Computer Organization

ADITYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(AUTONOMOUS)
Valasapalle (P), Punganur Road – 517325, Madanapalle

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING

COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION

Prepared by : Mr. A. Amareswara Kumar, M. Tech

Assistant Professor

Unit – I (10 Lectures)

Page 1
Computer Organization

UNIT - I SYLLUBUS
BASIC STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERS: Computer types, functional units, basic operational
concepts, Von‐Neumann architecture, bus structures, software, performance, multiprocessors
and multicomputer
Book: Carl Hamacher, Zvonks Vranesic, SafeaZaky (2002), Computer Organization, 5th
edition, McGraw Hill: Unit-1 Pages: 1-23

Page 2
Computer Organization

Computer Architecture:
Computer Architecture deals with giving operational attributes of the computer or Processor
to be specific. It deals with details like physical memory, ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) of
the processor, the number of bits used to represent the data types, Input Output mechanism
and technique for addressing memories.
Computer Organization:
Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the computer architecture .It
deals with how operational attributes are linked together to meet the requirements specified
by computer architecture. Some organizational attributes are hardware details, control
signals, peripherals.
EXAMPLE:
Say you are in a company that manufactures cars, design and all low-level details of the car
come under computer architecture (abstract, programmers view), while making it’s parts
piece by piece and connecting together the different components of that car by keeping the
basic design in mind comes under computer organization (physical and visible).

Computer Organization Computer Architecture

Computer architecture (a bit higher

Often called microarchitecture (low level)
level)
Programmer view (i.e. Programmer has
Transparent from programmer (ex. a
to be aware of which instruction set
programmer does not worry much how
used)
addition is implemented in hardware)
Logic (Instruction set,
Physical components (Circuit design, Adders,
Addressing modes, Data types, Cache
Signals, Peripherals)
optimization)
What to do ? (Instruction set)
How to do ? (implementation of the
architecture)

Page 3
Computer Organization

GENERATIONS OF A COMPUTER
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being
used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates
against each generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers

S.N. Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based

First generation

The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing
Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent
fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very
large organizations. In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used.
Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and output devices. The
computers in this generation used machine code as programming language.

Page 4
Computer Organization

The main features of first generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non-portable
 Consumed lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650

Page 5
Computer Organization

Second generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used
that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores
were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. In this generation assembly language and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.

The main features of second generation are:

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 A.C. needed
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108

Page 6
Computer Organization

Third generation
The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
integrated circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation
remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High-
level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used
during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Still costly
 A.C needed
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

Page 7
Computer Organization

Fourth generation
The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and
other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC)
revolution. In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system
were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PC's
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No A.C. needed
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were:
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Page 8
Computer Organization

Fifth generation
The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging
branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think
like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.
AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook
 ChromeBook

Page 9
Computer Organization

COMPUTER TYPES
Classification based on Operating Principles
Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the following types:
-
1) Digital Computers
2) Analog Computers
3) Hybrid Computers

Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as

discrete or numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data (such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous
equations etc).

Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously
changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital
computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change.

Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller

Page 10
Computer Organization

and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver
of differential equations.

Classification digital Computer based on size and Capability

Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into
Micro Computers(Personal Computer)
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The older pc started 8
bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64 bit processor with speed of 4.66 GB.
Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers
Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:
1. Desktops
2. Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops computers cannot
be carried around.
The different portable computers are: -
1) Laptop
2) Notebooks
3) Palmtop (hand held)
4) Wearable computers
Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computers but the size is smaller. They are
expensive than desktop. The weight of laptop is around 3 to 5 kg.

Page 11
Computer Organization

Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers are
comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are more costly
than laptop.

Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA). These
computers are small in size. They can be held in hands. It is capable of doing word processing,
spreadsheets and hand writing recognition, game playing, faxing and paging. These
computers are not as powerful as desktop computers. Ex: - 3com palmV.

Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn on the
body. It has smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For example pace
maker to correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of insulin in the blood.

