Développement D'une Matrice Prébiotique Pour L'encapsulation Des Probiotiques Bactériocinogènes, Destinée À L'alimentation Animale
Développement D'une Matrice Prébiotique Pour L'encapsulation Des Probiotiques Bactériocinogènes, Destinée À L'alimentation Animale
Développement D'une Matrice Prébiotique Pour L'encapsulation Des Probiotiques Bactériocinogènes, Destinée À L'alimentation Animale
THÈSE
Abdelbasset ATIA
Québec, Canada
© Abdelbasset ATIA , 2016
Développement d’une matrice prébiotique pour
l’encapsulation des probiotiques bactériocinogènes,
destinée à l’alimentation animale.
De la physicochimie à la biopharmacie
THÈSE
Abdelbasset ATIA
Sous la direction de :
Pour atteindre cet objectif, cinq types de matrices sphériques (A, AI5, AI10,
AI15, AI20) à base d’inuline (0 %, 5 %, 10 %, 15 % et 20 %) et d’alginate (2 %) ont
été préparés par la méthode d’extrusion/gélification ionotropique. Trois souches
probiotiques ont été utilisées au cours du développement des billes : Pediococcus
acidilactici UL5 (UL5), Lactobacillus reuteri (LR) et Lactobacillus salivarius (LS).
Dans un premier temps, toutes les formulations ont été caractérisées d’un point
de vue physicochimique et microbiologique. Ces analyses ont permis de révéler une
distribution homogène de l’inuline et de l’alginate au sein des matrices et ont
démontré que la viabilité et la capacité antimicrobienne des souches utilisées
n’étaient pas affectées par l’encapsulation. À la lumière de ces résultats, trois
formulations A, AI5 et AI20 ont été sélectionnées pour la suite de l’étude.
En conclusion, la formulation AI5 s’est avérée être un très bon véhicule pour
protéger les bactéries dans les parties supérieures du tube digestif et favoriser leur
libération dans le côlon. Elle pourrait donc, être utilisée pour une application en
alimentation animale.
iv
Abstract
Finally, the behaviour and the bacterial dynamics of the AI5 formulation in the
fermented and unfermented colonic medium were studied. This study revealed that
v
the AI5 beads were degraded and released all of the bacteria after around 4 hours in
the fermented medium. This degradation is probably due to the enzymes abundantly
present in this medium.
In conclusion, the abilities of AI5 formulation to protect the bacteria in the upper
parts of the digestive tract and to release them to the colon can be affirmed. It could
be used for an application in animal feeding.
vi
Table des matières
Résumé............................................................................................................................. iii
Abstract ............................................................................................................................. v
Liste des tableaux .......................................................................................................... x
Liste des figures ............................................................................................................ xi
Liste des abréviations .................................................................................................xiv
Remerciements .............................................................................................................xvi
Avant-Propos ..................................................................................................................xx
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1. Chapitre 1. Revue de littérature .......................................................................... 5
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 5
1.2 Physiologie de l’appareil digestif chez le porc ............................................................. 5
1.2.1 La digestion ................................................................................................................. 6
1.2.2 L’absorption ................................................................................................................ 8
1.2.3 La motricité ................................................................................................................ 11
1.2.4 Le tube digestif comme barrière sélective ........................................................ 12
1.2.5 Le microbiote gastro-intestinal du porc ............................................................ 12
1.3 Les antibiotiques comme facteurs de croissance ............................................................. 15
1.3.1 Mécanismes d’action des antibiotiques ............................................................ 18
1.4 Les alternatives aux antibiotiques : ............................................................................. 19
1.4.1 Les enzymes ............................................................................................................. 19
1.4.2 Les huiles essentielles ........................................................................................... 19
1.4.3 Les extraits de plantes ........................................................................................... 20
1.5 Les probiotiques et comme alternative aux antibiotiques ........................................ 20
1.5.1 Les effets des probiotiques sur la santé des animaux .................................. 25
1.5.2 L’innocuité des probiotiques ................................................................................ 31
1.5.2.1 Les souches probiotiques productrices de composés antimicrobiens31
1.6 Les prébiotiques et synbiotiques .................................................................................. 33
1.6.1 Définition des prébiotiques ................................................................................... 33
1.6.2 Propriétés des prébiotiques.................................................................................. 36
1.6.3 Effets des prébiotiques sur la santé des animaux .......................................... 36
1.7 La microencapsulation des probiotiques .................................................................... 41
1.7.1 Les matériaux d’encapsulation des probiotiques ........................................... 42
1.7.1.3 L’inuline.................................................................................................................. 45
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1.7.1.4 Les alginates ......................................................................................................... 50
1.7.1.5 Les systèmes d’encapsulation mucoadhésifs ................................................... 55
1.7.2 Méthodes d’encapsulation de probiotiques............................................................ 55
1.7.2.1 Étapes de l’encapsulation..................................................................................... 56
1.7.3 Méthodes de suivi du comportement de la matrice d’encapsulation dans le tube digestif
...................................................................................................................................... 60
1.7.3.1 Les méthodes in vitro ............................................................................................ 60
1.7.3.1.1 Les méthodes de simulation de la partie supérieure du tractus digestif ... 60
1.7.3.1.2 Les méthodes de simulation de la partie inférieure du tube digestif ......... 65
1.7.3.2 Les méthodes in vivo ......................................................................................... 66
1.8 Travaux antérieurs ......................................................................................................... 67
2. Chapitre 2. CONTEXTE DU PROJET................................................................ 70
2.1 Travaux antérieurs et problématique........................................................................... 70
2.2 Hypothèse de travail ...................................................................................................... 74
2.3 Objectif général ............................................................................................................... 74
2.4 Objectifs spécifiques ...................................................................................................... 74
PARTIE EXPÉRIMENTALE ......................................................................................... 77
3. Chapitre 3: A prebiotic matrix for encapsulation of probiotics:
Physicochemical and microbiological study ........................................................ 77
3.1 Résumé ............................................................................................................................ 77
3.2 Abstract ............................................................................................................................ 78
3.3 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 79
3.4 Materials and methods .................................................................................................. 81
3.4.1 Materials ..................................................................................................................... 81
3.4.2 Methods ...................................................................................................................... 82
3.5 Statistical analysis .......................................................................................................... 88
3.6 Results and Discussions ............................................................................................... 89
3.6.1 Formation of beads ................................................................................................. 89
3.6.2 Beads characterization........................................................................................... 90
3.6.3 Effect of encapsulation on the probiotics properties .................................... 98
3.6.3.4 Effect of encapsulation on bile tolerance of probiotic strains ........................ 105
3.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 107
3.8 Acknowledgments: ....................................................................................................... 107
4. Chapitre 4: A prebiotic matrix for encapsulation of probiotics:
Biopharmaceutical study of a colonic controlled release formulation ........ 109
4.1 Résumé ............................................................................................................................ 109
4.2 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 110
4.3 Graphical Abstract ........................................................................................................... 111
4.4 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 112
4.5 Materials and methods ................................................................................................ 115
4.5.1 Materials .................................................................................................................... 115
4.5.2 Methods ..................................................................................................................... 115
4.5.3 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................... 122
4.6 Results and discussion ................................................................................................ 122
4.6.1 Ex-vivo evaluation of the Mucoadhesiveness of synbiotics ........................................ 122
4.6.2 Monitoring survival and release profiles of bacteria during dissolution tests ............ 125
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4.6.3 Study of beads behavior in different dissolution media by Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy. ........................................................................................................................... 133
4.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 138
4.8 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 138
5. Chapitre 5: Study and understanding of the behaviour of alginate-inulin
synbiotics beads in colonic simulated conditions ............................................ 140
5.1 Résumé ............................................................................................................................ 140
5.2 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 141
5.3 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 142
5.4 Materials and methods ................................................................................................... 144
5.4.1 Materials ..................................................................................................................... 144
5.4.2 Methods ...................................................................................................................... 144
5.4.2.1 Bacterial strains and growth conditions ................................................................. 144
5.4.2.2 Preparation of beads .............................................................................................. 144
5.4.2.3 Gastrointestinal simulation .................................................................................... 145
5.4.2.4 Behaviour of synbiotic beads in the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract ....... 145
5.4.2.5 Behaviour of synbiotic beads in the colon .............................................................. 146
5.4.2.6 Monitoring of the survival and release of bacteria during the digestion ............... 146
5.4.2.6.1 Propidium monoazide treatment ...................................................................... 146
5.4.2.6.2 DNA extraction ................................................................................................... 147
5.4.2.6.3 Bacterial enumeration by qPCR.......................................................................... 147
5.4.2.7 Study of the macrostructure and microstructure of the beads during gastrointestinal
digestion 148
5.4.2.8 Monitoring the distribution of bacteria inside the beads during gastrointestinal digestion
148
5.4.3 Statistical analysis ....................................................................................................... 149
5.5 Resultats and discussion ................................................................................................. 150
5.5.1 Monitoring the survival and release of bacteria during the digestion ....................... 151
5.5.2 Monitoring the microscopic appearance of the beads during the digestion .............. 154
5.5.3 Monitoring the distribution of bacteria inside the beads during the digestion .......... 157
5.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 159
5.7 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 159
6. Chapitre 6 : Discussion & Conclusion générale ........................................ 161
6.1 Discussion générale ...................................................................................... 161
6.2 Conclusion générale et perspectives ........................................................ 163
Références.................................................................................................................... 165
ix
Liste des tableaux
x
Liste des figures
xi
Figure 3-6 a photographic image of the probiotics suspension, taken under
fluorescence microscope after release. Red : Dead cells. Green: Living cells .
................................................................................................................................. 100
Figure 3-7 Survival of probiotic after exposure to acid pH.(A) Pediococcus acidilactici
UL6 (B) Lactobacillus reuteri (C) Lactobacillus salivarius Free () ; encapsulated
with: Alginate () Alginate- inulin 5% (),Alginate- inulin 20% () in pH 6.8
(blue), pH 1.2 (red),pH 3 (green),pH 4.5(orange). Each value is the
mean±standard deviation of three trials. CFU, colony-forming units............ 104
Figure 3-8 Survival of probiotic strains after exposure to bile salts.(A)Pediococcus
acidilactici UL5 (B) Lactobacillus reuteri (C) Lactobacillus salivarius.Free ();
encapsulated with: Alginate () Alginate- inulin 5% (), Alginate- inulin 20% ()
in 0% of bile salts (blue), 0.3% of bile salts (red), 0.6 % of bile salts (orange), 0.8
% of bile salts (green). Each value is the mean±standard deviation of three trials.
CFU, colony-forming units ................................................................................... 106
Figure 4-1The workflow of the novel ex-vivo mucoadhesion study of beads in USP2
apparatus. .............................................................................................................. 117
Figure 4-2 [A] Flow-through cell, [B] The USP 4 assembly [B] with (---) open-loop
configuration (---) closed-loop configuration. .................................................... 119
Figure 4-3 Mucoadhesion test results of different types of beads: alginate (),
alginate-inulin 5% (), and alginate-inulin 20% () on [A] jejunal mucosa , and
[B] colonic mucosa. .............................................................................................. 123
Figure 4-4 Survival of probiotic strains encapsulated separately in beads composed of
Alginate (), Alginate-inulin 5% () and Alginate- inulin 20% ();after incubation
at pH 1.2 (30 min) followed by 1h30min in pH4.5 and 4h in pH 6.8. (a)
Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (b) Lactobacillus salivarius (c) Lactobacillus reuteri.
................................................................................................................................. 126
Figure 4-5 Survival of probiotic strains encapsulated together in beads composed of alginate
(A), alginate- inulin 5% (AI5) and Alginate- inulin 20% (AI20), after incubation at pH 1.2
(30 min) followed by 1h30min in pH4.5 and 4h in pH 6.8. () Pediococcus acidilactici
UL5 () Lactobacillus salivarius () Lactobacillus reuteri...................................... 128
Figure 4-6 Bacterial release from beads composed of Alginate () Alginate- inulin 5%
()Alginate- inulin 20% (), in pH 1.2 (30 min) followed by 1h30min in pH4.5 and 4h in
pH 6.8. For (a) Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (b) Lactobacillus salivarius (c) Lactobacillus
reuteri. ..................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 4-7 Evaluation of the macroscopic appearance of beads during the USP4 dissolutions
................................................................................................................................. 131
Figure 4-8 Microstructure of A, AI5 and AI20 beads before (control) and after incubation in
simulated gastric (SGF) or intestinal (SIF) fluids. ..................................................... 132
Figure 4-9[A] FTIR spectra of Inulin (I), AI5 and AI20 Formulation between 3700 & 3000 cm -1,
before incubation.[B] FTIR spectra of: alginate beads; alginate-Inulin 5% beads and
alginate-inulin 20% beads between 2000 & 1300 cm-1 before incubation, [C] FTIR spectra
of: Alginate beads; Alginate-Inulin 5% beads alginate-inulin 20% after exposition to pH
1.2 and 6.8, between 2000 & 1300 cm-1. ................................................................ 135
Figure 4-10 Explanatory schemas of the behavior of different formulation in various.. 137
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Figure 5-1 Schedule of the gastrointestinal simulation steps. FM: Fermented Medium,
UFM: unfermented Medium, arrows: sampling times. .................................... 145
Figure 5-2 Survival of probiotic strains encapsulated together in the upper parts of the
gastrointestinal tract at pH 1.2 (30 min) , pH4.5 (1h30min) and in pH 6.8 (4h),
followed by simulation of fermented (FM) (black) and unfermented (UFM) (white)
colonic media . Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (triangle) Lactobacillus
salivarius(circle) Lactobacillus reuteri (square). *Significant difference between
FM and UFM .......................................................................................................... 152
Figure 5-3 Bacterial release from beads in the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract
at pH 1.2 for 30min, in pH4.5 for 1h30min and pH 6.8 for 4h, followed by
simulation of fermented (black) and unfermented (white) colonic media.
Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (square) Lactobacillus salivarius (diamond)
Lactobacillus reuteri (triangle). *Significant difference between FM and UFM153
Figure 5-4 Evolution of the macroscopic appearance of beads during gastrointestinal
simulation. [A] In the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract. [B] In colon. FM:
Fermented Medium, UFM: unfermented Medium, IFM: Inactivated Fermented
Medium ................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 5-5 Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) photographs of beads during colonic
digestion at low (x50), high (X2700) and very high magnification (x9000); [A]
Unfermented medium [B] fermented medium .................................................. 156
Figure 5-6 monitoring the dynamic bacterial inside the beads during the gastro
intestinal simulation by LIVE / DEAD staining [A] In the upper parts of the
gastrointestinal tract. [B] In colon; FM: Fermented Medium; UFM: unfermented
Medium. .................................................................................................................. 158
xiii
Liste des abréviations
xiv
TEM Microscopie électronique à Transmission electron
transmission microscopy
UFC (CFU) Unité formatrice de colonie Colony forming unit
USP Pharmacopée des É-U US Pharmacopeia
v/v Volume / volume Volume / volume
w/v Poids / volume Weight / volume
xg Force centrifuge relative Relative centrifugal forces
μg Microgramme Microgram
μL Microlitre Microliter
μm Micrometre Micrometer
μM Micromolaire Micromolar
μmol Micromole Micromoles
xv
Remerciements
xvi
Je tiens ensuite à remercier Dr Ahmed Gomaa pour ses conseils précieux en
physicochimie, en analyse FTIR et en rédaction d’articles. Ahmed est un scientifique
fort brillant et une personne très humble. C’était un plaisir de travailler avec toi !
Un très grand merci aux étudiants de l’équipe de Muriel : Fatou, Juan, Hélène,
Charles, Pedro, Cynthia, Hany, Melina, Sandrine, et en particulier à ma stagiaire,
Cyrielle. Un grand merci aussi aux étudiants de l’équipe d’Ismail : Luca, Benoit,
Allison, Sabrine, Riadh.
xvii
m’avoir accordé la prestigieuse bourse de stages internationaux, qui m’a permis de
réaliser une partie de cette thèse en France.
Côté France…
Enfin, je remercie tous mes amis auvergnats : Ivan, les deux Camille, Simon,
Anna, Charlène, Muriel, Valentin et tous ceux que j’oublie de citer ici.
Côté personnel…
xviii
Mes premiers remerciements vont tout naturellement à mes parents pour leur
soutien indéfectible et leur amour inconditionnel. À mon frère et sa copine. À mes
deux sœurs.
Enfin, mes derniers remerciements vont à ma nouvelle famille québécoise,
pour toute la convivialité qui a égayé une bonne partie de cette aventure
extraordinaire, au pays des caribous !
Québec, je me souviens… Et je me souviendrai pour toujours !
Abdel
xix
Avant-Propos
Les travaux de recherche de cette thèse ont été réalisés conjointement dans les
laboratoires de recherche du Département des Sciences des Aliments de la Faculté
des Sciences de l’Agriculture et de l’Alimentation de l’Université Laval, Québec
(Canada), sous la direction des Professeurs Muriel Subirade (Directrice du
département) et Ismail Fliss (Directeur du Centre de recherche en sciences et
technologie du lait (STELA)) ; et dans les laboratoires de Pharmacie Galénique et
Biopharmacie de l’Équipe d’Accueil : Conception, Ingénierie et Développement de
l’Aliment et du Médicament (CIDAM) à la Faculté de Pharmacie de l’Université
d’Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand (France) avec la participation de Professeur Éric
Beyssac et de Docteur Ghislain Garrait.
xx
Le troisième chapitre intitulé : « A prebiotic matrix for encapsulation of probiotics :
Physicochemical and microbiological study ». Ce chapitre a été réalisé sous la
direction des Professeurs Subirade et Fliss avec la participation de Pr.Éric Beyssac et
de Dr. Ghislain Garrait. J’ai réalisé l’ensemble des expériences, le traitement des
résultats. J’ai également rédigé l’article qui a été peaufiné par Dr. Ahmed Gomaa
pour être soumis et accepté pour la publication dans Journal of Microencapsulation,
le 09 novembre 2015.
Une partie des travaux de cette thèse a été présentée par moi-même dans une
conférence au colloque international de la microbiologie animale, qui a eu lieu le 15 et
16 mai 2014 à l’École Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse (ENVT) en France. Les
données générées ont également fait l’objet de plusieurs présentations par affiche
dans différents évènements scientifiques au Canada et à l’international.
xxi
INTRODUCTION
Contrôler la libération des principes actifs de leurs formes galéniques est l’une
des stratégies pharmaceutiques utilisées pour améliorer l’efficacité des médicaments.
En effet, la libération contrôlée permet de maitriser la vitesse et le site de libération
des bioactifs. Dans le cas de principes actifs inertes (non vivants) tels que les
anticancéreux, la libération contrôlée vise à diminuer leurs effets secondaires [1]–[4].
En revanche, dans le cas de principes actifs vivants, la libération contrôlée vise plutôt
à les protéger en ciblant des sites spécifiques. Parmi les principes actifs vivants on
peut citer, les vaccins vivants atténués [5]–[7], les phages thérapeutiques [8], et les
probiotiques [9] [10]. Ces derniers ont été définis par les experts de l’Organisation
mondiale de la Santé (OMS) et de l’Organisation des Nations unies pour
l’alimentation et l’agriculture (FAO) comme : « Des microorganismes vivants qui,
lorsqu’ils sont administrés en quantités adéquates, exercent une action bénéfique sur
la santé de l’hôte » [11].
1
Ces travaux de recherche sont issus dans la plupart des cas du monde de la
science des aliments [14] – [18]. Cependant, l'approche de ce sujet avec une vision
pharmaceutique s’avère plus judicieuse. Cela permet d’ouvrir la porte à l’application
de certains concepts pharmaceutiques innovants, tels que le concept « Magic
bullet » du Prix Nobel Paul Ehrlich qui est la toute première ébauche d’encapsulation
[19].
L’encapsulation est définie comme une technologie qui vise à piéger des
ingrédients bioactifs, dans une matrice afin de les protéger ou de contrôler leur
libération. De nos jours, la libération contrôlée des probiotiques est devenue possible
grâce à la variété de polymères naturels qui ont « l’intelligence » de gérer leurs
libération [24] [25] [26] [27]. Parmi les polymères les plus utilisés pour l’encapsulation
des probiotiques, nous pouvons citer de façon non exhaustive les macromolécules de
nature protéique, et polysaccharidique [27] [28].
Malgré les nombreuses études établies sur les gels d’alginate, leur fragilité et
leur porosité restent des points faibles qui doivent être renforcés en particulier quand
il s’agit de leur utilisation pour protéger les probiotiques. Pour ce faire, quel polymère
serait plus approprié à remplir cette mission qu’un polymère prébiotique?
2
Les prébiotiques sont généralement des polysaccharides non digestibles qui
affectent de façon bénéfique l’hôte en stimulant la croissance et/ou l’activité des
probiotiques [37]. Par conséquent, les prébiotiques sont des alliés potentiels pour les
probiotiques. En outre, l’association prébiotiques-probiotiques est souvent appelée
synbiotique1 en raison de cette synergie entre les deux produits [38]. Cela fait des
prébiotiques, un choix très adéquat pour améliorer la qualité de la matrice d’alginate.
1
Le mot « synbiotique » s’écrit avec un « n » par référence à la synergie entre prébiotiques et probiotiques, contrairement au
mot « symbiotique » qui désigne le mode de vie de certains organismes.
3
Chapitre 1 :
Revue de littérature
4
1. Chapitre 1. Revue de littérature
1.1 Introduction
Ce premier chapitre passe en revue les travaux de recherche les plus récents et
les plus pertinents qui traitent le sujet de l’administration de probiotiques chez les
animaux et plus particulièrement chez les porcs, d’un point de vue pharmaceutique et
alimentaire.
5
alimentaires hors du corps, sous forme de selles. Ces fonctions primaires réunies du
tube digestif donnent naissance à une fonction secondaire qui est la fonction de
barrière sélective [50].
(1) Œsophage (2) Estomac (3) Duodénum (4) Jéjunum (5) Iléon (6) Cæcum (7) Côlon
spiral (8) rectum (9) Anus (10) Pancréas (11) Foie.
1.2.1 La digestion
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Adapté de biologycorner selon les termes de la licence CC BY-NC 3.0
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trituration et de brassage. Dans un second temps, la digestion fait appel à des
sécrétions chimiques de nature enzymatique ou non [51] [53]. Ces sécrétions
commencent au niveau de la cavité buccale grâce aux glandes salivaires qui sont de
nombre de 4 chez le porc, de type congloméré comme la mandibulaire, la parotide, la
sublinguale ou de type disséminé au niveau labial, lingual et palatin. Les porcs
sécrètent en moyenne 10 litres de salive par jour. Ces sécrétions salivaires assurent
généralement le rôle de lubrification du bol alimentaire. Chez l’homme, les oiseaux et
le porc, la salive joue également un rôle enzymatique grâce à l’amylase salivaire qui
entame la digestion de l’amidon, grâce également à lipase linguale qui commence
l’hydrolyse des lipides[51] [54].
Dans l’intestin, le pH retrouve une valeur neutre. Ceci est idéal pour le
fonctionnement des enzymes pancréatiques. Ces derniers sont nombreux et assurent
des fonctions multiples. Certains sont protéolytiques comme la trypsine, la
chymotrypsine, d’autres sont lipolytiques comme les lipases et les phospholipases.
Les sécrétions pancréatiques contiennent également des enzymes glycolytiques
comme l’amylase et des enzymes nucléolytiques comme la ribonucléase et
l’ADNase. L’intestin grêle reçoit également les sécrétions exocrines hépatiques
initialement stockées dans la vésicule biliaire. La bile assure le rôle d’émulsifier la
matière grasse et la rendre disponible aux enzymes pancréatiques qui achèvent ainsi
la digestion des lipides et libèrent les acides gras et les phospholipides [51] [54] [55].
Chez le porc comme chez tous les monogastriques, les aliments de lest et les
fibres échappent généralement à la digestion dans les parties supérieures du tube
digestif. Ces éléments ne sont dégradés qu’une fois, arrivés au côlon grâce à la flore
colique qui a la capacité de les dégrader.
7
1.2.2 L’absorption
Une fois les aliments complexes transformés en nutriments simples, ces derniers
traversent la barrière intestinale pour aller dans la circulation sanguine. Cette
traversée est appelée l’absorption. Cette fonction est essentiellement accomplie dans
l’intestin grêle grâce à la présence des villosités intestinales (figure1-2). Le volume
de l’intestin grêle chez le porc peut atteindre les 35 litres chez un porc adulte [51]
[55].
3
Réalisé par Abdelbasset ATIA © avec les outils des laboratoires Servier selon les termes de la licence CC BY 3.0 FR.
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la diffusion passive où les molécules diffusent selon un gradient de
concentration.
la diffusion facilitée où les molécules suivent un gradient de concentration. Ce
mode de transport fait intervenir des transporteurs, il est donc saturable.
Le transport actif est souvent contraire au gradient de concentration et
nécessite de l’énergie [40].
4
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La digestion des protéines aboutit à la libération de fragments peptidiques et
des acides aminés. Chez les monogastriques, les peptides ne sont pas absorbés au
niveau de l’intestin, sauf chez les porcs [56] [57]. Les acides aminés quant à eux sont
absorbés totalement dans l’intestin grêle et en partie par le côlon chez les porcelets
nouveaux nés [58].
10
1.2.3 La motricité
11
1.2.4 Le tube digestif comme barrière sélective
12
phylas bactériens. Les bactéries du côlon sont réparties dans trois principaux
phylums : Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes et Protéobactéries, dans des proportions
variables selon l’espèce animale et le compartiment digestif. Le tableau 1-1 donne
un aperçu de la composition du microbiote dans certains compartiments du tube
digestif chez l’homme , les bovins, les ovins, les lapins, la volaille et le porc.
Certains auteurs ont essayé d’établir des profils standardisés du microbiote
selon la dominance des phylas. Ces profils sont appelés entérotypes. Chez l’être
humain, on trouve trois entérotypes distincts qui seraient dominés soit par
Bacteroides, soit par Prevotella, soit par Ruminococcus. Cette classification est loin
d’être définitive et souvent très critiquée à cause de la découverte de nouveaux
phylas bactériens comme les verrucomicrobia [71] ; ainsi le débat au sujet des
entérotypes s’oriente désormais vers une notion de gradient d’espèces plutôt qu’une
classification rigoureuse et limitée. Aucun travail de classification de ce genre n’a été
fait chez le porc. Cependant, les travaux de simulation colique du porc évoquent
principalement les mêmes phylas que chez l’homme [69] [70].
