes advantage of the fact that
on the use of tree rings in natural hazards research, start- trees growing in temperate climate zones form yearly incre-
ing with a description of the different types of disturbances ment rings that can be used to precisely date external distur-
by geomorphic processes and the resulting growth reactions. bances.
Thereafter, a summary is presented on the different methods Since the pioneering studies published in the 1970s and
commonly used for the analysis and interpretation of reac- 1980s, a plethora of studies has been performed and various
tions in affected trees. We illustrate selected results from approaches used to date and interpret geomorphic processes
dendrogeomorphological investigations of geomorphic pro- posing hazards and risks. This paper therefore aims at pro-
cesses with an emphasis on fluvial (e.g., flooding, debris viding an overview on (i) tree growth and tree-ring forma-
flows) and mass-movement processes (e.g., landslides, snow tion; (ii) growth disturbances in trees affected by geomorphic
avalanche), where lots of data have been generated over the processes; (iii) the most common methods used in dendro-
past few decades. We also present results from rockfall and geomorphology (iv) the different geomorphic processes that
permafrost studies, where data are much scarcer, albeit data are commonly analyzed with tree rings, before (v) sugges-
from tree-ring studies have proved to be of great value in tions are made with respect to future research directions in
these fields as well. the field of dendrogeomorphology.
Most studies using tree rings have focused on alpine envi-
ronments in Europe and North America, whereas other parts
of the world have been widely neglected by dendrogeomor- 2 Tree growth and tree-ring formation
phologists so far. We therefore challenge researchers to focus
on other regions with distinct climates as well, to look on less Growth cycles in trees are regulated by the seasonality of cli-
frequently studied processes as well and to broaden and im- mate. In the temperate climate zones, tree-ring formation is
prove approaches and methods commonly used in tree-ring limited to the “vegetation period”, which roughly lasts from
research so as to allow a better understanding of geomorphic spring to autumn. During the vegetation period, tree-ring
processes, natural hazards and risk. formation is driven by a meristem called the vascular cam-
bium. This tissue is located between the secondary xylem
(wood) and the secondary phloem (bark) and divides off cells
that will be become additional xylem and phloem (Campbell,
1 Introduction 1997). Outside the vegetation period, cell formation ceases
and the “dormancy” sets in. As a consequence, one distinct
Since the 1970s, tree-ring research has gradually evolved
increment ring is formed every year, allowing accurate age
from the pure dating of wood (i.e. dendrochronology, den-
assessment and chronology development for many different
droarcheology) to the much broader field of dendroecology,
tree species. At the same time, it is worthwhile to note from
including all areas of science involved in drawing environ-
the beginning that not all species are equally good time keep-
mental information from tree-ring sequences (Schweingru-
ers.
ber, 1996). In this sense, the study of geomorphic pro-
In conifers (gymnosperms), tree-ring formation can be
Correspondence to: M. Stoffel divided into two distinct periods (Camarero et al., 1998;
(markus.stoffel@unifr.ch) Rigling et al., 2002; Stoffel et al., 2005a): During the early
Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.

188 M. Stoffel and M. Bollschweiler: Tree-ring analysis in natural hazards research – an overview
Fig. 1. Micro-sections of tree rings prepared from conifer and broadleaved trees: In (a) Picea abies (L.) Karst. and (b) Pinus cembra L.,
bands of tracheids form the individual increment rings. In broadleaved trees, tracheids and vessels are formed by the dividing cambium.
Depending on the distribution of vessels in the ring, we distinguish between (c) ring-porous (Fraxinus excelsior L.; photo: Schoch et al.,
2004) and (d) diffuse-porous angiosperms (Acer pseudoplatanus L.; photo: Schoch et al., 2004).
stages of the vegetation period, reproductive cambium cells different impacts (“events”) that geomorphic processes may
form large and thin-walled earlywood cells, so-called tra- have on trees are illustrated and the specific “responses” of
cheids, which primarily serve the transport of nutrients and trees listed:
water. Later in the season, smaller and denser latewood tra-
cheids are produced. Due to their thicker cell walls, these 3.1 Wounding of trees (scars) and resin-duct formation
layers are darker in appearance and serve to increase the sta-
bility of the tree. Scratches on the outer bark and wood-penetrating injuries are
The amount and complexity of tissue formation in a very common feature in trees affected by geomorphic pro-
broadleaved trees (also called angiosperms or flowering cesses (Lundström et al., 20081 ). Wounds can be observed
plants) exceeds that of gymnosperms. In addition to the tra- on the tree’s stem (Fig. 2a), in its branches or roots. Provided
cheids, the dividing cambium of broadleaved trees also pro- that the impacting energy was important enough to locally
duces vessels. These cells primarily facilitate the flow of wa- destroy the cambium, increment formation will be disrupted
ter in the stem. Depending on the arrangement of vessels, in the injured segment of the tree. In order to minimize the
a distinction is made between wood with statistically scat- risk of rot and insect attacks after wood-penetrating impacts,
tered pores (diffuse-porous angiosperms) or wood with ring- the injured tree will (i) compartmentalize the wound (Shigo,
shaped pores (ring-porous angiosperms; Campbell, 1997). 1984) and (ii) almost immediately start with the production
Besides the clearly developed types, a number of transitional of chaotic callus tissue at the edges of the injury (Fig. 2c;
structures exist. Figure 1 illustrates how tree rings look in Schweingruber, 2001).
conifers (a, b) and in broadleaved trees (c, d). Through the production of callus tissue, cambium cells
Growth in trees is driven by internal (biotic and genetic) will continuously overgrow the injury from its edges (Fig. 2b;
as well as external (abiotic) factors. The longevity, ageing Sachs, 1991; Larson, 1994) and ideally lead to the complete
or sensitivity of a tree represent some of the internal factors closure of the wound. The wound healing greatly depends on
driving tree growth, whereas light, temperature, water, nu- the annual increment rate and the age of the tree, and on the
trient supply, wind, air and soil pollution or geomorphic im- size of the scar.
pacts may influence the radial increment growth of trees as Following injury, tangential rows of traumatic resin ducts
external factors (Schweingruber, 1996). (TRD) are produced in the developing secondary xylem of
certain conifer species like e.g., European larch (Larix de-
cidua Mill.), Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) or Sil-
3 How do trees react to geomorphic processes? ver fir (Abies alba Mill.; Fig. 2d). They extend both tangen-
tially and axially from the injury (Bannan, 1936; Nagy et al.,
Dendrogeomorphological investigations are normally based 2000; Bollschweiler et al., 2008b). In contrast, resin ducts
on the “process–event–response” concept as defined by are not produced in traumatic and tangential rows in pine
Shroder (1978). The “process” is represented by any kind trees and cannot therefore be used for the dating of past ge-
of geomorphic agents, such as e.g., a debris flow, rockfall or
snow avalanche. In the case of an “event”, the geomorphic 1 Lundström, T., Jonsson, M. J., Simon, H., and Stoffel, M.: As-
process will affect a tree, which will react upon the distur- sessing reaction and energy absorption of trees exposed to rockfall,
bance with a certain growth “response”. In the following, the J. Exp. Bot, submitted, 2008.
Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/