Workstations:- It is used in large, high-resolution graphics screen built in network support,

Engineering applications(CAD/CAM), software development desktop publishing
Page 12
Computer Organization

Ex: Unix and windows NT.

b) Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more
powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed to serve multiple
users simultaneously (Parallel Processing). They are more expensive than microcomputers.
Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.

c) Mainframe (Enterprise) computers: - Computers with large storage capacities and

very high speed of processing (compared to mini- or microcomputers) are known as
mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for simultaneous use by a
number of users like ATM transactions. They are also used as central host computers in
distributed data processing system.
Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.

d) Supercomputer: - Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and

computing speeds which are many times faster than other computers. A supercomputer is
measured in terms of tens of millions Instructions per second (mips), an operation is made up
of numerous instructions. The supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical
problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis.
Examples: - IBM Deep Blue

Page 13
Computer Organization

Classification based on number of microprocessors

Based on the number of microprocessors, computers can be classified into
a) Sequential computers and
b) Parallel computers
a) Sequential computers: - Any task complete in sequential computers is with one
microcomputer only. Most of the computers (today) we see are sequential computers where
in any task is completed sequentially instruction after instruction from the beginning to the
end.
b) Parallel computers: - The parallel computer is relatively fast. New types of computers
that use a large number of processors. The processors perform different tasks independently
and simultaneously thus improving the speed of execution of complex programs dramatically.
Parallel computers match the speed of supercomputers at a fraction of the cost.

Classification based on word-length

A binary digit is called “BIT”. A word is a group of bits which is fixed for a computer.
The number of bits in a word (or word length) determines the representation of all characters
in these many bits. Word length leis in the range from 16-bit to 64-bitsf or most computers of
today.

Page 14
Computer Organization

Classification based on number of users

Based on number of users, computers are classified into: -
Single User: - Only one user can use the resource at any time.

Multi User: - A single computer shared by a number of users at any time.

Network: - A number of interconnected autonomous computers shared by a number

of users at any time.

Page 15
Computer Organization

COMPUTER TYPES
A computer can be defined as a fast electronic calculating machine that accepts the
(data) digitized input information process it as per the list of internally stored instructions
and produces the resulting information. List of instructions are called programs & internal
storage is called computer memory.

The different types of computers are

1. Personal computers: - This is the most common type found in homes, schools,
Business offices etc., It is the most common type of desk top computers with
processing and storage units along with various input and output devices.
2. Note book computers: - These are compact and portable versions of PC
3. Work stations: - These have high resolution input/output (I/O) graphics capability,
but with same dimensions as that of desktop computer. These are used in engineering
applications of interactive design work.
4. Enterprise systems: - These are used for business data processing in medium to large
corporations that require much more computing power and storage capacity than
work stations. Internet associated with servers have become a dominant worldwide
source of all types of information.
5. Super computers: - These are used for large scale numerical calculations required in
the applications like weather forecasting etc.,

Page 16
Computer Organization

BASIC TERMINOLOGY
•Input: Whatever is put into a computer system.
•Data: Refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, or ideas.
•Information: The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes; the words, umbers,
sounds, and graphics.
•Output: Consists of the processing results produced by a computer.
•Processing: Manipulation of the data in many ways.
•Memory: Area of the computer that temporarily holds data waiting to be processed, stored,
or output.
•Storage: Area of the computer that holds data on a permanent basis when it is not
immediately needed for processing.
•Assembly language program (ALP) –Programs are written using mnemonics
•Mnemonic –Instruction will be in the form of English like form
•Assembler –is a software which converts ALP to MLL (Machine Level Language)
•HLL (High Level Language) –Programs are written using English like statements
•Compiler -Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading source program at once
•Interpreter –Converts HLL to MLL, does this job statement by statement
•System software –Program routines which aid the user in the execution of programs eg:
Assemblers, Compilers
•Operating system –Collection of routines responsible for controlling and coordinating all
the activities in a computer system

# Computers has two kinds of components:

Hardware, consisting of its physical devices (CPU, memory, bus, storage devices, ...)
Software, consisting of the programs it has (Operating system, applications, utilities, ...)

Page 17
Computer Organization

FUNCTIONAL UNIT

A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts input, memory,

arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output and control unit.

Functional units of computer

Input device accepts the coded information as source program i.e. high level
language. This is either stored in the memory or immediately used by the processor to
perform the desired operations. The program stored in the memory determines the
processing steps. Basically the computer converts one source program to an object program.
i.e. into machine language.

Finally the results are sent to the outside world through output device. All of these
actions are coordinated by the control unit.