Les bioadditifs alimentaires comme les probiotiques sont un outil très efficace
pour moduler la composition bactérienne colique et ses fonctionnalités [73]–[75], ce
qui a également un impact sur la santé globale des animaux et donc sur l’efficacité de
la production d’élevage.
13
Tab
leau1
-1Lacompos
it
iondu m
icrob
ioted
iges
ti
fdel
’Homme
,etdesan
imauxd
’élevage
Hommeb ina
Bov inb
Lap Pou
letb ina
Ov Po c
rcin
M
icroo
rgan
ismes (%
)
Bacteroidetes 16 50 3,1 1
,9 54 13,5
F i
rm icutes 65 41,6 92 ,5 70 42 67,5
P roteobactéries 9 5,46 0, 4 21,5 2 17,7
Autres 5 1,94 4, 0 6
,6 1 1
,3
A rchées + + + + + +
Pro tozoaire
s + + nd nd + nd
Champ ignons + +- nd nd +- nd
Vi rus + + + + + +
Levu res + + +- nd + nd
Références [75] [76] [77 ] [78] [79] [75
][81
]
a danslerumen
;b dan
slecô
lon
;c dan
sl’
i
léon+ M
icroo
rgan
ismedé
tec
téche
zl’an
ima
l
;+-M
icroo
rgan
ismedé
tec
téche
zl’an
ima
làde
stau
xtrè
sfa
ib
les
;nd:le
sdonnée
s
manquantes
14
1.3 Les antibiotiques comme facteurs de croissance
15
Tableau 1-2 Tableau récapitulatif des différents antibiotiques utilisés en médecine vétérinaire5
FAMILLES EXEMPLES SPECTRE
1935 Bêtalactamines
Bacille Gram+
Pénicillines
Pénicillines G Cocci Gram-
Procaïnate de pénicilline (forme retard) sensible à la pénicillinase staphylococciques
Benzathine de pénicilline (forme retard)
Penethamate
À large spectre mais
Pénicillines A sensible à la pénicillinase staphylococciques
Ampicillines
Amoxycilline
Pénicillines M Résistant aux pénicillinases.
Cloxacilline : (Orbenin, Pfizer) ; Active contre Gram +
Céphalosporines & inactive sur Pseudomonas
Dicloxacilline (Diclomam, Vétoquinol)
Oxacilline (Stapenor, Bayer)
Nafcilline (Nafpenzal, MSD)
Spectre intermédiaire
Première génération Spectre accru sur les Gram -
Céfalexine (Rilexine, Virbac) Actif sur entérobactéries ;
Cefalonium (Cepravin,MSD) Actif sur Pseudomonas
Céfapirine (Céfatar , MSD)
Céfazoline (Cefovet ,Merial)
Deuxième génération (spectre intermédiaire)
Troisième génération Large spectre
Ceftiofur (Exenel, Pfizer) Résistance aux bêta-lactamases & aux
Céfopérazone (Pathozone, Pfizer) céphalosporinases
Céfovécine (Convenia, Pfizer)
1940 Quatrième génération
Cefquinome (Cobactan, Intervet)
Sulfamides Action courte
Sulfaméthizol Spectre théoriquement large mais nombreuses
Sulfathiazol résistances
Sulfadimidine (sulfadimérazine)
Action semi - retard
5
Adapté de l’index des médicaments vétérinaires de l’Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l’alimentation, de l’environnement et du travail (Anses)
16
Sulfaméthoxazole
Sulfadiazine
Action retard
Sulfadiméthoxine
Sulfaméthoxypyridazine
1950 Aminosides • Dihydrostreptomycine Spectre large Gram - et Gram + sauf les
• Néomycine streptocoques
• Apramycine (Apramycine , Apralan , Lilly) inactifs sur tous les anaérobies
• Gentamicine (Forticine, Vetoquinol) Actifs sur pseudomonas
• Kanamycine (Kanacilline, Ceva)
• Spectinomycine (Spectam , Ceva)
• Framycetine (Bieskadog, Ceva)
17
• Pradofloxacine (Veraflox, Bayer)
Polypeptides Suractif (détergent)
Colistine (Polymyxine E)
Colistiméthate (Belcopeni, Coophavet) Spectre étroit : bacilles Gram - sauf proteus,
Polymyxine B (collyres, susp auriculaires) Entérocolite du lapin
Non suractifs
Bacitracine (Bacivet S,Alpharma)
2000
Dérivés du noyau Triméthoprime
Baquiloprime Spectre large
Benzyl-Pyrimidine
Dérivés des Nitrofurantoïne (Cystidog, Sogeval)
Furazolidone (Alaserine, Virbac) Interdits en élevage
nitrofuranes Furaltadone (Trefurcan, Sogeval)
Metronidazole
Nitro-imidazolés Spectre limité aux anaérobies surtout les bacilles
Gram – et les Gram + sporulés
Dimétridazole
Traitement de l'histomonose (dindon), de la
trichomonose (pigeon)
Ronidazole Prévention et traitement de l'entérite hémorragique
du porc
Produit actif sur les anaérobies stricts et sur certains
parasites (protozoaires)
Potentiellement mutagène et carcinogène
Antibiotiques à action bactériostatique Antibiotiques à action bactéricideMécanismes d’action des antibiotiques
18
Chez les animaux d’élevage, notamment le porc, il a été démontré que,
l’utilisation d’antibiotiques dans l’alimentation est un moyen efficace pour améliorer la
croissance, la qualité des produits d’origine animale et le rendement de l’élevage.
Des études récentes ont montré que l’effet des antibiotiques favorisant la croissance
des animaux est en corrélation directe avec la diminution de l’activité des hydrolases
biliaires, des enzymes produites par les bactéries intestinales, et exerçant une
incidence négative sur la digestion des graisses et leur utilisation par l’hôte [152]
[153]. Chez le porc, les antibiotiques peuvent fragiliser la flore commensale,
notamment la flore iléale et laisser le champ libre aux développements des
microorganismes pathogènes comme les E.Coli entérotoxigéniques (ETEC),
entéroinvasives (EIEC), entéropathogènes (EPEC) [154], Brachyspira hyodysenteriae
(agent de la dysenterie porcine) [155], ou encore Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (agent
du rouget du porc) [156]. Ces pathogènes sont capables de provoquer des
syndromes diarrhéiques très aigus qui conduisent parfois à la mort de l’animal [154].
De plus, le contact fréquent des antibiotiques avec les microorganismes pathogènes
a conduit à l’émergence de l’antibiorésistance qui est aujourd’hui le problème de
santé publique le plus important. D’où la nécessité de s’orienter vers des alternatives
aussi efficaces et moins dangereuses.
19
Staphylococcus aureus. Cependant les effets nutritionnels de cette huile et son
innocuité restent à explorer [360].
1.4.3 Les extraits de plantes
D’autres études s’intéressent plutôt aux extraits de plantes. Les effets
d’extraits d’herbes chinoises sur la croissance d’animaux d’élevages et leur capacité
à remplacer les antibiotiques ont fait l’objet d’une revue de littératures par Liu et al
(2011) [361]. Dans ce travail, les auteurs concluent que les résultats obtenus avec
cette stratégie sont contradictoires. Ils soulignent également le manque accru de
données scientifiques sur le mécanisme d’action de ces extraits de plantes.
Les probiotiques sont une autre alternative proposée par plusieurs chercheurs,
pour remplacer les antibiotiques [362] Au cours de la dernière décennie, plusieurs
travaux ont démontré que les probiotiques sont bien placés pour prendre la relève
des additifs antibiotiques en raison de leurs aptitudes antimicrobiennes et
immunomodulatrices très intéressantes. Dans les paragraphes suivant nous nous
attarderons de façon très détaillée sur cette alternative prometteuse.
Le concept de probiotique est apparu pour la première fois au début du XXe
siècle. En 1907, dans son ouvrage « The prolongation of life, optimistic studies », le
prix Nobel, Ilya Mechnikov a établi un lien entre les habitudes alimentaires et la flore
intestinale. Il a également affirmé que ce lien peut avoir une influence sur la
propagation de mauvais microbes. Ensuite, il a conclu que l’existence de ce lien rend
possible l’adoption des mesures visant à modifier la flore dans nos corps et donc
remplacer les microbes nocifs par des microbes utiles [19] [81] [82].
20
Metchnikoff et Tissier (1907) ont été les premiers à faire des suggestions
scientifiques sur l’utilisation de bactéries probiotiques. Cependant, ce n’est qu’en
1954, que le mot « probiotique » a surgi pour la première fois dans la littérature et
cela grâce à l’écrit « Anti- und Probiotika » de Ferdinand Vergin [84].
Dix ans plus tard, Lilly DM et Still Well parlent des probiotiques comme des
substances sécrétées par des microorganismes, et les considèrent comme des
facteurs capables de stimuler la croissance d’autres microorganismes [40]. Par la
suite, en 1989, Fuller a redéfini le mot probiotique comme un complément alimentaire
microbien vivant, qui affecte positivement l’animal hôte, en améliorant l’équilibre de
sa flore intestinale. Une définition assez similaire a été proposée par Havenaar en
1992 en précisant que les probiotiques peuvent être des monocultures ou des
cultures mixtes. En 1998, Guarner ajoute la notion de la dose à cette définition [85].
21
Tableau1-3 Les critères de sélection des souches probiotiques
Immunomodulation [103][104]
22
Les principales souches de bactéries reconnues en tant que probiotiques sont
des bactéries qui ont le statut GRAS [111]. Elles appartiennent aux genres
Streptoccocus, Bifidobacterium, Enteroccocus et Lactobacillus elles peuvent être des
levures du genre Saccharomyces [40] [114]. Les differentes espèces associées à ces
groupes sont présentées dans le tableau 1-3.
23
Tableau1-4 Les espèces de bactéries probiotiques et leurs habitats
L. paracasei B. infantis a
L. plantarum a B. inopinatum a
L. reuteri a,b B. lactis d
L. rhamnosus B. lacterosporus
B. longum a
a Espèces isolées chez l’humain, b Èspèces isolées chez l’animal, c Èspèces isolées d’eaux usées, d Èspèces isolées de lait fermenté, adapté de [40] [92] [115]–[117]
24
1.5.1 Les effets des probiotiques sur la santé des animaux
Lors de la gestation, les tubes digestifs fœtaux sont stériles. Ce n’est qu’après
la mise bas que ces derniers commencent à se coloniser graduellement par les
centaines d’espèces bactériennes qui proviennent essentiellement de la mère, des
autres animaux et de l’environnement qui les entoure [116]. Cette période de début
de vie tout comme les périodes de transition de diètes (sevrage) est très critique et
stressante, car les bactéries acquises lors de ces périodes peuvent être soit
bénéfiques soit nocives pour la santé de l’animal (figure 1-4). Dans ce dernier cas,
les bactéries peuvent provoquer des troubles qui nuisent au développement et à la
croissance des animaux [61]. À titre d’exemple, lors du sevrage chez le porc il a été
observé que les populations de bactéries bénéfiques, telles que les Lactobacillus et
bifidobacteria diminuent au profit des bactéries pathogènes créant ainsi un
déséquilibre au niveau de la flore qui se traduit par des diarrhées parfois très aiguës,
voire fatales. Un apport en probiotiques peut alors intervenir pour créer les conditions
défavorables à l’établissement de ces populations nocives pathogènes [117].
25
Figure 1-4 La flore commensale et pathogène du tractus gastro-intestinal du porc6
6
Réalisé par Abdelbasset ATIA © adapté de [533]–[535]
26
1.5.1.1 Les diarrhées infectieuses d’étiologie virale ou bactérienne
Au cours de l’année 2015, plusieurs sites d’élevage porcin au Canada ont été
déclarés positifs à la diarrhée épidémique porcine (DEP). Cette maladie
contagieuse, occasionnée par un coronavirus qui attaque le système digestif des
porcs, peut toucher les porcs de tout âge. Elle engendre un taux de mortalité de
100 % chez les porcelets non sevrés et provoque ainsi des répercussions
économiques importantes [118]. L’autre pathologie désastreuse qui affecte les porcs
est causée par E. coli entérotoxigène (ETEC). Cette bactérie possède une
combinaison de facteurs d’adhésion et d’entérotoxines. Les facteurs d’adhésion lui
permettent de résister à la motricité intestinale et donc de bien coloniser l’intestin.
Ces bactéries possèdent également des gènes qui leur permettent de produire des
toxines qui provoquent des épisodes de diarrhée très abondants [119]. Cette maladie
surgit souvent quelques jours après le sevrage. Sa période d’incubation est de 10 à
30 heures et elle se transmet rapidement dans le cheptel. L’ETEC se transmet
également de façon verticale (de la truie au porcelet) surtout chez les primigestes
[122] [123].
Les diarrhées causées par cette bactérie sont très aqueuses avec peu de
matière fecale solides et conduisent souvent à une déshydratation des porcs.
D’autres agents infectieux moins fréquents peuvent être étiologique à des diarrhées.
On peut mentionner par exemple Clostridium perfringens ou Clostridium difficile. Ces
microorganismes possèdent des spores résistantes dans l’environnement qui
peuvent être source de contamination à tout moment [122].