M. Stoffel and M. Bollschweiler: Tree-ring analysis in natural hazards research – an overview 189
Fig. 2. Injuries in European larch (Larix decidua Mill.): (a) Injured stem (b) Cross-section with overgrowth starting from the lateral edges
of the injury. (c) Callus tissue as observed in the overgrowing cell layers bordering the injury. (d) Tangential row of traumatic resin ducts
migrating from earlywood towards later portions of the tree ring with increasing distance from the wound (Source: Bollschweiler, 2007).
omorphic events, as this genus produces copious amounts of

resin without necessarily suffering from mechanical wound-
ing (Phillips and Croteau, 1999). Given that wounding oc-
curred during the vegetation period of the tree, resin produc-
tion will start only a few days after the event and axial ducts
will emerge within less than three weeks after the disturb-
ing event (Ruel et al., 1998; McKay et al., 2003; Luchi et al.,
2005). When analyzing cross-sections, the intra-seasonal po-
sition of the first series of TRD can, therefore, be used for the
reconstruction of previous events and with monthly precision
(Stoffel et al., 2005a, 2008; Stoffel and Beniston, 2006; Stof-
fel, 2008), provided that the incidence occurred during the
vegetation period. With increasing axial and tangential dis-
tance from the impact, however, TRD tend to migrate to later
Fig. 3. (a) Tree morphology and (b) cross-sections of a tilted Larix
portions of the tree ring, which is why the intra-seasonal dat- decidua Mill. (D. M. Schneuwly). (c) Increment curves of a Picea
ing with monthly precision cannot be obtained easily when abies (L.) Karst. tree tilted by a debris flow in 1922 (Stoffel et al.,
working with increment cores (Bollschweiler et al., 2008b; 2005b).
Schneuwly and Stoffel, 2008a, b).
Depending on the impact energy and the relative size of
the damage, an injured tree will concentrate the formation
of tree rings to those parts essential for survival and limit
growth in other segments in the years succeeding the impact
(Bollschweiler, 2007).
3.2 Tilting of stems
The sudden pressure induced by the activity and deposition

of material by mass-movement processes (e.g., avalanche
snow, debris-flow material) or the slow but ongoing desta-
bilization of a tree through landslide activity or erosion can Fig. 4. (a) Sedimentation and subsequent die-off of trees after sed-
lead to the inclination of the stem (Lundström et al., 2007, imentation. (b) Micro-section showing an abrupt growth decrease
2008). Tilted trees are quite a common sight in areas af- in Castanea sativa Mill. following an event (F. H. Schweingruber).
fected by geomorphic processes (Fig. 3a) and have therefore (c) Several levels of adventitious roots in Populus deltoides Bartr.
been used in many dendrogeomorphological studies to date ex Marsh. (F. H. Schweingruber).
previous events (e.g., Clague and Souther, 1982; Braam et
al., 1987a, b; Fantucci and Sorriso-Valvo, 1999; Casteller et
al., 2007).
www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008

Owczarek, 20082 ). Exceptionally, the burial of a stem can

also cause a growth increase, provided that the material left
by the mass-movement process is rich in nutrients, the water
supply guaranteed and the depth of the deposited material is
not too important (Strunk, 1995).
As soon as stem burial trespasses a certain threshold,
trees will not survive and die from a shortage in water and
nutrient supply (Fig. 4a). According to case-study results
from the Italian Dolomites (Strunk, 1991), Picea abies (L.)
Karst. might tolerate a maximum burial depth of 1.6 to
1.9 m in these environments dominated by fine-grained de-
bris flows composed of calcareous and dolomitic material
(Strunk, 1997). Although there are no data available for
Fig. 5. (a) Picea abies (L.) Karst. decapitated by rockfall. (b)
other species or lithologies, it is believed that the maximum
Candelabra growth in Larix decidua Mill. following apex loss. burial depth tolerated will be (much) less important in re-
gions where debris flows are composed of crystalline rocks
and boulders.
Occasionally, buried trees start to produce adventitious
A tilted tree will always try to regain its vertical position roots close to the new ground surface (Fig. 4c; Bannan,
and the reaction will be best visible in that segment of the tree 1941). As adventitious roots will be normally formed in the
to which the center of gravity has been moved to through the first years succeeding burial (Strunk, 1995), the moment of
inclination of the stem axis (Mattheck, 1993). In the tree- root sprouting can be used for approximate dating of the sed-
ring series, eccentric growth will be visible after a tilting imentation processes, as shown by e.g., Strunk (1989, 1991)
event and thus allow accurate dating of the disturbing inci- or Marin and Filion (1992). In case a tree has been repeat-
dence. In conifer trees, compression wood will be produced edly buried and several layers of adventitious roots formed,
on the underside of the trunk. Individual rings will be consid- it is even possible to estimate sedimentation depths of indi-
erably larger here and slightly darker in appearance as com- vidual events at the location of the tree.
pared to the upslope side (Fig. 3b). The difference in color is
due to the much thicker and rounded cell walls of early- and 3.4 Decapitation of trees and elimination of branches
latewood tracheids (Timell, 1986; Schweingruber, 2001). In
contrast, broadleaved trees will react upon the tilting of their
Bouncing rocks and boulders, flowing water with solid
stem with the formation of tension wood (Westing, 1965;
charge, debris flows and lahars or the windblast of snow
Schweingruber, 1983, 1996, 2001) and the eccentricity will
avalanches may cause decapitation of trees (Fig. 5a) or the
occur on the upper side facing the tilting agent.
break-off of branches. The loss of the crown or branches
In addition to the formation of different types of reaction is more common in bigger trees, where stems have lost their
wood, trees may also respond with reduced growth to their suppleness. Apex loss has also been observed in relation with
tilting (Bollschweiler, 2007). It is believed that the reduction rockfall impacts close to the ground level. In this particular
in annual tree-ring size is related to the destruction of roots case, the sinusoidal propagation of shockwaves in the stem
resulting from the abrupt or heavy tilting. It is worthwhile to will result in the break-off of the crown. This phenomenon
note that the growth decrease will be normally less visible on has been described as the “hula-hoop” effect (Dorren and
the side where the reaction wood (i.e. compression or tension Berger, 2006; Stoffel, 2005a).
wood) is being formed. Figure 3c provides an example on Trees react upon decapitation with distinct growth sup-
how the difference in yearly increment looks like in a Picea pression in the years following the impact (see Fig. 4b). In
abies (L.) Karst. tree tilted by a debris flow in 1922. order to recover, one or several lateral branches will try to
take the lead and thus replace the broken crown, resulting
in a tree morphology called “candelabra” growth (Fig. 5b;
3.3 Stem burial
Butler and Malanson, 1985; Stoffel et al., 2005c). In addi-
tion, it is not unusual that the shock of the impacting ma-
Debris flows, hyperconcentrated flows, floods or landslides terial causes injuries and provokes the formation of TRD as
may occasionally bury trees by depositing material around well (see Chapter 3.1).
their stem base (Fig. 4a). Growth in these trees will normally
be reduced as the supply with water and nutrients will be 2 Malik, I. and Owczarek, P.: Dendrochronological records of
temporarily disrupted or at least limited (Fig. 4b; LaMarche, debris flow activity in a mid-mountain forest zone (Eastern Sudetes
1966; Hupp et al., 1987; Friedman et al., 2005; Malik and – Central Europe), Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., in revision, 2008.