Page 18
Computer Organization

Input unit: -
The source program/high level language program/coded information/simply data is
fed to a computer through input devices keyboard is a most common type. Whenever a key is
pressed, one corresponding word or number is translated into its equivalent binary code
over a cable & fed either to memory or processor.

Joysticks, trackballs, mouse, scanners etc are other input devices.

Memory unit: -
Its function into store programs and data. It is basically to two types
1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory

Word:
In computer architecture, a word is a unit of data of a defined bit length that can be addressed
and moved between storage and the computer processor. Usually, the defined bit length of a
word is equivalent to the width of the computer's data bus so that a word can be moved in a
single operation from storage to a processor register. For any computer architecture with an
eight-bit byte, the word will be some multiple of eight bits. In IBM's evolutionary
System/360 architecture, a word is 32 bits, or four contiguous eight-bit bytes. In Intel's PC
processor architecture, a word is 16 bits, or two contiguous eight-bit bytes. A word can
contain a computer instruction, a storage address, or application data that is to be
manipulated (for example, added to the data in another word space).

The number of bits in each word is known as word length. Word length refers to the
number of bits processed by the CPU in one go. With modern general purpose computers,
word size can be 16 bits to 64 bits.

The time required to access one word is called the memory access time. The small, fast,
RAM units are called caches. They are tightly coupled with the processor and are often
contained on the same IC chip to achieve high performance.

Page 19
Computer Organization

1. Primary memory: - Is the one exclusively associated with the processor and operates at
the electronics speeds programs must be stored in this memory while they are being
executed. The memory contains a large number of semiconductors storage cells. Each
capable of storing one bit of information. These are processed in a group of fixed site called
word.
To provide easy access to a word in memory, a distinct address is associated with
each word location. Addresses are numbers that identify memory location.

Number of bits in each word is called word length of the computer. Programs must
reside in the memory during execution. Instructions and data can be written into the
memory or read out under the control of processor. Memory in which any location can be
reached in a short and fixed amount of time after specifying its address is called random-
access memory (RAM).

The time required to access one word in called memory access time. Memory which is
only readable by the user and contents of which can’t be altered is called read only memory
(ROM) it contains operating system.

Page 20
Computer Organization

Caches are the small fast RAM units, which are coupled with the processor and are
often contained on the same IC chip to achieve high performance. Although primary storage
is essential it tends to be expensive.
2 Secondary memory: - Is used where large amounts of data & programs have to be stored,
particularly information that is accessed infrequently.
Examples: - Magnetic disks & tapes, optical disks (ie CD-ROM’s), floppies etc.,

Arithmetic logic unit (ALU):-

Most of the computer operators are executed in ALU of the processor like addition,
subtraction, division, multiplication, etc. the operands are brought into the ALU from
memory and stored in high speed storage elements called register. Then according to the
instructions the operation is performed in the required sequence.

The control and the ALU are may times faster than other devices connected to a
computer system. This enables a single processor to control a number of external devices
such as key boards, displays, magnetic and optical disks, sensors and other mechanical
controllers.

Output unit:-
These actually are the counterparts of input unit. Its basic function is to send the
processed results to the outside world.

Examples:- Printer, speakers, monitor etc.

Control unit:-
It effectively is the nerve center that sends signals to other units and senses their
states. The actual timing signals that govern the transfer of data between input unit,
processor, memory and output unit are generated by the control unit.

Page 21
Computer Organization

BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS

To perform a given task an appropriate program consisting of a list of instructions is stored

in the memory. Individual instructions are brought from the memory into the processor,
which executes the specified operations. Data to be stored are also stored in the memory.
Examples: - Add LOCA, R0
This instruction adds the operand at memory location LOCA, to operand in register R 0
& places the sum into register. This instruction requires the performance of several steps,

1. First the instruction is fetched from the memory into the processor.
2. The operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the contents of R0
3. Finally the resulting sum is stored in the register R0

The preceding add instruction combines a memory access operation with an ALU
Operations. In some other type of computers, these two types of operations are performed by
separate instructions for performance reasons.

Load LOCA, R1
Add R1, R0
Transfers between the memory and the processor are started by sending the address
of the memory location to be accessed to the memory unit and issuing the appropriate control
signals. The data are then transferred to or from the memory.

Page 22
Computer Organization

The fig. shows how memory & the processor can be connected. In addition to the ALU
& the control circuitry, the processor contains a number of registers used for several different
purposes.