Plusieurs études récentes ont démontré l’efficacité de plusieurs souches
probiotiques dans l’atténuation des symptômes et la réduction des infections causées
par les agents pathologiques. Chai et al (2013) ont étudié les effets protecteurs du
probiotique Enterococcus faecium NCIMB 10415 (E. faecium), contre l’infection par le
virus de la DEP. Dans cette étude, les auteurs ont prouvé qu’un traitement avec E.
faecium baisse significativement (de plus de 3 log) la charge virale [118].
Kumar et al ont testé 310 souches bactériennes, isolées chez le porc, contre le
coronavirus de la DEP et contre d’autres agents pathogènes entériques. Suite à ce
27
criblage, les souches Lactobacillus plantarum et Lactobacillus salivarius ont été
retenues comme inhibitrices du virus de la DEP [123].
Zhou et al. (2015) ont démontré que l’administration d’une mixture probiotique de
Bacillus licheniformis (DSM 5749) et de Bacillus subtilis chez les porcelets diminue de
façon très significative l’adhésion des E.Coli (ETEC) à la muqueuse iléale. Ces
auteurs ont suggéré que l’administration de probiotiques pourrait être une alternative
pour limiter les infections à ETEC chez le porc [124]. Schoster et al. (2013) ont étudié
les effets inhibiteurs de 17 souches de Lactobacillus commerciaux sur les souches C.
difficile et C perfringens et ont conclu que l’utilisation de plusieurs souches parmi les
souches testées pourrait être efficace comme mesure prophylactique ou
thérapeutiques contre les maladies entériques causées par Clostridium [125].
1.5.1.2 La diarrhée chez les animaux immunodéprimés
Bien que les mécanismes exacts ne soient pas encore complètement compris, il
existe de nombreuses preuves démontrant que les troubles de la microflore
intestinale autochtone jouent un rôle dans un certain nombre de maladies
inflammatoires de l’intestin. Plusieurs études chez les animaux donnent un indice sur
les bénéfices de l’application de lactobacilles, de bifidobactéries, de Lactococcus
lactis ou même de probiotiques non alimentaires comme les souches non
28
pathogènes d’Escherichia coli (par exemple la souche Nissle 1917) pour la
prévention et le traitement de la colite [133] [134]. Chez l’Homme, de nombreux
efforts ont été entrepris pour améliorer la santé et le bien-être des patients atteints de
maladie de Crohn, de rectocolite hémorragique, d’entérocolite nécrosante, ou de la
diverticulite, par l’administration de probiotiques dotés de propriétés anti-
inflammatoires [133]–[138].
29
1.5.1.4 Les troubles de la motilité gastro-intestinale
Étant lié le plus souvent au confort des humains, ce sujet a été très peu étudié
chez les animaux. De plus, la régularisation par l’administration de probiotiques, de la
motilité intestinale de sujets humains souffrant de constipation, a été plus souvent
démontrée par des rapports anecdotiques que par des essais cliniques contrôlés
[145] [146]. En effet, les études à ce sujet présentent souvent une définition floue de
la constipation, des questionnaires insuffisamment détaillés lors de la récolte des
symptômes, et plus généralement un enregistrement insatisfaisant de la santé et le
bien-être des sujets avant l’étude. Cela a abouti à de nombreux résultats confus et
contradictoires. Le peu d’études cliniques contrôlées récentes ont montré que
l’administration de certaines souches probiotiques appartenant à L. casei et B.
animalis [143] [144] réduit le temps de transit gastro-intestinal. Malgré cela, plusieurs
produits laitiers probiotiques ont été récemment introduits sur le marché avec la
prétention de lutter contre la constipation.
1.5.1.5 L’immunomodulation
30
stimulation du système immunitaire en lui-même ne signifie pas nécessairement un
effet positif sur la santé.
1.5.2 L’innocuité des probiotiques
31
ribosomale, et souvent caractérisées par un pouvoir bactéricide intéressant à très
faible dose avec un spectre très étroit en comparaison avec les antibiotiques. Ceci
leur permet d’agir très spécifiquement sur certains pathogènes sans pour autant
déclencher une résistance [161].
Les exemples de bactériocines dans la littérature sont multiples. On peut citer
de façon non exhaustive la microbisporicine, la lacticine 3147, la thuricine CD qui
sont actives contre C. difficile et L. monocytogenes [162] [13] [14], la microcine J25
active contre Salmonella [165], ou encore la pédiocine, la piscicoline, la carnocycline,
la carnobacteriocine, l’entérocine CRL-35 ou la nisine qui sont très actives contre L.
monocytogenes [16] [17].
Récemment, plusieurs travaux de recherche ont prouvé que les probiotiques
sont plus efficaces, quand ils sont associés aux prébiotiques [168] [169].
32
1.6 Les prébiotiques et synbiotiques
34
Tableau1-5 Les prébiotiques leurs structures et leurs sources
Polysaccharides Prébiotiques
Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) α-D-Glu [-(1→2)-β-D-Fru] n, n = 2–4 Transfructosylation de Sac par β-Fru B↑, P↓
[α-D-Glu -] mβ-D-Fru [-(1→2) -β-D-
Oligofructose Fru] n, L'hydrolyse enzymatique de l'inuline B↑, P↓
m = 0–1, n = 1–9
α-D-Glu [-(1→2)-β-D-Fru] n, n = 10– [175][178]–
Inuline Chicorée B↑, P↓ [181]
60
Galactooligosaccharides,Trans- α-D-Glu-(1→4)-β-D-Gal[-(1→6)-β-D- Transgalactosylation de lac par β-
B↑, P↓
galactosyloligosaccharides (TOS) Gal]n, n = 1–4 Gal
Raffinose (n = 1) et stachyose (n = [α-D-Gal -(1→6)-] nα-D-Glu -(1→2)-
Graines de soja B↑
2) β-D-Fru, mit n = 1–2
Oligosaccharides, indigestible mais fermentescible dans le côlon
B↑, P↓,
Lactulose β-D-Gal -(1→4)-β-D-Fru Lac (isomérisation alcaline de Glu)
PM↓
β-D-Gal -(1→4)-α-D-Glu -(1→2)-β-D-
Lac + Sac (transfructosylation de β-
Lactosucrose B↑,
Fru Fru)
Glucooligosaccharides Sac + Mal (transglucosylation de
B↑, nnE↓
(GOS) GlT)
Xylooligosaccharides (XO) β-Xyl [-(1→4)-β-Xyl] n, n = 1–8 Maïs B↑,
[13][182]–
Sirop de glucose (transglycosylation
Gentiooligosaccharides β-D-Glu [-(1→6)-β-D-Glu] n, n = 1–4 B↑, [190]
enzymatique)
Hydrolyse de l'amidon (α-Amy→β-
Isomaltooligosaccharides (IMO) α-D-Glu [-(1→6)-α-D-Glu] n, n = 1–4 B↑,
Amy + α-Glase)
Hydrolyse de l'amidon (Iso-Amy + α-
Maltooligosaccharides α-D-Glu [-(1→4)-α-D-Glu] n, n = 1–6 p ↓,
Amy)
Cyclodextrines [-α-D-Glu-(1→4) -] n, cyclic, n = 6–12 Hydrolyse de l'amidon (CmGt) Atb
Chito-oligosaccharides [β-GluNAc -(1→4)-] n Chitine (crustacés) B↑,
Polysaccharides comme l'amidon, les hémicelluloses, les pectines et les gommes sont non digestibles mais fermentescibles
Abréviations : Glu = glucose, Fru = fructose, Gal = galactose, Xyl = xylose, Sac = saccharose, β-Gal = β-galactosidase, ß-Fru = ß-fructofuranosidase, GlT = glucosyltransférase, α / β /
Iso-Amy = α / β / Iso-amylase, + α-Glase = α-Glucosidase, CmGt = Cyclomaltodextrine-Gluconotransférase, B ↑ = bifidogen, P = bactéries de putréfaction / pathogènes, PM =
métabolites de putréfaction, nnE = entérocolite nécrosante néonatale, Atb= antimicrobien
35
1.6.2 Propriétés des prébiotiques
Pour prétendre à des effets positifs sur la santé en nutrition humaine, plusieurs
études recommandent un apport quotidien de 4 à 8 g/jour. Les apports supérieurs à
20-30 g/jour sont déconseillés en raison de l’augmentation des flatulences et de l’effet
laxatif conduisant à l’inconfort. En nutrition animale et particulièrement chez les porcs,
36
l’objectif principal de l’alimentation consiste à obtenir de bonnes performances
d’engraissement et une viande de meilleure qualité à l’abattage. L’ajout des
prébiotiques dans la ration alimentaire doit être non seulement suffisant pour moduler
la flore intestinale, mais doit également contribuer à l’état d’embonpoint de l’animal.
Ainsi, chez les animaux d’élevage, les quantités de prébiotiques nécessaires sont
bien plus élevées que chez l’homme. Pour le porc, les apports recommandés sont
supérieurs à 70g/kg d’aliments consommés [197]. Plusieurs études animales ont mis
en évidence les effets bénéfiques des prébiotiques sur la santé des animaux et sur le
rendement des élevages [197]–[199].
L’inuline figure parmi les prébiotiques les plus étudiés chez le porc. Certains
auteurs évoquent une interférence de l’inuline dans les mécanismes d’adhésion entre
coliformes pathogènes et la paroi intestinale, ou encore le rôle de l’inuline dans la
diminution de la production du scatole qui donne l’odeur de verrat à la viande porcine
[186]. L’inuline augmente la biodisponibilité de certains éléments essentiels à la
croissance du porc comme le fer [200] [201]. La supplémentation de l’alimentation
porcine avec de l’inuline réduit l’incidence de la dysenterie chez le porcelet [189]
[190].
1.6.3.1 Les prébiotiques en tant que fibres alimentaires
Les prébiotiques sont considérés comme des fibres alimentaires, car ils ne sont
pas digérés par les enzymes gastriques ni intestinales. À titre d’exemple, la liaison (1
→ 2) entre l’unité de fructose et de glucose des fructo-oligosaccharides résiste aux
enzymes digestives : elle n’est détruite qu’en présence de la β fructosidase secrétée
par les probiotiques dans le côlon. De même, les liaisons glycosidiques (1 → 2) qui
relient les unités β-D-fructosyl de l’inuline ne sont détruites que par l’endo-1,4 -β-
xylanase appelée couramment l’inulinase, et présente uniquement dans le côlon.
Les probiotiques sont fermentés par la flore du gros intestin, ce qui favorise
l’augmentation de la biomasse de cette partie de l’intestin et contribue à
l’augmentation de la fréquence et du poids des selles, traduite par un effet positif sur
la constipation et sur la santé de la muqueuse du gros intestin [205] [192] [295] [296].
37
1.6.3.2 L’impact des prébiotiques sur la flore intestinale
38
et mutagènes, ainsi que la baisse des acides biliaires secondaires et d’autres
facteurs cancérigènes [218].
1.6.3.4 La stimulation de l’absorption des minéraux et des oligoéléments
Les effets bénéfiques des probiotiques sur l’absorption des minéraux ont été
démontrés chez les humains [220] [221], les rats [222] [223] et les porcs [224]. La
baisse du pH dans le tube digestif due à l’administration des prébiotiques améliore
l’absorption du calcium, du fer, et du magnésium dans le gros intestin. Ceci est
probablement dû à une meilleure solubilité des minéraux. Il a été démontré sur des
modèles d’ostéoporose chez des rats ovariectomisés, que la consommation des
prébiotiques favorise la minéralisation osseuse, et inhibe la dégradation osseuse
induite par une déficience en œstrogènes [225]. Les effets bénéfiques sur
l’absorption du calcium et la minéralisation osseuse ont été également démontrés
chez les porcs [224]. Yasuda et al. ont démontré que la supplémentation de
l’alimentation porcine avec de l’inuline améliore l’expression des gènes codant des
protéines de stockage du fer [201].
1.6.3.5 Les propriétés immunomodulatrices des prébiotiques
Les prébiotiques n’ont pas d’effet immunogène direct. Cependant, ils peuvent, en
agissant sur la flore intestinale, moduler indirectement différents paramètres du
système immunitaire, pouvant par exemples agir sur l’activité des cellules NK
« Natural Killer », sur la sécrétion d’interférons et la prolifération des
lymphocytes[203] [212]–[214].
D’une part, des souris nourries six semaines avec de l’inuline ou oligofructose
ont montré une activité accrue des cellules T, une plus grande résistance contre les
infections microbiennes et une mortalité plus faible lorsqu’elles sont atteintes
d’infections entérales (Candida albicans) ou systémiques (Listeria monocytogenes,
Salmonella typhimurium) [215] [339]. L’administration d’inuline chez des rats atteints
d’une colite chimiquement induite a un effet anti-inflammatoire et réduit les lésions de
la muqueuse intestinale [230]. D’autre part, plusieurs études ont échoué à prouver les
propriétés immunomodulatrices des prébiotiques [217] – [219].
39
1.6.3.6 Les effets indésirables des prébiotiques
Les effets indésirables les plus rapportés dans la littérature sont liés à la
consommation humaine des prébiotiques. En effet, la fermentation bactérienne des
prébiotiques dans le gros intestin dégage des gaz (H2, méthane…) qui peuvent, lors
d’un dosage trop élevé, provoquer des ballonnements et des douleurs abdominales.
Différentes études ont testé plusieurs prébiotiques chez l’homme. Des quantités de
10 à 20 g d’oligofructose ou d’inuline sont considérées comme étant sans effets
secondaires alors que des quantités comprises entre 31 et 41 g induisent des
flatulences [195] [220]. Aucun effet indisérable n’a été reporté chez le porc.