Fig. 6. (a) Exposed roots of Pinus sylvestris L. (b) In Abies alba Mill., larger increment rings with distinct latewood are formed after sudden
exposure (dashed red line). (c) Following sudden exposure, the arrangement of vessels in Fraxinus excelsior L. change from diffuse-porous
to ring-porous. (d) In addition to cell changes, tension wood is formed in this root of Acer pseudoplatanus L. (Source: Hitz, 2008).
Fig. 7. (a) A rockslide event has eliminated parts of this forest stand while leaving survivor trees uninjured at both sides of the couloir. (b)
Increment curves of a survivor tree (Larix decidua) Mill. remaining intact after a major debris flow in 1890 (Stoffel et al., 2005b).
3.5 Root exposure rings similar to those in the stem or branches will the formed.
The localization of this change in the tree-ring series may
Erosive processes and the (partial) denudation of roots may allow determination of the moment of exposure (Fig. 6b–
generate different growth reactions, both in the stem as in d; see Gärtner et al., 2001; Bodoque et al., 2006). The
the exposed roots. In addition, the type and intensity of the continuous exposure of roots is usually related with slow
reaction(s) will strongly depend on the nature of the erosive processes and relatively low denudation rates, as observed
event, which can occur in the form of a continuous or a sud- with the overland flow of rain water, the slow opening of
den process. cracks in soils (e.g., soil creep, landslides) and in disinte-
Provided that several roots are completely denudated dur- grated bedrock (e.g., preparation of rockfall, thrusts), along
ing a sudden erosive event (e.g., debris flow, lahar, flood, rivers, streams, lakes and oceans (floods, shore erosion) as
landslide), they will no longer be able to fulfill their primary well as with faulting activity and displacements in relation
functions and quickly die off. As a consequence, the tree will with earthquake activity. Provided that the roots are gradu-
suffer from a shortage in water and nutrient supply, resulting ally exposed with time, it is also possible to determine the
in suppressed tree growth and the formation of narrow rings erosion rates.
in the stem (see Fig. 4b; LaMarche, 1968; Carrara and Car-
roll, 1979; McAuliffe et al., 2006). 3.6 Elimination of neighboring trees
In case that only parts of a root are exposed (Fig. 6a) and
its outer end remains in the ground, the root will continue Geomorphic processes do not only disturb trees in their
to grow and fulfill its functions. In the exposed part, how- growth, but they can also eliminate trees along channels or
ever, anatomical changes will occur and individual growth couloirs through uprooting and stem breakage while leaving