Register:
It is a special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data must be represented in
a register before it can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both
numbers must be in registers, and the result is also placed in a register. (The register can
contain the address of a memory location where data is stored rather than the actual data
itself.)

The number of registers that a CPU has and the size of each (number of bits) help
determine the power and speed of a CPU. For example a 32-bit CPU is one in which each
register is 32 bits wide. Therefore, each CPU instruction can manipulate 32 bits of
data. In high-level languages, the compiler is responsible for translating high-level operations
into low-level operations that access registers.

Instruction Format:

Computer instructions are the basic components of a machine language program. They are
also known as macro operations, since each one is comprised of sequences of micro
operations.
Each instruction initiates a sequence of micro operations that fetch operands from registers
or memory, possibly perform arithmetic, logic, or shift operations, and store results in
registers or memory.

Page 23
Computer Organization

Instructions are encoded as binary instruction codes. Each instruction code contains of
a operation code, or opcode, which designates the overall purpose of the instruction (e.g. add,
subtract, move, input, etc.). The number of bits allocated for the opcode determined how
many different instructions the architecture supports.
In addition to the opcode, many instructions also contain one or more operands, which
indicate where in registers or memory the data required for the operation is located. For
example, and add instruction requires two operands, and a not instruction requires one.
15 12 11 65 0
+ ---------------------------------- +
| Opcode | Operand | Operand |
+ ---------------------------------- +

The opcode and operands are most often encoded as unsigned binary numbers in order to
minimize the number of bits used to store them. For example, a 4-bit opcode encoded as a
binary number could represent up to 16 different operations.
The control unit is responsible for decoding the opcode and operand bits in the instruction
register, and then generating the control signals necessary to drive all other hardware in the
CPU to perform the sequence of micro operations that comprise the instruction.

INSTRUCTION CYCLE:

Page 24
Computer Organization

The instruction register (IR):- Holds the instructions that are currently being executed. Its
output is available for the control circuits which generates the timing signals that control the
various processing elements in one execution of instruction.

The program counter PC:-

This is another specialized register that keeps track of execution of a program. It
contains the memory address of the next instruction to be fetched and executed.

Besides IR and PC, there are n-general purpose registers R0 through Rn-1.

The other two registers which facilitate communication with memory are: -
1. MAR – (Memory Address Register):- It holds the address of the location to be
accessed.
2. MDR – (Memory Data Register):- It contains the data to be written into or read out
of the address location.

Operating steps are

1. Programs reside in the memory & usually get these through the I/P unit.
2. Execution of the program starts when the PC is set to point at the first instruction of
the program.
3. Contents of PC are transferred to MAR and a Read Control Signal is sent to the
memory.

Page 25
Computer Organization

4. After the time required to access the memory elapses, the address word is read out of
the memory and loaded into the MDR.
5. Now contents of MDR are transferred to the IR & now the instruction is ready to be
decoded and executed.
6. If the instruction involves an operation by the ALU, it is necessary to obtain the
required operands.
7. An operand in the memory is fetched by sending its address to MAR & Initiating a
read cycle.
8. When the operand has been read from the memory to the MDR, it is transferred from
MDR to the ALU.
9. After one or two such repeated cycles, the ALU can perform the desired operation.
10. If the result of this operation is to be stored in the memory, the result is sent to MDR.
11. Address of location where the result is stored is sent to MAR & a write cycle is
initiated.
12. The contents of PC are incremented so that PC points to the next instruction that is to
be executed.

Normal execution of a program may be preempted (temporarily interrupted) if some

devices require urgent servicing, to do this one device raises an Interrupt signal. An interrupt
is a request signal from an I/O device for service by the processor. The processor provides
the requested service by executing an appropriate interrupt service routine.

The Diversion may change the internal stage of the processor its state must be saved
in the memory location before interruption. When the interrupt-routine service is completed
the state of the processor is restored so that the interrupted program may continue

THE VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

The task of entering and altering programs for the ENIAC was extremely tedious. The
programming process can be easy if the program could be represented in a form suitable for
storing in memory alongside the data. Then, a computer could get its instructions by reading
them from memory, and a program could be set or altered by setting the values of a portion of
memory. This idea is known a the stored-program concept. The first publication of the idea

Page 26
Computer Organization

was in a 1945 proposal by von Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Computer).