40
1.7 La microencapsulation des probiotiques
41
200
150
100
50
7
Graphe
généré
par
Scopus
en
octobre
2015
42
Les termes « biocompatible » et « biodégradable » sont associés à certains de
ces matériaux. La biocompatibilité d’un matériau est sa propriété à agir dans une
application spécifique avec une réponse appropriée de l’hôte. La biodégradabilité est
la capacité intrinsèque d’un matériau à se dégrader (par divers procédés) dans un
temps bien déterminé [242] [243].
Les biomatériaux les plus souvent utilisés en bioencapsulation sont les
biopolymères. Ces derniers sont des macromolécules organiques ou inorganiques,
constitués de l'enchaînement répété d'un motif (le monomère), reliés les uns aux
autres par des liaisons covalentes. La structure chimique et la conformation des
chaines de monomères confèrent aux polymères des fonctionnalités spécifiques
(capacité à former des gels, capacité d'absorption d'eau) [245]. Les biomatériaux sont
généralement de nature protéique, polysaccharidique ou lipidique. Le tableau 1-5
représente une liste non exhaustive des biomatériaux et biopolymères recensés à ce
jour dans le domaine de l’encapsulation.
43
Tableau1-6 Biomatériaux et biopolymères utilisés dans le domaine de
l’encapsulation
Origine Animale et
Végétale Marine Références
Nature microbienne
Amidon
Dextran
Cellulose
Carraghénane Chitosan
Pectine
Polysaccharide Alginate Gomme gellane [39][246]
Gomme arabique
Agarose Gomme xanthane
Gomme caroube
Gomme guar
Caséines
Protéines de
lactosérum
Protéine Gluten [34][247]
Collagène
Gélatine
Albumines
Huile de palme
hydrogénée
Huile de ricin
Lipide [248][249]
hydrogénée
Lécithine (soja)
Cire
Les biomatériaux lipidiques ont été rarement utilisés pour l’encapsulation des
probiotiques. Dans cette partie, nous ne parlerons des biopolymères de nature
protéique que de façon furtive, en revanche, nous nous attarderons sur les
biopolymères de nature polysaccharidique, plus particulièrement sur ceux adaptés à
l’encapsulation des probiotiques et à l’alimentation porcine.
1.7.1.1 Les biopolymères de nature protéique
44
alimentation porcine proviennent généralement du maïs, du soya ou du lait [56] [251]
[252]. Ces protéines présentent d’excellentes valeurs nutritionnelles [234] [235].
Cependant, elles sont généralement dégradées au niveau de l’estomac
(section 1.2.1). Et donc ne sont pas idéale pour le développement d’une matrice à
libération colique.
1.7.1.2 Les biopolymères de nature polysaccharidique
Dans les parties qui suivent, nous aborderons de façon détaillée la structure
chimique et les propriétés physicochimiques de ces deux composés.
1.7.1.3 L’inuline
L’inuline a été découverte dans les années 1880. Depuis, sa présence a été
décelée dans de nombreuses plantes. On peut citer de façon non exhaustive
quelques exemples de plantes contenant de grandes quantités d’inuline comme le
topinambour, les racines de chicorée ou les asperges. L’inuline se trouve également
de façon naturelle dans de nombreux fruits, légumes et céréales très fréquemment
consommés par l’homme comme l’oignon, le poireau, l’ail, la banane, le blé, le seigle
et l’orge. L’inuline a été utilisée en toute sécurité dans la nutrition infantile. Cela a
conduit la FDA en 1992 à la classer comme GRAS. Elle est également utilisée en
pharmacie notamment comme agent de diagnostic pour la fonction rénale. Au cours
des dernières décennies, de nombreuses recherches ont démontré que l’inuline est
45
une substance qui a de nombreuses applications prometteuses notamment en
alimentation animale.
46
Figure 1-6 Structure de l’inuline8
8
Adapté de «The Drug Bank database»
47
Tableau1-7 Origine et degré de polymérisation des différentes inulines
48
Le degré de polymérisation et la distribution du poids moléculaire des chaines
d’inuline influencent directement sa solubilité. Ainsi, Wada et al. (2005) ont étudié la
solubilité de trois types différents d’inulines, deux commerciaux (Raftiline HP et ST)
avec des DP de 23 à 25 et de 10 à 12 respectivement et une inuline produite par voie
enzymatique avec un DP de 16 à18. Leurs résultats ont montré que le Raftaline HP
était moins soluble que le Raftaline ST. Cependant, l’inuline produite par voie
enzymatique avait une solubilité supérieure à celle de Raftiline ST en dépit de son DP
supérieur. En principe, la solubilité des polymères diminue avec l’augmentation du
DP. Cependant, pour les mélanges polydisperses, il est pertinent de prendre en
considération la distribution du poids moléculaire des différentes fractions. L’absence
de fractions hautement polymérisées (DP supérieur à 30) dans l’inuline produite par
voie enzymatique pourrait expliquer sa solubilité plus élevée [269]. Cela signifie que
deux lots d’inuline, avec le même DP moyen, peuvent avoir différentes distributions
de tailles donc des caractéristiques différentes.
Dans plusieurs études, l’inuline est utilisée pour modifier la texture ou remplacer
les graisses dans les aliments, son comportement visqueux la rendant très
appropriée à cette fin. En outre, les liaisons glycosidiques (1 → 2) non hydrolysées
par les enzymes digestives, la rendent hypocalorique et font d’elle un excellent
substitut aux gras.
L’inuline peut se gélifier par voie thermique [271]. Cette gélification nécessite
l’application de températures souvent supérieures à 60 °C pendant plusieurs dizaines
de minutes et nécessite également l’ajout de solvants bactéricides comme l’éthanol.
Ces conditions sont défavorables à l'encapsulation des probiotiques très sensibles
aux températures élevées et à la présence de solvants. L’ajout d’un agent gélifiant à
froid et sans solvant est nécessaire pour éviter ces contraintes. Les alginates sont les
meilleurs candidats pour cette fonctionnalité.
49
1.7.1.4 Les alginates
L’histoire des alginates remonte aux travaux du chimiste écossais Stanford qui
les a isolés pour la première fois à partir d’algues en 1881. Suite à ces travaux et au
utilisant les ressources locales d’algues. Les premiers brevets concernant l’acide
alginique ont été́ déposés par la Kelco Production et l’Algine Corporation of America
(Californie). Après la fin de la guerre, d’autres unités de production ont été construites
au Japon et plus récemment, en Chine. Les premières unités américaines ont été
rachetées par la société Henkel qui est aujourd’hui un des leaders mondiaux de la
fabrication de colles et adhésifs à base d’alginate. La FDA classe les alginates dans
pyrogènes… etc.). L’Union européenne classe les alginates dans la liste des additifs
50
Le tableau 1-8 résume les variétés d’alginates existants :
9
Adapté à partir du règlement de l’Union Européenne (UE) N° 231/2012 de la commission du 9 mars 2012 et de la liste des
agents émulsifiants, gélifiants, stabilisants ou épaississants autorisés par Santé Canada
51
rapport M/G conditionne les propriétés technologiques et fonctionelles de l’alginate
[272] [253] [254].
(G) (M)
blocs (G)
blocs (M) blocs (MG).
Figure 1-7 Structure de l’alginate10
1.7.1.4.2 Les propriétés physicochimiques et fonctionnelles
10
Réalisé avec ChemDraw 13.0
52
une liaison faible par rapport aux cations de calcium Ca2+ ; c’est l’une des raisons
pour lesquelles le mécanisme de gélification ionotropique de l’alginate est décrit dans
la plupart du temps avec le Ca2+ [278] [259] [260]. Le mécanisme de gélification
ionotropique de l’alginate passe par deux étapes (figure 1-8). La première étape
irréversible permet à l’alginate de gélifier en présence d’ions Ca2+. Parmi les blocs G,
M et M-G des chaines d’alginate, seuls les blocs G interviennent dans cette
gélification. C’est pour cette raison d’ailleurs que le pouvoir gélifiant de l’alginate est
d’autant plus important que la proportion des blocs-G est élevée [272] [261] – [263].
Dans cette première étape, les blocs G passent d’un état désordonné à un état
ordonné où deux blocs s’associent au niveau de leur zone de jonction, piégeant ainsi
les ions Ca2+ de façon coopérative, c’est-à-dire que la fixation d’un ion Ca2+ au sein
d’une zone de jonction facilite la capture de l’ion suivant et ainsi de suite. Ce
phénomène conduit à la dimérisation de tous les blocs G.
53
Figure 1-8 Mécanisme de la gélification ionotropique11
11
Réalisé par Abdelbasset ATIA © adapté de [285]
54
1.7.1.5 Les systèmes d’encapsulation mucoadhésifs
55
réticulation, gélification). Pour simplifier tout cela, Denis Poncelet et Christelle Derffier
ont proposé d’intégrer toutes ces appellations dans un schéma unique qui reflète les
différentes étapes d’encapsulation [296].
56
Figure 1-9 Schéma des différents procédés qui interviennent dans les trois
étapes de l’encapsulation selon Poncelet et Derffier [296]
57
μm de diamètre) exclut d’emblée l’usage des nanocapsules [10] [24] [285] [292]. La
forme d’encapsulation adapté est donc les microcapsules. En dépit, d’être appelé
généralement « microcapsules » la taille de ces dipositifs varie de dizaines de
microns à quelques millimétres [299][300]. Selon Cook et al, le produit probiotique
microencapsulé idéal serait une poudre sèche, avec une facilité de stockage et une
longue durée de conservation [10]. Cependant, en alimentation porcine, les poudres
ne sont pas le premier choix des éleveurs, car la structure poudreuse d’un aliment est
source de gaspillage. En effet, les aliments en poudre se mélangent très mal avec les
éléments grossiers de l’alimentation porcine et ils restent donc souvent dans le fond
des mangeoires ce qui cause beaucoup de pertes. L’idéal serait donc des formes
galéniques dont la taille serait similaire à la granulométrie de l’alimentation porcine
qui est en l’occurrence de taille milimétrique [301]–[304].
58
Figure 1-10 Représentation schématique de l’encapsulation par
extrusion/gélification ionotropique12
12
Réalisé par Abdelbasset ATIA ©
59
1.7.3 Méthodes de suivi du comportement de la matrice d’encapsulation dans le tube digestif
60
sections qui restent uniques à chaque pharmacopée [294]–[297].
L’appareil USP1 appelé aussi l’appareil à panier rotatif consiste en une tige
métallique reliée au panier cylindrique. Le panier est positionné à l’intérieur d’une
cuve en verre ou en un autre matériau transparent inerte. La température à l’intérieur
de la cuve est maintenue constante par un bain-marie chauffant. La solution dans le
récipient est agitée doucement par l’élément d’agitation. La figure 1-11 montre un
schéma simplifié de l’appareil à panier rotatif [318]. Cet appareil est utilisé
généralement pour les comprimés, les pastilles, les gélules, ou les capsules à
libération rapide.
61
Figure 1-12 Schéma de l’appareil à palettes tournantes [312]
62
parfaitement adapté pour les formes posologiques à libération prolongée et/ou
retardée. Cet appareil peut être programmé de façon à contrôler la vitesse d’agitation,
les temps d’échantillonnage, la température, le mouvement entre les lignes, le temps
d’immersion et le temps de drainage.
L’appareil USP4 est également appelé cellule à flux continu. Cet appareil se
compose d’une pompe qui envoie le milieu de dissolution de façon continue à travers
une cellule (figure1-14 A) qui contient la forme pharmaceutique et qui ne laisse
passer le milieu que dans un seul sens grâce a une bille rubis (4,5 mm) située à son
apex et de façon laminaire grâce à un lit de billes en verre (1 mm). La température de
la cellule est maintenue à 37 ± 0,5° C. Le débit de la pompe est contrôlé. Et
l’ensemble peut être configuré en circuit ouvert ou en circuit fermé (figure 1-14 B).
63
Dans la présente étude, l’USP4 a été choisi comme système de dissolution, car il
offre plusieurs avantages par rapport aux autres systèmes de dissolution (USP1,
USP2 et USP3). Ces avantages sont principalement sa capacité à maintenir
facilement des conditions « Sink13 » en raison de la circulation continue du milieu de
dissolution dans la cellule et de la facilité d’utilisation avec laquelle la composition et
le pH du milieu peut être modifiée au cours des essais. L’USP4 simplifie les
manipulations de l’expérience et limite le risque de contamination[321]. Ce système
est idéal pour réaliser des tests de dissolution sur des formes pharmaceutiques dont
le principe actif est vivant notamment des probiotiques [46] [316] [317].
Figure 1-14 [A] cellule à flux continu [B] configuration USP 4 en circuit ouvert
(---) 4 en circuit fermé (---)
13
Le terme conditions Sink désigne l’exigence d’utiliser un volume de dissolution au moins trois fois supérieur au volume requis pour
former une solution saturée d'une substance donnée.
64
D’autres systèmes qui permettent de simuler l’estomac et l’intestin grêle sont
apparus récemment comme le TIM 1. Ce système est très complexe et très
sophistiqué. Cependant, il n’est pas encore pris en considération par les
pharmacopées.
1.7.3.1.2 Les méthodes de simulation de la partie inférieure du tube digestif
Les parties inférieures du tube digestif sont les parties les moins accessibles.