their neighbors intact (Fig. 7a). This phenomenon can be identification of features related to previous events impera-
observed with e.g., rockfalls, debris flows, lahars, extreme tively need to proceed the sampling of increment cores or
floods, landslides or snow avalanches (Butler, 1979, 1985; cross-sections in the field as well as their analysis and inter-
Stoffel et al., 2005c). pretation in the laboratory.
The uninjured survivor trees will find themselves in a The identification of geomorphic processes and features
new environment with less competition, more light, nutrients present on a study site ideally starts with the examination of
and/or water (Schweingruber, 1996). As a consequence, they topographic sheets, geological maps as well as the interpre-
will start to produce larger increment rings. However, it has tation of aerial photographs. In addition, technical reports,
been observed that the growth release in survivor trees can archival data or newspaper reports can be consulted to obtain
start with a certain delay, which is why this reaction cannot data on the time and the locations of occurrence of previous
always be used to accurately date past destructive events with events. In the field, former activity and related geomorphic
yearly precision (Fig. 7b). Nevertheless, the growth release features need to be identified before a map of all geomorphic
in survivor trees can help to corroborate the dating of events deposits and forms can be realized. Depending on the nature
that have been identified in other trees through the study of of the analysis and the process being studied, the scale of the
e.g., scars, tilted stems or abrupt growth decrease (Stoffel et geomorphic map can vary from 1:100 to 1:10000. Although
al., 2005b). dendrogeomorphological studies normally focus on one pro-
cess only (e.g., snow avalanche, debris flow, erosion, land-
3.7 Colonization of landforms after surface-clearing distur- slide, rockfall), features and deposits originating from other
bances processes or anthropogenic activity need to be indicated on
the geomorphic map as well, so as to be aware of other influ-
Particularly large or devastating mass-movement processes ences and to avoid misinterpretation of growth disturbances
have the potential to eliminate entire forest stands, render- in trees (see Stoffel et al., 2005b, 2006a). Once finished, the
ing the reconstruction of previous events impossible with detailed geomorphic map will serve as a basis for the selec-
dendrogeomorphological methods. In this case, germination tion and the exact positioning of trees.
ages of trees growing on the bare surfaces can be used to es-
In open forest stands, LiDAR data can be used to create
timate the time of creation of the new landforms or the time
a preliminary geomorphic map which can then be verified
of surface-clearing disturbances to existing landforms. The
and/or improved in the field. Alternatively, high-precision
approach remains, however, a rough estimate, as the time
GPS or trigonometric devices (theodolite) are of consider-
elapsed between the clearing event and the recolonization
able help during the mapping process. On sites with rela-
greatly depends on the nature of the soil, climatic conditions
tively dense forest cover and/or the shielding effect of nearby
as well as on the availability of seedlings.
mountains, the use of high-precision devices is not always
This approach of so-called “minimum-age dating” has
possible. Here, mapping needs to be executed with a tape,
repeatedly been used to date landforms or to assess the
inclinometer and compass (Lièvre, 2002). In addition to the
minimum time elapsed since the last devastating event in
mapping of erosive and depositional forms, data on the size
snow avalanche couloirs, debris-flow channels or floodplains
of blocks deposited or on the nature and density of the veg-
(Sigafoos and Hendricks, 1969; McCarthy and Luckman,
etation cover (trees, shrubs, herbs, mosses or lichens) can
1993; Winter et al., 2002; Pierson, 2007; Bollschweiler et
complement the geomorphic mapping and serve as qualita-
al., 2008a). The assessment of “process inactivity” thus fo-
tive indicators supporting the tree-ring results.
cuses on germination ages via a classical dendrochronologi-
cal dating of trees. A dendrogeomorphological identification 4.2 Sampling design: which trees do I select?
of growth disturbances in the tree-ring series will take place
here only to assure that no event has affected the tree since Once the geomorphic map is accomplished, trees are chosen
its germination. that show clearly visible anomalies in their morphology re-
lated to the process under investigation. The choice of trees
4 Field approach, sampling design and sample prepara- is (i) based on an outer inspection of its stem surface (i.e.
tion does the tree show obvious signs of past disturbance?) and
(ii) on the detailed geomorphic map (i.e. is the tree located
4.1 Field approach: geomorphology matters! in the area influenced by the process studied?).
As soon as a tree is selected for dendrogeomorphologi-
It has been shown in the previous section that different types cal analysis, the following information should be noted: (i)
of growth defects identified in trees can be accurately dated. determination of the tree’s position within the forms and fea-
However, a visual inspection of the increment rings will in no tures; (ii) description and sketches of the visible disturbances
case allow determination of the process that was causing the in the tree morphology (scars, tilted stem axis, partial burial
disturbance. Therefore, a detailed identification of geomor- of the stem, decapitation, destruction of root mass or ero-
phic processes present at the study site as well as an accurate sion); (iii) position of the samples taken on the stem surface;

(iv) diameter measurement at breast height; and (v) data on

neighboring trees. A photo documentation of each tree has
proven useful for a better understanding and interpretation
of reactions in the laboratory. A more detailed description
on the documentation and numbering of trees in the field is
provided by Stoffel (2005b).
Growth disturbances of past events can be analyzed with
cross-sections or increment cores. As forests often have pro-
tective functions and as they effectively reduce the risk of
rocks, debris, avalanche snow or other elements from reach-
ing transportation corridors and/or inhabited areas (Stoffel et
al., 2006a, b; Dorren et al., 2007), trees are sometimes pro-
tected and cannot normally be felled for analysis. This is why
on forested slopes, tree-ring studies often have to be real-
ized with cores extracted with an increment borer. Grissino-
Mayer (2003) provides a technical description on how to
properly use these increment borers. On the other hand, it is
sometimes possible to analyze cross-sections sampled from
tree stumps remaining on the slopes after logging activities
Fig. 8. When sampling injured trees, special attention needs to be
(Stoffel and Perret, 2006).
addressed to the sampling position. Samples taken (a) inside the
The nature of the visible growth defect as observed in
wound or (b) from the overgrowing callus tissue will provide an in-
the tree’s morphology will strongly influence the sampling complete tree-ring record, as wounds are closed from their edges.
height, sampling directions and the minimum number of (c) Ideally, increment cores are extracted just next to the injury
samples to be taken per tree: where the presence of overgrowing callus tissue and TRD will allow
In trees with visible scars, previous geomorphic events are accurate dating. (d) Cores taken too far away from the wound will
most easily dated through the destructive sampling of trees not necessarily show signs of the disturbing event and thus prevent
and the preparation of cross-sections taken at the location dating.
where the injury is largest. This approach will facilitate an
accurate and intra-seasonal identification of the onset of cal- sion wood) and on the side opposite to the tilting direction
lus tissue production (and TRD formation in certain conifer in the broadleaved trees (= tension wood). Individual cores
species) and therefore allows a reconstruction of the impact- are best extracted at the location where the tilting is strongest
ing event with a very high temporal resolution. Alternatively, based on an outer inspection of the tree morphology.
wedges can be sawn from the overgrowing callus and an in- In the case of buried stem bases, the sampling of two incre-
crement core extracted from the side opposite of the wound. ment cores in opposite directions (ideally from the upslope
In this case, the sampled tree will survive and a reconstruc- and the downslope side) will normally allow accurate recon-
tion of the wounding event will be possible as well. In case struction of the event that has led to the sedimentation of ma-
cross-sections and wedges can not be taken from the injured terial around the stem’s base. It is best to sample these trees
trees, at least two increment cores need to be extracted from as close to ground level as possible (ca. 20–40 cm) to extract
the overgrowing callus and the side opposite to the wound. a maximum number of tree rings and obtain a maximum of
Special attention needs to be addressed to the sampling of information. In a similar way, decapitated and survivor trees
cores from the overgrowing callus: Samples taken inside are normally sampled at comparable heights, but in any case
the overgrowing tissue will provide an incomplete tree-ring below the level of decapitation.
record, as wounds are closed from their edges. On the other The analysis of exposed roots is normally based on cross-
hand, samples taken too far away from the callus growth will sections, as they regularly show partially missing or absent
not show any signs of the disturbing event at all and thus rings. The position of samples needs to be carefully noted
prevent dating. Figure 8 illustrates the right position for the with respect to the ground surface or the non-eroded parts
extraction of increment cores in injured trees. In addition and of the root. They will be essential for the understanding and
in the case of certain conifer species, TRD formation will be interpretation of continuous erosion processes and the deter-
delayed with increasing distance from the wound and thus mination of denudation rates (LaMarche, 1968; Bodoque et
influence the intra-seasonal dating quality (Bollschweiler et al., 2006).
al., 2008b; Schneuwly and Stoffel, 2008b). The germination of trees on new landforms is best de-
Tilted stems are best analyzed with at least two increment termined by counting the annual growth rings in increment
cores extracted per tree, one in the direction of the tilting and cores taken from the root crown level. However, branches,
the other on the opposite side of the trunk. The reaction wood obstacles and rot may sometimes require sampling positions
will be visible on the tilted side in conifer trees (= compres- higher up on the stem. In these cases, an age correction factor