In 1946, von Neumann and his colleagues began the design of a new stored-program
computer, referred to as the IAS computer, at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies.
The IAS computer, although not completed until 1952, is the prototype of all subsequent
general-purpose computers.

It consists of
 A main memory, which stores both data and instruction
 An arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) capable of operating on binary data
 A control unit, which interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be
executed
 Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit

BUS STRUCTURES:

Bus structure and multiple bus structures are types of bus or computing. A bus is basically a
subsystem which transfers data between the components of Computer components either
within a computer or between two computers. It connects peripheral devices at the same
time.

Page 27
Computer Organization

- A multiple Bus Structure has multiple inter connected service integration buses and for each
bus the other buses are its foreign buses. A Single bus structure is very simple and consists of
a single server.

- A bus cannot span multiple cells. And each cell can have more than one buses. - Published
messages are printed on it. There is no messaging engine on Single bus structure
I) In single bus structure all units are connected in the same bus than connecting different
buses as multiple bus structure.
II) Multiple bus structure's performance is better than single bus structure. Iii)single bus
structure's cost is cheap than multiple bus structure.

Group of lines that serve as connecting path for several devices is called a bus (one bit per
line).
Individual parts must communicate over a communication line or path for exchanging
data, address and control information as shown in the diagram below. Printer example –
processor to printer. A common approach is to use the concept of buffer registers to hold the
content during the transfer.

Buffer registers hold the data during the data transfer temporarily. Ex: printing

Types of Buses:
1. Data Bus:
Data bus is the most common type of bus. It is used to transfer data between different
components of computer. The number of lines in data bus affects the speed of data transfer
between different components. The data bus consists of 8, 16, 32, or 64 lines. A 64-line data
bus can transfer 64 bits of data at one time.

Page 28
Computer Organization

The data bus lines are bi-directional. It means that:

CPU can read data from memory using these lines CPU can write data to memory locations
using these lines

2. Address Bus:
Many components are connected to one another through buses. Each component is assigned a
unique ID. This ID is called the address of that component. It a component wants to
communicate with another component, it uses address bus to specify the address of that
component. The address bus is a unidirectional bus. It can carry information only in one
direction. It carries address of memory location from microprocessor to the main memory.

3. Control Bus:
Control bus is used to transmit different commands or control signals from one component to
another component. Suppose CPU wants to read data from main memory. It will use control is
also used to transmit control signals like ASKS (Acknowledgement signals). A control signal
contains the following:
1 Timing information: It specifies the time for which a device can use data and address bus.
2 Command Signal: It specifies the type of operation to be performed.
Suppose that CPU gives a command to the main memory to write data. The memory sends
acknowledgement signal to CPU after writing the data successfully. CPU receives the signal
and then moves to perform some other action.

SOFTWARE
If a user wants to enter and run an application program, he/she needs a System Software.
System Software is a collection of programs that are executed as needed to perform functions
such as:

• Receiving and interpreting user commands

• Entering and editing application programs and storing then as files in secondary storage
devices
• Running standard application programs such as word processors, spread sheets, games
etc…
Operating system - is key system software component which helps the user to exploit the
below underlying hardware with the programs.

Page 29
Computer Organization

Types of software
A layer structure showing where Operating System is located on generally used software
systems on desktops

System software
System software helps run the computer hardware and computer system. It includes a
combination of the following:
 device drivers
 operating systems
 servers
 utilities
 windowing systems
 compilers
 debuggers
 interpreters
 linkers

The purpose of systems software is to unburden the applications programmer from the often
complex details of the particular computer being used, including such accessories as
communications devices, printers, device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to
partition the computer's resources such as memory and processor time in a safe and stable
manner. Examples are- Windows XP, Linux and Mac.

Application software
Application software allows end users to accomplish one or more specific (not directly
computer development related) tasks. Typical applications include:

onal software

Page 30
Computer Organization

Application software exists for and has impacted a wide variety of topics.

PERFORMANCE
The most important measure of the performance of a computer is how quickly it can
execute programs. The speed with which a computer executes program is affected by the
design of its hardware. For best performance, it is necessary to design the compiles, the
machine instruction set, and the hardware in a coordinated way.

The total time required to execute the program is elapsed time is a measure of the
performance of the entire computer system. It is affected by the speed of the processor, the
disk and the printer. The time needed to execute a instruction is called the processor time.