Ce sont en effet des zones difficiles à étudier in vivo. Pour cette raison, la simulation
in vitro représente la manière la moins invasive pour étudier les comportements des
formes pharmaceutiques à ces niveaux [325].
Ces parties ont une flore très riche qui peut être simulée à des coûts raisonnables en
utilisant des cultures pures, des cultures mixtes définies ou des extraits de selles
comme inoculum. De nos jours, il existe des modèles in vitro qui permettent de
réaliser des expériences rapides et reproductibles dans des conditions normalisées.
Cependant, la force de ces modèles in vitro reste remise en question par rapport à
plusieurs points, entre autres la mesure dans laquelle l’inoculum représente le
microbiote colique de l’animal [326] et l’imitation précise des conditions du côlon
[327].
Une autre limitation de ces modèles in vitro est qu’ils ne représentent pas le côlon
comme un système ouvert c’est-à-dire que l’absence de l’excrétion fécale dans ces
modèles se traduit inévitablement par des changements dans la composition et
l’activité bactérienne et métabolique. De même, les modèles in vitro existants
manquent de cellules hôtes, Ainsi, leur activité et leur interaction avec la microflore
colique ne peuvent pas être mesurées. Malgré ces contraintes, de nombreuses
études pertinentes sur les caractéristiques de fermentation des glucides alimentaires
ont été effectuées avec l’utilisation de modèles in vitro de l’intestin [328]–[330]. En
outre, des systèmes in vitro sont également utilisés pour étudier les microbes
intestinaux capables de coloniser les mucus [318] [324].
Récemment, le modèle in vitro « TNO » du gros intestin appelé TIM-2 a été utilisé
en combinaison avec des substrats marqués par des isotopes pour identifier les
populations activement impliquées dans la fermentation des fibres [332]–[334]. Un
avantage important de ce système in vitro est le fait que les métabolites et l’eau
65
peuvent être constamment enlevés. Ce modèle contrôle par ordinateur les différents
paramètres tels que le temps de transit et le pH donc peut simuler le côlon à
différents âges. En outre, ce système simule les mouvements péristaltiques de façon
à reproduire fidèlement les conditions physiologiques. Le taux de microorganismes
dans ce système atteint facilement des densités physiologiques (environ 109 -
1011/ml). Plusieurs travaux ont prouvé que le système TIM-2 semble être représentatif
de la diversité microbienne du côlon [334].
1.7.3.2 Les méthodes in vivo
L’application de tests in vivo donne sans doute des résultats plus informatifs. De
loin les animaux de laboratoire les plus couramment utilisés dans la recherche sur les
probiotiques sont des rongeurs. Cependant, il existe des études publiées sur l’effet
des probiotiques encapsulés sur les grands mammifères [335]–[341]. Une revue
assez complète de la physiologie gastro-intestinale des animaux de laboratoire et des
animaux de l’élevage a été publiée par Kararli [342]. De cette revue, on peut tirer la
conclusion qu’il n’y a pas de modèle de petit animal qui fournit des caractéristiques
idéales pour mimer l’ensemble du tractus gastro-intestinal. Cependant, certains
organismes sont proches comme les chiens et les humains qui ont une morphologie
similaire de l’estomac et quasiment les mêmes caractéristiques de vidange ou encore
les porcs et les humains qui ont également plusieurs points physiologiques et
anatomiques similaires.
Travailler in vivo permet d’être plus réaliste. Cela permet de mesurer
indirectement l’efficacité d’un système de microencapsulation par détection de
l’activité des probiotiques dans l’hôte. Les exemples d’études in vivo sont multiples.
Ainsi, Fitzpatrick et al. ont induit une colite chez des souris et ont essayé de la traiter
en utilisant des probiotiques. En mesurant la sévérité de la colite, ils ont pu déduire
l’effet de l’administration de probiotiques. Ce genre d’expérience pourrait être utilisé
comme expérience témoin pour une expérience plus grande, dans laquelle des
animaux reçoivent différents produits micro-encapsulés [343]. Zani et al. ont mesuré
la capacité d’un probiotique à réduire les cas de diarrhée chez les porcelets. Ce type
d’expérience présente l’avantage d’éviter la mort des animaux [344].
Les expériences in vivo donnent une meilleure compréhension de la
66
biodistribution des probiotiques et de leurs profils de libération à partir d’une matrice.
Cependant, ces méthodes nécessitent parfois un nombre relativement élevé
d’animaux.
Les probiotiques sont utilisés dans les élevages depuis plusieurs décennies,
notamment dans les filières avicoles et porcines. Le chercheur canadien Martin
Lessard s’est penché sur la question de l’administration des probiotiques chez le porc
dans une étude présentée lors du colloque de la production porcine en 2004. Dans
cette étude, le chercheur a démontré que des apports en Pediococcus acidilactici et
Saccharomyces cerevisiae améliorent la performance après le sevrage et induit une
baisse des diarrhées dues au stress et au changement d’alimentation chez le
porcelet [345]. Cependant, les résultats sont contradictoires et présentent beaucoup
d’hétérogénéité liée à des facteurs individuels et aux conditions d’élevage [345].
Ghasemi et al ont démontré que l’usage d’une alimentation supplémentée de 10 à
20 g/kg de synbiotiques chez le poulet de chair améliore la performance de l’élevage
[346]. Dans cette étude, les auteurs ont réalisé un suivi des paramètres
physiologiques (taux de croissance, analyses sanguines) sans aucun suivi concret de
la viabilité ni de la fonctionnalité des prébiotiques administrés. Santini et al ont
démontré que Bifidobacterium longum PCB 133 posséde une activité anti-
Campylobacter chez la volaille [347]. Contrairement au travail de Ghasemi et al,
Santini et al ont réalisé un suivi de la survie des bactéries dans les parties
supérieures du tractus gastro-intestinal. Cependant, ils ne donnent aucune
information sur le comportement de la souche dans le côlon. Tous ces travaux ont le
point commun d’utiliser un mélange de prébiotiques et de probiotiques. Ces
mélanges améliorent de façon modeste la survie des probiotiques, mais ne
garantissent en aucun cas leur arrivée au côlon [100] [171].
L’encapsulation des probiotiques a fait l’objet de plusieurs études destinées
principalement à l’alimentation humaine. Ainsley Reid et al ont réussi à prouver que
l’encapsulation des probiotiques dans des gels de protéines de lactosérum améliore
leur survie dans le tractus gastro-intestinal [348]. Les protéines de lactosérum ont des
67
propriétés nutritionnelles et fonctionnelles intéressantes pour l’encapsulation des
probiotiques. Cependant, ils ne sont pas adaptés pour une libération colique. La
même équipe de chercheurs a étudié l’effet de ces matrices sur la survie de
Lactobacillus rhamnosus R011 lors de la production et du stockage de différents
produits alimentaires humains (biscuit, jus de légume et jus de canneberge) [349].
Ces matrices destinées à l’alimentation humaine peuvent être utilisées chez des
animaux de compagnie (chiens et chats) [350], mais elles sont loin d’êtres utilisables
pour les animaux d’élevage dont l’alimentation est stockée dans des conditions très
rudimentaires.
Sultana et al ont étudié l’effet de l’encapsulation de Lactobacillus acidophilus et
Bifidobacterium spp dans un gel d’alginate-amidon sur leur survie dans le yaourt et
dans les conditions gastro-intestinales [6]. Dans cette étude, les auteurs constatent
que l’ajout de l’amidon à l’alginate ne donne aucune amélioration de la survie gastro-
intestinale des souches utilisées. Dans leur conclusion, ils justifient ce résultat par la
forte sensibilité des souches utilisées (L. acidophilus et Bifidobacterium spp.).
Cependant, ils ne donnent aucune information sur les interactions entre l’alginate et
l’amidon.
Récemment, Sathyabama et al (2014) et Krasaekoopt et al (2014) ont proposé
de renforcer des billes d’alginate avec l’intégration de probiotiques comme l’inuline.
Les résultats de ces travaux sont positifs en ce qui concerne l’amélioration de la
survie des probiotiques. Cependant, aucune de ces deux études ne s’est intéressée
aux interactions entre l’alginate et l’inuline et aux comportements de la matrice dans
les parties supérieures du tractus gastro-intestinal et au niveau du côlon. De plus,
dans ces travaux, les auteurs utilisent des quantités infimes d’inuline (inférieure à
1,5 %) ce qui n’est pas suffisant dans un contexte d’alimentation animale. Enfin, ces
études récentes s’intéressent une fois de plus à l’alimentation humaine (yaourt et jus
de fruits) [31] [26]. À notre connaissance, aucune étude anterieure n’a réussi à
développer une matrice destinée à l’alimentation animale et capable d’acheminer les
probiotiques vivants et fonctionnels jusqu’au côlon.
68
Chapitre 2 :
CONTEXTE DU PROJET
69
2. Chapitre 2. CONTEXTE DU PROJET
Les derniers chiffres de Statistique Canada placent le pays dans une position de
leader mondial, avec une production égale à 29 % du marché international de viande
porcine ce qui représente un revenu total équivalent à 2,7 milliards de dollars
(Statistique Canada, 2015)14. Cette position de chef de file mondial est principalement
due aux normes zootechniques élevées appliquées à la production porcine [352].
14
Contacté par mail le 11 Aout 2015 à l’adresse : infostats@statcan.gc.ca
70
qu’il est nécessaire de trouver une alternative aux antibiotiques [357].
71
humaine ont été développées [114] [189] [190].
Cependant, les études sur les matrices élaborées et adaptées pour la nutrition
animale, en particulier pour la nutrition porcine, sont très rares. Par ailleurs, les
prébiotiques sont souvent exploités soit à très faibles doses pour leur effet
prébiotique, soit à très fortes doses pour leur valeur nutritive, mais très peu de
travaux ont exploité les deux vertus en même temps.
Les probiotiques sont utilisés dans les élevages depuis plusieurs décennies,
notamment dans les filières avicoles et porcines. Le chercheur canadien Martin
Lessard s’est penché sur la question de l’administration des probiotiques chez le porc
dans une étude présentée lors du colloque de la production porcine en 2004. Dans
cette étude, le chercheur a démontré que des apports en Pediococcus acidilactici et
Saccharomyces cerevisiae améliorent la performance après le sevrage et induit une
baisse des diarrhées dues au stress et au changement d’alimentation chez le
porcelet [345]. Cependant, les résultats sont contradictoires et présentent beaucoup
d’hétérogénéité liée à des facteurs individuels et aux conditions d’élevage [345].
Ghasemi et al ont démontré que l’usage d’une alimentation supplémentée de 10 à
20 g/kg de synbiotiques chez le poulet de chair améliore la performance de l’élevage
[346]. Dans cette étude, les auteurs ont réalisé un suivi des paramètres
physiologiques (taux de croissance, analyses sanguines) sans aucun suivi concret de
la viabilité ni de la fonctionnalité des prébiotiques administrés. Santini et al ont
démontré que Bifidobacterium longum PCB 133 posséde une activité anti-
Campylobacter chez la volaille [347]. Contrairement au travail de Ghasemi et al,
Santini et al ont réalisé un suivi de la survie des bactéries dans les parties
supérieures du tractus gastro-intestinal. Cependant, ils ne donnent aucune
information sur le comportement de la souche dans le côlon. Tous ces travaux ont le
point commun d’utiliser un mélange de prébiotiques et de probiotiques. Ces
mélanges améliorent de façon modeste la survie des probiotiques, mais ne
garantissent en aucun cas leur arrivée au côlon [100] [171].
L’encapsulation des probiotiques a fait l’objet de plusieurs études destinées
principalement à l’alimentation humaine. Ainsley Reid et al ont réussi à prouver que
l’encapsulation des probiotiques dans des gels de protéines de lactosérum améliore
72
leur survie dans le tractus gastro-intestinal [348]. Les protéines de lactosérum ont des
propriétés nutritionnelles et fonctionnelles intéressantes pour l’encapsulation des
probiotiques. Cependant, ils ne sont pas adaptés pour une libération colique. La
même équipe de chercheurs a étudié l’effet de ces matrices sur la survie de
Lactobacillus rhamnosus R011 lors de la production et du stockage de différents
produits alimentaires humains (biscuit, jus de légume et jus de canneberge) [349].
Ces matrices destinées à l’alimentation humaine peuvent être utilisées chez des
animaux de compagnie (chiens et chats) [350], mais elles sont loin d’êtres utilisables
pour les animaux d’élevage dont l’alimentation est stockée dans des conditions très
rudimentaires.
Sultana et al ont étudié l’effet de l’encapsulation de Lactobacillus acidophilus et
Bifidobacterium spp dans un gel d’alginate-amidon sur leur survie dans le yaourt et
dans les conditions gastro-intestinales [6]. Dans cette étude, les auteurs constatent
que l’ajout de l’amidon à l’alginate ne donne aucune amélioration de la survie gastro-
intestinale des souches utilisées. Dans leur conclusion, ils justifient ce résultat par la
forte sensibilité des souches utilisées (L. acidophilus et Bifidobacterium spp.).
Cependant, ils ne donnent aucune information sur les interactions entre l’alginate et
l’amidon.
Récemment, Sathyabama et al (2014) et Krasaekoopt et al (2014) ont proposé
de renforcer des billes d’alginate avec l’intégration de probiotiques comme l’inuline.