needs to be added to compensate for the time a tree takes to may include overlay plotting of mean growth curves derived
grow to sampling height (McCarthy et al., 1991). A height- from the disturbed samples with the reference chronology,
age correction can be achieved by dividing the tree height whereas statistical procedures normally comprise the analy-
by the number of tree rings to get an average rate for the sis of parallelisms (‘Gleichläufigkeit’ or W statistics; Eck-
yearly apical increment. Thereafter, the sampling height is stein and Bauch, 1969; Schweingruber, 1983) and cross-
divided by this yearly increment so as to obtain the number date indices (e.g., Rinn, 1989) These statistical comparisons
of missing rings (Bollschweiler et al., 2008a). In addition, can be realized using dendrochronological software such as
the number of missing rings has to be estimated whenever e.g., Arstan (Cook and Holmes, 1984), T.S.A.P. (Rinntech,
the pith is not present on the core. This correction can be 2007) or WinDendro (Guay et al., 1992; Régents Instru-
undertaken using a transparent sheet with concentric rings ments, 2007). In addition, the crossdating accuracy between
(Bosch and Gutiérrez, 1999; Gutsell and Johnson, 2002). An ring-width series of individual disturbed trees and the ref-
age correction also needs to be applied for the assessment erence chronology can be evaluated with the Cofecha soft-
of the colonization time gap, i.e. the time elapsed between ware (Holmes, 1983; Grissino-Mayer, 2001). Overall, the
the last event and the germination of pioneer trees (Pierson, graphical and statistical comparison of disturbed with refer-
2007). ence trees serves the separation of insect attacks or climat-
In addition to the disturbed trees sampled on the site, ically driven fluctuations in tree growth from growth dis-
undisturbed reference trees need to be selected from a nearby turbances caused by geomorphic processes. Further details
forest stand. As a rule, the selection of trees for the reference on the realization of reference chronologies, the statistical
chronology shall be based on the following two criteria: (i) approaches used in dendrochronology or on the improve-
absence of obvious signs of injuries or diseases to minimize ment of growth series with missing rings can be found in
non-climatic influences on ring growth; (ii) oldest trees in or- Fritts (1976), Cook (1987), Cook and Kairiukstis (1990) or
der to maximize the age of sampled trees and the length of Vaganov et al. (2006).
the tree-ring chronology. In contrast to the disturbed trees, Once all tree-ring series checked and missing rings added,
two increment cores are extracted perpendicular to the slope growth curves are analyzed visually to identify the tree’s
and at breast height (≈130 cm). In general, about 30 refer- reactions to geomorphic processes like the initiation of
ence trees per species need to be sampled so as to minimize abrupt growth reduction or recovery (Schweingruber, 2001;
the potential influence of geomorphic processes and hidden McAuliffe et al., 2006). In the case of tilted stems, the
growth disturbances. growth curve data are analyzed to approximate the moment
of the tilting (Braam et al., 1987; Fantucci and Sorriso-Valvo,
4.3 Laboratory approach: sample preparation and analysis 1999; Fig. 3c), but in addition, the appearance of the cells
(i.e. structure of the reaction wood cells) is investigated on
In the laboratory, samples are normally analyzed and data the samples as well. Other features like callus tissue over-
processed following the standard procedures described in growing scars or the presence of tangential rows of traumatic
Stokes and Smiley (1968) or Bräker (2002). Single steps of resin ducts (TRD) formed following cambium damage can
sample analysis generally include surface preparation, count- only be identified through a visual inspection of the cores
ing of tree rings, skeleton plots (Schweingruber et al., 1990) and cross-sections (e.g., Stoffel et al., 2005c, 2007; Perret
as well as ring-width measurements using a digital position- et al., 2006; Bollschweiler et al., 2008b). Finally, the first
ing table connected to a stereo microscope and a time-series decade of juvenile growth should never be included in the
analysis program. analysis, as tree rings in seedlings tend to be more suscepti-
In a first step, a reference chronology is built with the ble to snow pressure or the fraying and browsing of ungulates
increment cores of the undisturbed reference trees. Ring and produce more reaction wood or resin ducts per unit area
widths of the increment cores are measured, before each in general.
ring-width measurement series is indexed and standardized Provided that highly-resolved data exist on the timing and
in order to remove age trends or effects of stand dynamics different periods of radial growth, the position of callus tissue
(Cook and Kairiukstis, 1990; Vaganov et al., 2006). As typ- (and TRD) within a tree ring can be used to assess the intra-
ical with tree-ring chronologies, sample depth (i.e. the num- seasonal timing of process activity in a particular year with
ber of measured ring-width series included in the chronol- monthly precision (see Stoffel and Beniston, 2006; Stoffel,
ogy) usually decreases with time before the sampling year 2008). Alternatively and as to corroborate the results on the
(Wigley et al., 1984). In order to guarantee adequacy of sam- intra-seasonal dating, data can also be compared with exist-
ple replication in the early years of the chronology, reference ing precipitation records from local meteorological stations
chronologies should be limited to the time period with a sam- or with archival data on known events (Stoffel et al., 2005b,
ple depth of at least five trees. 2008).
Ring-widths of the disturbed samples are measured as well All growth reactions identified in the samples are noted in
and the series are then graphically and statistically compared order to identify events. Except for processes with limited
with the reference chronology. The graphical comparison volumes involved (e.g., single rocks or boulders involved in