Just as the elapsed time for the execution of a program depends on all units in a
computer system, the processor time depends on the hardware involved in the execution of
individual machine instructions. This hardware comprises the processor and the memory
which are usually connected by the bus as shown in the fig c.

The pertinent parts of the fig. c are repeated in fig. d which includes the cache
memory as part of the processor unit.

Page 31
Computer Organization

Let us examine the flow of program instructions and data between the memory and
the processor. At the start of execution, all program instructions and the required data are
stored in the main memory. As the execution proceeds, instructions are fetched one by one
over the bus into the processor, and a copy is placed in the cache later if the same instruction
or data item is needed a second time, it is read directly from the cache.

The processor and relatively small cache memory can be fabricated on a single IC
chip. The internal speed of performing the basic steps of instruction processing on chip is
very high and is considerably faster than the speed at which the instruction and data can be
fetched from the main memory. A program will be executed faster if the movement of
instructions and data between the main memory and the processor is minimized, which is
achieved by using the cache.

For example:- Suppose a number of instructions are executed repeatedly over a short period
of time as happens in a program loop. If these instructions are available in the cache, they can
be fetched quickly during the period of repeated use. The same applies to the data that are
used repeatedly.

Processor clock: -
Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called clock. The clock designer
the regular time intervals called clock cycles. To execute a machine instruction the processor
divides the action to be performed into a sequence of basic steps that each step can be
completed in one clock cycle. The length P of one clock cycle is an important parameter that
affects the processor performance.

Processor used in today’s personal computer and work station have a clock rates that
range from a few hundred million to over a billion cycles per second.

Basic performance equation

We now focus our attention on the processor time component of the total elapsed
time. Let ‘T’ be the processor time required to execute a program that has been prepared in
some high-level language. The compiler generates a machine language object program that
corresponds to the source program. Assume that complete execution of the program requires
the execution of N machine cycle language instructions. The number N is the actual number
of instruction execution and is not necessarily equal to the number of machine cycle

Page 32
Computer Organization

instructions in the object program. Some instruction may be executed more than once, which
in the case for instructions inside a program loop others may not be executed all, depending
on the input data used.

Suppose that the average number of basic steps needed to execute one machine cycle
instruction is S, where each basic step is completed in one clock cycle. If clock rate is ‘R’
cycles per second, the program execution time is given by
𝑁𝑋𝑆
T=
𝑅
this is often referred to as the basic performance equation.

We must emphasize that N, S & R are not independent parameters changing one may
affect another. Introducing a new feature in the design of a processor will lead to improved
performance only if the overall result is to reduce the value of T.

Pipelining and super scalar operation: -

We assume that instructions are executed one after the other. Hence the value of S is
the total number of basic steps, or clock cycles, required to execute one instruction. A
substantial improvement in performance can be achieved by overlapping the execution of
successive instructions using a technique called pipelining.

Consider Add R1 R2 R3
This adds the contents of R1 & R2 and places the sum into R3.

The contents of R 1 & R2 are first transferred to the inputs of ALU. After the addition
operation is performed, the sum is transferred to R 3. The processor can read the next
instruction from the memory, while the addition operation is being performed. Then of that
instruction also uses, the ALU, its operand can be transferred to the ALU inputs at the same
time that the add instructions is being transferred to R 3.

In the ideal case if all instructions are overlapped to the maximum degree possible
the execution proceeds at the rate of one instruction completed in each clock cycle.

Page 33
Computer Organization

Individual instructions still require several clock cycles to complete. But for the purpose of
computing T, effective value of S is 1.

A higher degree of concurrency can be achieved if multiple instructions pipelines are

implemented in the processor. This means that multiple functional units are used creating
parallel paths through which different instructions can be executed in parallel with such an
arrangement, it becomes possible to start the execution of several instructions in every clock
cycle. This mode of operation is called superscalar execution. If it can be sustained for a long
time during program execution the effective value of S can be reduced to less than one. But
the parallel execution must preserve logical correctness of programs that is the results
produced must be same as those produced by the serial execution of program instructions.
Now days many processors are designed in this manner.

Clock rate
These are two possibilities for increasing the clock rate ‘R’.
1. Improving the IC technology makes logical circuit faster, which reduces the time of
execution of basic steps. This allows the clock period P, to be reduced and the clock
rate R to be increased.
2. Reducing the amount of processing done in one basic step also makes it possible to
reduce the clock period P. however if the actions that have to be performed by an
instructions remain the same, the number of basic steps needed may increase.