Les résultats de ces travaux sont positifs en ce qui concerne l’amélioration de la
survie des probiotiques. Cependant, aucune de ces deux études ne s’est intéressée
aux interactions entre l’alginate et l’inuline et aux comportements de la matrice dans
les parties supérieures du tractus gastro-intestinal et au niveau du côlon. De plus,
dans ces travaux, les auteurs utilisent des quantités infimes d’inuline (inférieure à
1,5 %) ce qui n’est pas suffisant dans un contexte d’alimentation animale. Enfin, ces
études récentes s’intéressent une fois de plus à l’alimentation humaine (yaourt et jus
de fruits) [31] [26]. À notre connaissance, aucune étude anterieure n’a réussi à
développer une matrice destinée à l’alimentation animale et capable d’acheminer les
probiotiques vivants et fonctionnels jusqu’au côlon.
73
2.2 Hypothèse de travail
Pour atteindre l’objectif général, trois objectifs spécifiques ont été fixés :
Objectif spécifique 1 : Développement et caractérisation physicochimique et
microbiologique des formules synbiotiques.
Objectif spécifique 2 : Caractérisation biopharmaceutique des formules
synbiotiques développées.
Objectif spécifique 3 : Étude approfondie du comportement de la formulation qui
présente le meilleur profil biopharmaceutique dans le milieu colique.
74
Partie expérimentale
75
Chapitre 3: A prebiotic matrix for
encapsulation of probiotics:
Physicochemical and microbiological
study
76
PARTIE EXPÉRIMENTALE
3.1 Résumé
77
3.2 Abstract
This work aims to develop an encapsulated synbiotic oral supplement by studying the
effect of adding inulin in alginate beads and observing its ability to protect three
probiotic strains: Pediococcus acidilactici UL5, Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 53608 and
Lactobacillus salivarius. Beads of different inulin concentrations 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%
and 20% (w/v) in 2% (w/v) alginate solution were prepared by the extrusion/ionotropic
gelation method. Polymer distribution within beads was characterized using confocal
laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Interactions between alginate and inulin were
monitored by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Effect of encapsulation
on viability, antimicrobial ability, acid tolerance and bile tolerance of probiotic strains
were also investigated. Antimicrobial and probiotic properties of bacterial strains were
not affected by encapsulation. Bacterial protection against acidity was increased by
the presence of inulin. Beads with 5% w/v of inulin were the most effective in bacterial
protection against bile salts. To our knowledge, this work is the first to use such high
concentrations of inulin.
78
3.3 Introduction
Canada is among the world’s largest pork exporter. The success of the Canadian
swine industry is mainly due to its high breeding standards [370]. However, the use of
antibiotics as growth factors is a legal and common practice in North America [371].
Even though antibiotics have proved to be effective in livestock farming, non-
therapeutic use of antibiotics remains the main cause of antibiotic resistance [372]. In
the recent past, several research groups have tried to substitute antibiotics with
natural products such as enzymes [373], essential oils [374] or herbal extracts [375].
Unfortunately, these products have not given satisfactory results in terms of
performance [376].
Probiotics could be a promising approach for replacing overused antibiotics in swine
farming as highlighted by recent clinical studies (Reid and Friendship 2002; Prieto et
al. 2014) Probiotics are defined as “live microorganisms which when administered in
adequate amounts confer a health benefit on the host” [11].
Prebiotics are defined as “a non-digestible food ingredient that beneficially affects the
host by stimulating selectively the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of
probiotics, and thus improves host health.” [379].
Synergistic effect resulting from the combination of probiotics and prebiotics, was
generally referred to as Synbiotics [380] Since its introduction by Gibson and
Roberfroid (1995), the synbiotic concept is of growing interest in functional food
development. Studies have shown that the administration of synbiotic to young pigs
increased Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium populations in fecal microflora compared
to administration of prebiotics or probiotics alone (Nemcovà et al. 1998). Synbiotic
administration also decreased the mortality rate in piglets [382]. Liong et al. (2007)
have shown that the administration of the synbiotic reduced plasma total cholesterol
in hypercholesterolaemic pigs. Escherichia coli (E. Coli) probiotic strains combined
with raw potato starch as a prebiotics were reported to be more effective than
antibiotic food additive against the enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) infection in a piglet
challenge model [119]. In literature, unprotected mixtures of prebiotic/probiotic were
the most utilized [112] [190] [191]. However, probiotics face drastic pH levels, high
concentration of bile salts and gastrointestinal enzymes during delivery through the
79
gastrointestinal tract. These factors decrease probiotic viability stopping them from
reaching the colon in sufficient amount [383] . Recent studies have tried to overcome
these adverse environmental conditions, providing a physical barrier to increase the
effectiveness of probiotic by encapsulating them in different food matrixes [297][384]–
[387]. Several reviews provided a list of food matrices that could be used to
encapsulate probiotic [113] [115] [387]–[389]. However, most of the published works
were related to matrices directed to human consumption, while, matrices developed
for animal nutrition and specifically those developed for pigs were much less
addressed in the literature. In fact, use of encapsulation strategy to develop an oral
synbiotic supplement for pig farming requires more investigation considering breeding
conditions and the restricted choice of materials that are dedicated to animal feed
[390]. Furthermore, in animal feeding, products with a large size, able to mix with the
other components of foods, are often preferred respect to dusty products as powder
or flour [391].
In the development of synbiotics, the main points to be considered are the selection
of probiotic strains, the choice of suitable prebiotics, and the choice of the appropriate
encapsulation method to form synbiotic [112] [380]. Regarding the selection of
probiotic strains, most studies in literatures have used either single or two strains of
probiotics. Rolfe (2000) suggested that multiple probiotic strains might be more useful
than a single strain. In the current study, three probiotic strains were utilized:
Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (UL5), Lactobacillus reuteri (LR) and Lactobacillus
salivarius (LS). UL5 is bacteriocin producing probiotic, which can reduce the number
of pathogens in pig [393]–[395] . LR is a potential probiotic bacteria able to produce
Reuterin (β-hydroxypropionaldehyde) which is a broad spectrum antimicrobial
compound produced during anaerobic fermentation of glycerol [396]. LS a strain
newly isolated in our laboratory from pig intestine, which has good antibacterial
activity [397].
With regard to the choice of the matrix components, two products were studied in this
work, inulin (I) and alginate (A). Inulin is a known prebiotic that exhibits desirable
changes in pig guts [203] [368]. Yasuda (2009) have shown that supplementation of
pig food with inulin improved iron absorption, Patterson et al. (2010) have shown that
80
the use of inulin in pig nutrition promoted a favorable intestinal microbial balance with
increasing in beneficial bacteria and decreasing in less desirable one. Several
reviews also detailed the nutritional value of inulin [197] [398]. On the other hand,
alginate is extensively used for encapsulating probiotic because of its simplicity, non-
toxicity, biocompatibility, low cost and its cold gelation ability in the presence of
divalent ion [399]–[401]. Moreover, Wang et al. (2006) demonstrated the prebiotic
effect of the degradation products of alginate after ingestion.
With regard to the method of encapsulation, extrusion/ionotropic gelification is the
most suitable method for encapsulating probiotic [39] [40] [281] [282] [402]–[405].
However, alginate beads obtained using this method are very porous, which is an
obstacle when the goal is to protect probiotic cells from adverse environmental
conditions [406]–[409]. This defect can be overcome by mixing alginate with prebiotic
compounds. Indeed, Lyer and Kailasapathy demonstrated that adding of prebiotics as
Hi-maize starch, Raftiline and Raftilose to alginate beads improve protection of
lactobacillus acidophilus (L. Acidophilus) CSCC 2400 or CSCC 2409 under in vitro
acidic and bile salt conditions and also in stored yogurt [410]. Lotfipour et al. (2012)
have demonstrated that the addition of psyllium to alginate beads increases
significantly the protection of L. Acidophilus. Therefore, this work aimed to study the
effect of inulin in inulin-alginate beads on: i) encapsulation efficiency and beads
properties ii) tolerance of probiotic strains to acidic conditions and bile salts. The
ultimate purpose of this work is to develop a synbiotic oral supplement or feed
additive for pig farming.
3.4 Materials and methods
3.4.1 Materials
Alginic acid sodium salt from brown algae (4-12) centipoise (cps) for 1% w/v aqueous
solution at 25 °C, mannuronic/guluronic acid ratio of 0.65), calcium chloride (CaCl2),
FITC and RBITC were purchased from the Sigma Chemical Company (St Louis, MO).
Inulin (Frutafit®CLR) was kindly provided by Sensus America, (Lawrenceville, GA).
Bile salts were purchased from Quelab laboratories (Montreal, Quebec, Canada).
Sodium citrate, Ethanolamine, pyridine and dibutyltin dilaurate (DBTDL) were
81
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St Louis, MO). Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) was
purchased from Serva (Heidelberg, Germany). Sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium
chloride (KCl) and potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) were purchased from
EDM (Darmstadt, Germany). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
were purchased from Fisher scientific (Ottawa, Ontario, Canada). L-7012 LIVE/DEAD
® BacLight ™ Bacterial Viability kit was purchased from Molecular Probes-Life
technologies (Burlington, Ontario, Canada).
3.4.2 Methods
Three probiotic strains were used in this study: Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 [412]
(producer of pediocin PA-1; Dairy Research Centre, Laval University culture
collection, Quebec, Canada ); Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 53608 [413] (producer of
reuterin ; American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, MD) and Lactobacillus
salivarius [397] (isolated from Yorkshire pig intestine by our research group). Six
bacterial strains were used to test the antimicrobial capacity of probiotics as follows:
Listeria monocytogenes LSD 530 [414] and Listeria innocua [415] (Health Protection
Branch, Health and Welfare, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada), Salmonella montevideo
ATCC 8387 , Enterococcus. faecalis ATCC27275, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538
and Escherichia coli MC4100 ATCC35695 (American Type Culture Collection,
Rockville, MD).
Probiotic and pathogen strains were routinely grown in MRS (MRS broth; Difco
Laboratories, Sparks, MD) and incubated at 37°C for 24 h aerobically except
Lactobacillus reuteri was grown anaerobically. Before experiments, each bacterial
strain was subcultured at least three times (1%, v/v) in the MRS. Experiments were
carried out aseptically in a laminar flow cabinet. The solutions and material used were
autoclaved
82
3.4.2.1.2 Probiotics preparation for encapsulation:
An enrichment step was required in order to achieve the target number of the
probiotic bacteria (≈1010cfu/g). The beads were incubated in MRS culture medium for
8h at 37°C. Then, the beads were separated from the culture medium, washed with
PBS buffer, and solubilized with the sodium citrate buffer pH 6 (1 g of beads in 9 ml of
55 mM sodium citrate). After the enrichment step, bacteria were counted as described
in section 3.4.2.4.1.
3.4.2.1.5 Determination of inulin content by HPLC
Indirect method measuring the released inulin in the calcium chloride solution was
used to determine the amount of inulin that has been trapped in beads during the
gelation of alginate. The solutions were injected into the HPLC system (Waters 600,
Millipore Corp., Milford, MA) equipped with a 717 autosampler and a refractive index
83
detector (L-7490, Hitachi, Foster City, CA). The separation was performed in a Sugar
Pack I Column (300 x 6.5 mm, Waters, Millipore Corp., Milford, MA) using a mobile
phase of water with 50 ppm EDTA at flow rate of the 0.5 ml/min. The injection volume
was 50 µl. The total run time was 27 minutes per sample. A standard curve was
created using a range of increasing concentrations of inulin.
3.4.2.2 Beads characterization
84
3.4.2.2.2 Morphological analysis
For the simultaneous detection of alginate and inulin within the bead polymers, the
localization of both polymers within the beads was determined by confocal laser-
scanning microscopy (CLSM). Alginate and inulin were labeled with RBITC and FITC
fluorophores, respectively.
Alginate was labeled with RBITC as described previously [417]. Briefly, one-gram
alginate was dissolved in 100 ml of Milli-Q water adjusted to pH 8 using 0.1M NaOH.
Ten mg of RBITC were dissolved in 10 ml of DMSO and added slowly to the alginate
solution and stirred for 3 h at 40 °C. The reaction is then stopped by adding 200 µL of
ethanolamine. The mixture is then dialyzed against 5 liters of Milli-Q water, in the
dark; with regular water changes until no trace of RBITC in the dialysis medium, was
detected by spectrophotometry. Finally, dialyzed RBITC labelled alginate was
lyophilized.
Inulin was labeled with FITC as previously described [418]. Briefly, 1 g of inulin is
dissolved in 10 ml of DMSO containing a few drops of pyridine, and then 100 mg of
FITC was added to the mixture followed by 20 mg of DBTDL. The mixture was heated
at 95 ° C for 2 hours. The polymer was then precipitated in ethanol, suspended in
water and dialyzed against 5 liters of Milli-Q water (in the dark) until no trace of FITC
in the dialysis medium was detected. The dialyzed FITC-labelled inulin was then
lyophilized. Unlabeled beads, alginate labeled beads, inulin labeled beads, and both
alginate and inulin labeled beads were prepared using the above-mentioned protocol
described in Section 2.2.1.3. Beads were then examined under confocal Leica TCS
SP8 microscope (Wetzlar, Germany). The images were processed by Fiji software
85
(National institutes of Health, Washington, DC). Observations were performed at low
magnification (x20).