rockfall events; Stoffel et al., 2005c, 2006b; Moya et al., most recent study published by McAuliffe et al. (2006) and
2008), one growth disturbance identified in one single tree Scuderi et al. (2008)3 , documenting four centuries of erosion
will not be considered an event. This is why it seems im- and sedimentation history in Arizona. More recently, ero-
portant to note that event histories reconstructed with tree sion research also started to evolve on the Iberian Peninsula,
rings will never be complete and always represent “minimum where sheet erosion was analyzed with Pinus sylvestris L.
frequencies”. The identification of events can be based on (Bodoque et al., 2006; Rubiales et al., 2008). While in all the
quantitative or semi-quantitative approaches: before-mentioned studies, conifers were used for the assess-
Butler et al. (1987) suggest a “tree-ring response index” ment of erosion in roots, Hitz et al. (2008) have only recently
being dictated by the nature and geographical extent of the demonstrated the potential of Fraxinus excelsior L. roots for
specific hazard under study. The authors argue that more the identification of sudden or continuous erosion processes.
samples and the use of a higher minimum response index Finally, LaMarche (1966) was again the first to work on shore
would allow greater confidence in the event chronology con- erosion processes, thus reconstructing 800 years of geomor-
structed from tree rings, but they do not provide a definitive phic activity. More recent studies were realized on the shores
minimum sample size for dendrogeomorphological analyses. of the Upper St. Lawrence estuary in Québec (Bégin et al.,
It is suggested that chronologies for geographically discrete 1991) and on the shores of Lago Bolsena in Central Italy
processes (e.g., snow avalanche) should aim for a high sam- (Fantucci, 2007).
ple density, whereas studies focusing on processes such as The first studies of natural hazards processes based on
slow landslides or the movement of permafrost bodies would growth rings extracted from stems and branches focused on
require less dense, but larger sample size. flooding events. The theoretical background for the study
Stoffel et al. (2006a, 2007) or Bollschweiler et al. (2007, of flooding and sedimentation processes was provided by
2008a), in contrast, stress the importance of site selection, as Sigafoos (1964). Helley and LaMarche (1968) applied the
the identification of geomorphic features and the position of techniques so as to determine the recurrence interval of flood
trees in the geomorphic context represents the most impor- events in Northern California. Later studies in the United
tant aspect of tree-ring analyses. Instead of basing the identi- States focused on floods in the White River (Arkansas; Be-
fication of events on a minimum number of trees, the spatial dinger, 1971) or high summer flows and floods in the Po-
distribution of trees simultaneously showing a growth distur- tomac River (Yanosky, 1982, 1983, 1984). St. George
bance after debris-flow, snow avalanche and flooding events and Nielson (2000, 2003) have analyzed anatomical changes
is being analyzed, as small or erosive events will not nec- (“flood rings”) in Quercus macrocarpa to identify 19th-
essarily leave existing channels or couloirs and only cause century high-magnitude floods in the Red River (Canada). In
growth disturbances in a (very) limited number of trees at Europe, only a few studies have focused on floods so far, for
specific (breakout) locations in the field. instance the one published by Astrade and Bégin (1997) doc-
umenting recent spring floods in the Saône river (France) in
rings of Populus tremula L. and Quercus robur L. Tardiff and
5 What natural hazards processes are analyzed with Bergeron (1997) studied the occurrence of ice floods through
tree rings? a dendrochronological analysis of ice-scarred Thuja occiden-
talis L. growing on the shore of Lake Duparquet (Canada).
Dendrogeomorphological analyses have been widely used In contrast to the study of erosion or flood processes, de-
over the last few decades in the analysis and reconstruction of bris flows have abundantly been analyzed in the European
a whole plethora of geomorphic processes. This chapter does Alps over the last few years and decades. After the pio-
not, therefore, claim to be complete, but will only refer to neering studies of Hupp (1984) or Hupp et al. (1987) con-
results from selected pioneering publications and introduce ducted on the slopes of Mount Shasta (California), dendro-
what are considered to be significant follow-up papers for the geomorphology has been extensively used by Strunk (1989,
different natural hazards processes. It also seems worthwhile 1991, 1997) to reconstruct debris-flow activity in the Ital-
to note that many pioneering tree-ring studies have been re- ian Dolomites. In contrast to the first investigations, he also
alized in the American Southwest and from the early 1960s focused on the germination of adventitious roots in buried
on, which is years before “dendrogeomorphology” was offi- stems so as to reconstruct burial depths and the history of
cially introduced by the Finnish geographer Jouko Alestalo debris flows since the Little Ice Age. More recently, several
in 1971. torrents have been investigated in the Swiss Alps (Baumann
Interestingly, dendrochronological research of geomor- and Kaiser, 1999; Stoffel et al., 2005b; Bollschweiler and
phic processes did not start with the analysis of stem sam- Stoffel, 2007; Bollschweiler et al., 2007, 2008a). Analyses
ples, but with root analyses. In the early 1960s, LaMarche
(1961; 1968) was, for the first time, assessing erosion rates 3 Scuderi, L., McFadden, L., and McAuliffe, J.: Dendrogeomor-
of exposed roots in the White Mountains, California. Fur- phically derived slope and stream response to decadal and centen-
ther root studies were realized in the Southwest in the 1970s nial scale climate variability: Implications for downstream sedi-
(e.g., Carrara and Carroll, 1979) and until today, with the mentation, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., in revision, 2008.