Increase in the value ‘R’ that are entirely caused by improvements in IC technology
affects all aspects of the processor’s operation equally with the exception of the time it takes
to access the main memory. In the presence of cache the percentage of accesses to the main
memory is small. Hence much of the performance gain excepted from the use of faster
technology can be realized.

Instruction set CISC & RISC:-

Simple instructions require a small number of basic steps to execute. Complex
instructions involve a large number of steps. For a processor that has only simple instruction
a large number of instructions may be needed to perform a given programming task. This
could lead to a large value of ‘N’ and a small value of ‘S’ on the other hand if individual
instructions perform more complex operations, a fewer instructions will be needed, leading

Page 34
Computer Organization

to a lower value of N and a larger value of S. It is not obvious if one choice is better than the
other.
But complex instructions combined with pipelining (effective value of S ¿ 1) would
achieve one best performance. However, it is much easier to implement efficient pipelining in
processors with simple instruction sets.

RISC and CISC are computing systems developed for computers. Instruction set or
instruction set architecture is the structure of the computer that provides commands to the
computer to guide the computer for processing data manipulation. Instruction set consists of
instructions, addressing modes, native data types, registers, interrupt, exception handling and
memory architecture. Instruction set can be emulated in software by using an interpreter or
built into hardware of the processor. Instruction Set Architecture can be considered as a
boundary between the software and hardware. Classification of microcontrollers and
microprocessors can be done based on the RISC and CISC instruction set architecture.
Comparison between RISC and CISC:

RISC CISC

It stands for ‘Reduced It stands for ‘Complex

Acronym
Instruction Set Computer’. Instruction Set Computer’.

The RISC processors have a The CISC processors have a

Definition smaller set of instructions with larger set of instructions with
few addressing nodes. many addressing nodes.

It has no memory unit and uses It has a memory unit to

Memory unit a separate hardware to implement complex
implement instructions. instructions.

It has a hard-wired unit of It has a micro-programming

Program
programming. unit.

Design It is a complex complier design. It is an easy complier design.

The calculations are faster and The calculations are slow and
Calculations
precise. precise.

Decoding of instructions is Decoding of instructions is

Decoding
simple. complex.

Time Execution time is very less. Execution time is very high.

External It does not require external It requires external memory

Page 35
Computer Organization

memory memory for calculations. for calculations.

Pipelining does function Pipelining does not function

Pipelining
correctly. correctly.

Stalling is mostly reduced in

Stalling The processors often stall.
processors.

Code expansion can be a Code expansion is not a

Code expansion
problem. problem.

Disc space The space is saved. The space is wasted.

Used in high end applications

Used in low end applications
such as video processing,
Applications such as security systems, home
telecommunications and image
automations, etc.
processing.

Page 36
Computer Organization

1.8 Performance measurements

The performance measure is the time taken by the computer to execute a given bench
mark. Initially some attempts were made to create artificial programs that could be used as
bench mark programs. But synthetic programs do not properly predict the performance
obtained when real application programs are run.

A non-profit organization called SPEC- system performance Evaluation Corporation

selects and publishes bench marks.

The program selected range from game playing, compiler, and data base applications
to numerically intensive programs in astrophysics and quantum chemistry. In each case, the
program is compiled under test, and the running time on a real computer is measured. The
same program is also compiled and run on one computer selected as reference.

The ‘SPEC’ rating is computed as follows.

SPEC rating = Running time on the reference computer/ Running time on the computer under
test

Page 37
Computer Organization

MULTIPROCESSORS AND MULTICOMPUTER

multicomputer multiprocessors
1. A computer made up of several computers. 1. A computer that has more than one CPU on
2. Distributed computing deals with hardware its motherboard.
and software systems containing more than 2. Multiprocessing is the use of two or more
one processing element, multiple programs central processing units (CPUs) within a
3. It can run faster single computer system.
4. A multi-computer is multiple computers, 3. Speed depends on the all processors speed
each of which can have multiple processors. 4. Single Computer with multiple processors
5. Used for true parallel processing. 5. Used for true parallel processing.
6. Processor can not share the memory. 6. Processors can share the memory.
7. Called as message passing multi computers 7. Called as shared memory multi processors
8. Cost is more 8. Cost is low

Page 38