culminated in the extensive study of 1100 conifers growing studied through the analysis of tree-ring sequences (Stof-
on the cone of the Ritigraben torrent yielding data on 123 fel, 2006). First studies of rock–tree interactions focused on
debris-flow incidences since AD 1570, with most of them the identification and dating of large rock avalanches (e.g.,
dated with monthly precision (Stoffel and Beniston, 2006; Moore and Mathews, 1978; Butler et al., 1986) rather than
Stoffel et al., 2008). on the reconstruction of the much more frequent release of
The tree-ring based analysis of landslides started in the individual rocks and boulders during rockfall events. Lafor-
1980s with several case studies realized in the Québec re- tune et al. (1997) were probably the first to focus on rockfall
gion (Bégin and Filion, 1985, 1988; Filion et al., 1991) and events, but with the aim of reconstructing sedimentation rates
in Barcelonnette, French Alps (Braam et al., 1987a, b). More and forest edge dynamics. The first investigations analyz-
recently, Corominas and Moya (1999) have analyzed recent ing the seasonality, frequency and spatial patterns of rock-
landslides in the basin of the Llobregat River (Pyrenees) fall activity were only very recently realized by Stoffel et
and identified two different rainfall patterns triggering land- al. (2005a, c), yielding data on 400 years of rockfall activ-
slides. In Italy, dendrogeomorphology has been repeatedly ity on a forested slope in the Swiss Alps. The methods have
used for the identification of landslide dynamics in Calabria since been applied to other sites in Switzerland by Perret et
or the Apennines (Fantucci and McCord; 1995; Fantucci and al. (2006) or Schneuwly and Stoffel (2008a, b), providing a
Sorriso-Valvo 1999; Stefanini, 2004) and results have been reliable basis for the analysis of rockfall risks and the quality
compared with meteorological data. assessment of rockfall models (Stoffel et al., 2006b).
The occurrence of past snow avalanches has quite fre- In a similar way, comparably little research has been
quently been analyzed with tree rings over the last three performed on geomorphic processes occurring in glacier
decades, with Schaerer’s (1972) publication on the veg- and periglacial environments. Research in these high-
etation in avalanche terrain at Rogers Pass in British altitude/high-latitude regions started with Zoltai’s (1975)
Columbia (Canada) forming one of the pioneering studies. study of soil movements on permafrost. Only little work has
For a long time, tree-ring based analysis of snow avalanche been realized on that topic ever since, with Jakob’s (1995)
activity was almost exclusively used in the States and es- analysis of movement rates of gelifluction lobes forming the
pecially in the Glacier National Park, where Butler (1979, only other publication on this comparably slow process. Sim-
1985) and Butler and Sawyer (2008) published a series of pa- ilarly, only limited dendrogeomorphological data exist on the
pers on the tree-ring based dating of snow avalanches. More rise and evolution of thermokarst. Agafonov et al. (2004), for
recently and in the light of risk assessment, attention turned instance, report that the development of thermokarst over the
towards the identification of more “extreme events“ and the last 50 years depended primarily on increasing precipitation
dating of high-magnitude snow avalanches on e.g., the Gaspé rather than increasing air temperature. Movements in rock-
Peninsula (Boucher et al., 2003; Dubé et al., 2004) and in glacier bodies have, in contrast been documented in several
the Glacier National Park (Butler and Sawyer, 2008). Amaz- case-studies. In his pioneering investigation of a glacier-like
ingly, only a very limited number of studies have been pub- boulder deposit on the Table Cliffs Plateau (Utah), Shroder
lished about snow avalanches in the European Alps: Stoffel (1978) documented 200 years of movements and suggested
et al. (2006a) studied a cone affected by snow avalanches that precipitation would possibly have been the trigger for
descending from three different couloirs and were able to the main episodes of movements. Other studies on move-
distinguish the damage induced by the windblast from that ments in permafrost complexes have been realized elsewhere
induced by snow and transported material. A few years in North America ever since (Giardino et al., 1984; Carter et
ago, tree-ring based analysis of snow avalanches has been al., 1999; Cannone and Gerdol, 2003; Bachrach et al., 2004),
initiated in the Pyrenees (Muntán et al., 2004, 20084 ) and but are completely missing in the European Alps or other
in Patagonia (Mundo et al., 2007; Casteller et al., 20085 ). alpine regions.
Larocque et al. (2001) used impacts scars, TRD and reac- Geological hazards are another field where dendrogeomor-
tion wood to analyze frequency–magnitude relationships of phology can provide valuable data on the timing and the
slushflows (i.e. liquefied snow) on the Gaspé Peninsula. locations of past events. As a result, tree rings have ex-
Surprisingly, and despite the potential of dendrogeomor- tensively been used to study century-old earthquakes along
phological methods, rockfall activity has only rarely been the San Andreas Fault in California or in the Seattle region
(Jacoby et al., 1988, 1992; Jacoby, 1997). More recently,
4 Muntán, E., Oller, P., Garcı́a, C., Martı́, G., Garcı́a, A. and Bekker (2004) has analyzed spatial differences in the re-
sponse of trees to normal faulting in relation with the Heb-
Gutiérrez, E.: Reconstructing snow avalanches in the Southeastern
Pyrenees. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., in review, 2008. gen Lake earthquake. Since the catastrophic explosion of
5 Casteller, A., Christen, M., Villalba, R., Martı́nez, H., Stöckli, Mount St. Helens in 1980, tree rings have also been used
V., Leiva, J., and Bartelt, P.: Validating numerical simulations of for the analysis and reconstruction of non-documented vol-
snow avalanches using dendrochronology: The Cerro Ventana event canic eruptions of the past. Yamaguchi (1983, 1985), for in-
in Northern Patagonia, Argentina, Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., in stance, demonstrated that there have been recent prehistoric
revision, 2008. explosive eruptions of Mount St. Helens prior to the big

1980 blast. Based on the analysis of frost rings and other phic process activity, such as e.g., the analysis of landslides
dendrochronological evidence, D’Arrigo et al. (2001) dated in subtropical Argentina (Paolini et al., 2005) and Greece
millennia-old volcanic eruptions with Mongolian and North- (Papadopoulos et al., 2007) or the reconstruction of snow
ern Siberian trees, whereas Salzer and Hughes (2007) man- avalanches in Patagonia (Mundo et al., 2007; Casteller et al.,
aged to identify 5000 years of volcanic eruptions through the 20085 ). We therefore call for more dendrogeomorphological
study of Bristlecone pine trees. Solomina et al. (2008)6 have research on landslides, snow avalanches and other geomor-
dated several events of the Sheveluch volcano (Kamchatka, phic processes in other regions of the world, including e.g.,
Russia) through the tree-ring dating of logs that have been South America (Andes, Patagonia), the Indian subcontinent
killed during an eruption in the 17th century and conserved (Himalayas), Africa (e.g., Atlas Mountains) and in Eastern
in the deposits of the pyroclastic flow. Europe or Russia (Balkan, Altay and Siberian Mountains,
Caucasus, Ural).
Besides the application of commonly accepted dendro-
6 Outlook and future research directions geomorphological techniques and the dating of events, fu-
Over the last few decades, dendrochronology has continu- ture research activities should also focus on physiological
ously evolved from a supplementary tool for the dating of and chemical reactions of trees to disturbance as well as
wood to a widely recognized science and a real backbone to species that have been widely disregarded so far (e.g.,
for Holocene chronology reconstructions (Solomina, 2002). broadleaved trees, shrubs or perennial herbs). Does the in-
Dendrogeomorphology has been widely used in the analysis tensity of an impact or the duration of an events influence the
of snow avalanche, debris-flow, landslide or flood analysis. nature of the reaction? After how much time will a tree show
In contrast, tree-ring based reconstructions of past rockfall first signs to an event and are there different response times
activity have been comparatively scarce so far, yet yielded for different types of reactions? More research is primar-
promising results. Based on the physics of the processes in- ily needed on the chemical initiation and actual formation of
volved and the nature of damage observed in the trees’ mor- reaction wood and tangential rows of resin ducts. New in-
phology, we have to believe that there is a potential for the sights could be generated through the artificial infliction of
tree-ring based analysis of other hazards as well, such as wood-penetrating wounds, the burial of stems, exposure of
glacier-lake outburst floods (GLOF), ice avalanches or the roots or the destabilization (tilting) of trees. Alternatively, it
occurrence of volcanic lahars. In a similar way, it appears would also be feasible to analyze trees that have been dam-
worthwhile to focus on certain non-geomorphic hazards in aged during well known events in the past (Bollschweiler et
the future as well, such as the incidence of tornados, hur- al., 2008b). Essential progress should be expected through
ricanes and winter storms or even the occurrence of past detailed wood anatomical investigations and the analysis of
tsunamis. cell changes following disturbance.
The past is the key to the future and a detailed knowledge
In addition to the pure dating and reconstruction of past
of previous process activity will greatly help the understand-
geomorphic incidences at the site level, results from different
ing and management of contemporary and maybe even the
regions should be compared and efforts made towards a more
forecasting of potential future incidences. It is therefore im-
complete understanding of the influence of climatic triggers
portant to realize that besides the pure dating of events and
or endogenic causes on the occurrence of events (Solomina,
the creation of valuable event chronologies, dendrogeomor-
2002). A comparison of regional or supra-regional event
phological data should also be used as a tool and as the most
chronologies with (dendro-)climatological networks (e.g.,
complete database for the assessment of hazards and risks
Briffa et al., 1992, 2001) would certainly help in this re-
(Stoffel and Bollschweiler, 2007), the identification of infras-
spect. For the moment, comparative dendrogeomorpholog-
tructure or settlement being exposed to danger (Perret et al.,
ical studies focusing on the regional behavior and triggers of
2006, Bollschweiler et al., 2007) or for the accuracy assess-
geomorphic events as well as the contemporary and potential
ment and subsequent improvement of process-based geomor-
future risks they may pose remain very scarce (Stoffel and
phic models (Stoffel et al., 2006b).
Bollschweiler, 2007).
Essential progress has been made in most of the above
Further, tree-ring based research on geomorphic processes
fields over the last few years, but more work is needed to
has largely focused on mountain regions in general and the
further promote this unique technique. Research performed
North American chains and European Alps in particular. Al-
with new species or parts of trees will need to go beyond sim-
though there seems to be quite some potential for dendro-
ple ring counting and include more rigorous statistical com-
geomorphological studies, tree rings have only exceptionally
parisons of ring chronologies or event-response replications,
been used in other regions of the world to assess past geomor-
otherwise, investigations can lead to spurious errors. At the
6 Solomina, O., Pavlova, I., Curtis, A., Jacoby, G., Ponomareva, end, tree-ring research will help to even better understand the
V., and Pevsner, M.: Constraining recent Shiveluch volcano erup- complex dynamics, mechanisms or triggering factors of ge-
tions (Kamchatka, Russia) by means of dendrochronology, Nat. omorphic processes and to mitigate or reduce the problems
Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., in revision, 2008. they may pose.

Acknowledgements. The authors are grateful to D. R. Butler, with dendrogeomorphological methods, Geomorphology, 87(4),
J. F. Shroder and O. Solomina for their insightful comments on the 337–351, 2007.
manuscript. O. M. Hitz, D. M. Schneuwly, W. Schoch and F. H. Bollschweiler, M., Stoffel, M., and Schneuwly, D. M.: Dynamics in
Schweingruber are warmly acknowledged for photo credits. debris-flow activity on a forested cone – a case study using dif-
ferent dendroecological approaches, Catena, 72, 67–78, 2008a.
Edited by: F. Guzetti Bollschweiler, M., Stoffel, M., Schneuwly, D. M., and Bourqui, K.:
Reviewed by: D. Butler and two other anonymous referees Traumatic resin ducts in Larix decidua stems impacted by debris
flows, Tree Physiol., 28, 255–263, 2008b.
Bosch, O. and Gutiérrez, E.: La sucésion en los bosques de Pinus
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Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci.

Tree-ring analysis in natural hazards research – an overview

Published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.

Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/

omorphic events, as this genus produces copious amounts of

3.2 Tilting of stems

The sudden pressure induced by the activity and deposition

www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008

Owczarek, 20082 ). Exceptionally, the burial of a stem can

Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/

www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008

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(iv) diameter measurement at breast height; and (v) data on

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Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/

www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/ Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008

Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci., 8, 187–202, 2008 www.nat-hazards-earth-syst-sci.net/8/187/2008/

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