Based on the beads characterization, formulas A, AI5 and AI20 were selected for
further investigations.
3.4.2.3 Study of Polymer interaction by FTIR spectroscopy
The IR spectra of formulas A, AI5, AI20 and Inulin powder (I) were performed with a
Nicolet 6700 FT-IR spectrometer equipped with a deuterated triglycine sulfate
(DTGS) detector and continuously purged with dried air. Spectra were acquired via a
single reflection ATR (Attenuated Total Reflection). A total of 128 scans was
accumulated for each sample at a resolution of 4 cm−1 in the mid-IR region (400 —
4000 cm-1). The spectra were baseline corrected. Data processing was done using
the Omnic software provided with the spectrometer. Enhancement of spectral
resolution was done by Fourier self-deconvolution (FSD) employing a bandwidth of 22
cm-1 and an enhancement narrowing factor of 2.2.
3.4.2.4 Effect of encapsulation on probiotics properties
86
manufacturer's instructions [421]. The kit composed of two fluorochromes: SYTO® 9,
green-fluorescent nucleic acid dye and propidium iodide, red-fluorescent nucleic acid
dye. These dyes differ in their spectral characteristics and in their ability to penetrate
healthy bacterial cells. The maximum excitation/emission was 480nm/500 nm for
SYTO 9 and 490nm/635nm for propidium iodide. The SYTO 9 dye generally labels all
the bacteria in a population; those with intact membranes and also those with
damaged membranes. In contrast, propidium iodide penetrates only bacteria with
damaged membranes. Hence, with an appropriate SYTO 9/propidium iodide mixture,
bacteria with intact cell membranes emit green fluorescence, whereas bacteria with
damaged membranes emit red fluorescence. After beads degradation, bacteria were
collected by centrifugation and washed with 10 ml of PBS. Then, the dying kit was
applied and bacterial suspensions were examined under Olympus BX51 fluorescence
microscope (Tokyo, Japan) and enumerated with Image-pro® Plus software (Media
Cybernetics, Inc).
3.4.2.4.2 Effect of encapsulation on the antimicrobial activity of probiotic
strains
The effect of encapsulation on the antimicrobial activity of the probiotics was tested
using the agar spot test as described by Fleming et al [422] with some modifications.
Briefly, 2 μl of overnight cultures from each tested strain were spotted onto the
surface of MRS agar plates and incubated for 24 h at 37°C to allow the colonies to
develop. Then, 10 ml of soft MRS agar (containing 0.7% w/v agar) inoculated with 1%
v/v of each indicator strain (Table 2) were poured over the agar plate. After incubation
for 24 hours at 37°C, the plates were checked for inhibition zones. A similar test was
performed on beads with encapsulated probiotics and on probiotic released from
beads after encapsulation. Whereby, beads were included in soft agar, while released
probiotic bacteria were spotted onto the surface of the agar plat. Inhibition was scored
negative (-) if the clear zone around the colonies or beads was less than 1 mm, Weak
(+) if it was between 1 – 3 mm, Intermediate (+ +) for zone between 3-5 mm, and
Strong (+ + +) for zone upper 5 mm.
87
3.4.2.4.3 Effect of encapsulation on acid tolerance of probiotic strains
The effect of encapsulation on bile tolerance of the probiotic strains was examined
using a method modified from [351]. Briefly, A, AI5 and AI20 beads (≈1010cfu/g) in
addition to free bacteria (≈1011cfu) were added to simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) (10g
of beads per 90 ml of SIF) prepared according to the US Pharmacopoeia official
methods [423], and supplemented with a series of bile salt concentrations of 0.3, 0.6
or 0.8% w/v . The samples were incubated in 37°C for 3 h.
Aliquots of 200 L of bacterial suspension or 0.1 g of beads Samples were taken on
an hourly basis to determine the cell count. SIF with 0% bile salts concentration was
used as a control.
3.5 Statistical analysis
Data was statically analyzed by Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS software
(version 12.0). Mean comparisons were performed using Least Significant Difference
(LSD) with a significance level of p< 0.05. All measurements were performed in
triplicates.
88
3
.6Resu
ltsandD
iscuss
ions
3
.6.1 Fo
rma
tiono
fbeads
F
ivetypeso
fbeadsp
repa
redf
roma
lg
ina
te(
formu
lat
ionA
)ora
lg
ina
te–
inu
l
in m
ix
tures
(A
I5,A
I10
,AI15andA
I20fo
rmu
lat
ions
)bye
xtrus
ion
/iono
trop
icge
l
if
ica
t
iontechn
ique
.
Theconcen
tra
tiono
falg
ina
te wasf
ixeda
t2% w
/vina
l
ltes
tedfo
rmu
las
, wh
ich wasa
su
ff
ic
ien
t concen
tra
t
iontofo
rm pe
rfec
tly sphe
rica
l beads[416
], whe
reasinu
l
in
concen
tra
tion wasinc
reasedupi
tsh
ighes
tso
lub
i
li
tyl
imi
tof20% w
/v.Aninu
l
incha
in
iscomposedo
fag
luco
sylun
itpo
lyme
rizedw
i
thseve
ralf
ruc
tosy
lun
its(
Figu
re3
-1.A
).
F
igure3 -1HPLCCh romatog
ramo fanaqueousphasesample.[A
]Chem ica
l
structureofinu
lin[B]Chemica
lstruc
tureofsucrosed
imers[C]Chemical
s
tructureofglucose monomer[D]Chemica
lstructu
reo
ffruc
tose monomer
Infac
t,theusedInu
l
inisasusua
lapo
lyd
ispe
rse m
ix
tureo
ffruc
tosepo
lyme
rs[17
5]
[176
].Inu
l
incon
ten
tin A
I5,A
I10
,AI15and A
I20fo
rmu
lat
ions wasde
term
inedus
ing
anind
irec
t me
thodby measu
ringtheinu
l
inamoun
tintheca
lc
iumch
lor
ideso
lut
ion
a
fte
rthefo
rma
t
iono
fbeadsbyHPLC
.Thech
roma
tog
ramhadatyp
ica
lpro
fi
leo
finu
l
in
(
figu
re3
-1)s
imi
lartothosefoundinthel
i
tera
ture[424
].Thef
igu
reshow
sin
term
ixed
peaksa
tre
ten
tiont
imebe
tween5and7 m
inco
rrespond
ingtoinu
l
incha
ins
. The
89
range of the retention time is related to the polydispersity of the inulin [180]. The peak
with retention time of 8 min corresponds to residual sucrose dimers, whereas the
peaks at retention time of 12 and 13min correspond to glucose and fructose
monomers, respectively. The source of these three residues is the product initially
used; indeed the inulin used in this study contains 15% w/w residues of fructose (4%),
glucose (2%) and sucrose (9%). These HPLC assays allowed to calculate the amount
of inulin trapped in the alginate matrix.
The inulin amount in the formulations were 4.85 ± 0.05 %w/v, 9.0 ± 0.5 %w/v, 14 ±
0.3 %w/v and 19 ± 0.3w/v % for AI5, AI10, AI15 and AI20, respectively. These
amounts of inulin represent yields of 97 ± 1 %., 90 ± 5 %, 93 ± 2 % and 95 ± 1.6 % for
AI5, AI10, AI15 and AI20, respectively. The results are showing that, formulation AI5
had the highest percentage of captured inulin, while AI20 was the formulation that
contains the highest amount of inulin. All the formulations produced prebiotic matrices
with inulin concentration between 5 and 20% w/v. Such inulin concentrations were
higher than those reported previously in the literature. In this regard, Krasaekoopt and
Watcharapoka (2014) have tested encapsulated inulin concentration between 0.5-
1.5% w/v. The authors reported the formulation contains 1.5% w/v of encapsulated
inulin to improve significantly the properties of alginate network, protecting probiotics
in commercial yogurt and fruit juice during storage [31]. However, in the current study,
as the product was intended to pig feed, it is important to surpass these low
concentrations of inulin to obtain a final product whose addition to the diet provides a
significant amount of inulin in a small quantity of additive [117] [190].
3.6.2 Beads characterization
Figure 3-2 presents the images of AI5 beads prepared in the absence [A] or in the
presence [B] of bacteria. In the absence of bacteria (non-loaded beads), beads were
smooth, shiny, and transparent, while in the presence of bacteria (loaded beads),
beads were smooth, white and opaque. The beads had an average diameter of 2.6 ±
0.8mm for both loaded and non-loaded beads. The diameters and the macroscopic
appearance were similar for all obtained beads regardless the formula of the beads
(A, AI5, or AI20) or the probiotic strains used (L. salivarius, L.reuteri . P.acidilactici
90
u
l5)
.Krasaekoop
tand Wa
tcha
rapoka(2014
)haverepo
rtedasma
l
linc
rease(3
.8%
)in
thebeadss
izebyadd
ing0
.5%w
/vo
finu
l
in. Cháva
rr
ieta
l.(2010
);K
rasaekoop
teta
l
.
(2004
) haverepo
rtedtha
tthe concen
tra
tion o
f added p
reb
iot
ics
, as we
l
l asthe
p
rob
iot
ics
tra
inhasnoe
ffec
tonthes
izeo
falg
ina
tebeads
.Inl
i
tera
ture
,the
reisa
gene
ralag
reemen
ttha
tthebeads
izeis ma
inlyin
fluencedbythes
izeo
ftheneed
le
usedfo
rex
trus
ion
,thanbythecompos
it
iono
fthefo
rmu
lat
ion[351
][408
][411
].
F
igu
re3
-2P
ictu
reo
ftheA
I5beads[A]notloadedbeads[B
]beadsloadedo
f
bac
ter
ia
Theave
rageo
f Dh/ Dvra
tio was0
.99±0
.02
, Thera
tiosugges
tedtha
tthebead
shapeispe
rfec
tlysphe
rica
l. Basedonthe
rmodynam
ics
,beadsadop
tedsuchshape
duetoi
tss
tab
i
li
ty[405
].Beads
izesob
tainedsugges
tedtha
ttheycou
ldbein
troduced
in
top
igfeed w
i
thavo
iding was
tageduetothe
irseg
rega
tioninfeede
rscompa
reto
sma
l
lmic
ropa
rt
ic
lestha
tgivef
ina
ldus
typ
roduc
ts[391
].
3
.6.2
.2 Mo
rpho
log
ica
lana
lys
is
Mo
rpho
log
yofa
lg
ina
tebeadsanda
lg
ina
te-
inu
l
inbeadsinthep
resenceandinthe
absence o
f bac
ter
ia we
re exan
ima
ted us
ing SEM(F
igu
re 3
-3)
. An ou
tstand
ing
d
if
ference wasobse
rvedbe
tweenthepo
lyme
rne
two
rkcomposedo
falg
ina
tea
lone
(A
)(F
igu
re3
-3.A
.a)andtha
tcomposedo
falg
ina
teand5% w
/vo
finu
l
in(A
I5)(F
igu
re
3
-3.A
.b)
.Thene
two
rko
falg
ina
te waspo
rou
s wh
i
le A
I5ne
two
rk wasth
ickandf
irm
.
Same mo
rpho
log
ica
lcha
rac
terstoA
I5 we
reob
tainedino
the
rfo
rmu
lasrega
rdlesso
f
theconcen
tra
tion o
finu
l
in(da
ta no
tshown
). Mo
rpho
log
ica
l ana
lys
is o
fAI5 bead
s
91
loaded with Lactobacillus reuteri (Figure 3-3.B and C) showed that the bacterial
distribution was very homogeneous on the surface as well as inside the polymeric
network of the beads as shown by the red arrows on Figure 3-3.B.d and Figure 3-
3.C.f. Same observations were obtained from other formulas regardless the
concentration of inulin and the bacterial strain (data not shown). These observations
were in good agreement with the previous literature addressed the morphology of
alginate-prebiotic beads. Lotfipour et al. (2012) have observed similar morphological
aspects of alginate-Psyllium beads containing Lactobacillus acidophilus.
Observations of Mladenovska et al. (2007) on the alginate-chitosan beads were also
quite similar.
To understand existing morphological differences between the networks containing
just alginate and those formed of alginate and inulin, it is crucial to know how the two
polymers were distributed inside the network. Therefore, a study of the distribution of
alginate and inulin within the beads was conducted by CLSM.
92
Figu
re3 -3[A
] Scann inge lectron m icrograph(SEM ) photographs of beads no t
loaded of bacter
ia at very high magn ification(x9000 )
;(a ) Polymeric netwo rk
composedso lely o
fa lginate(A )(b ) Polyme r
ic netwo rkcomposed o falginate
andinu l
in(AI5 )
.[B ] SEM pho tographs o f Su rface of calcium alginate-
inu l
in
beads loaded o f bac ter
ia (c ) lowe r magn i
fication view (x50 ) (d) h igher
magni
ficat
ionv iew.(x2700 )[C] SEMpho tog raphso fc ross-sect
ionso fca lcium
alg
inate-
inul
inbeads(e )lowe r magn ificationv iew(x25 )(f)highe r magnif
ication
v
iew(x2700 )
.(d )And( f
)a rezoom ingf ramedpa r
tsin(a )and(e )respec t
ively
93
3.6.2.3 Polymer distribution within particles
To study the distribution of alginate and inulin polymers within the beads, the two
polymers were labeled and the structure of the beads was examined by CLSM.
Results from the formulation AI20 were chosen to be presented in this study due to its
higher inulin content that give more clarity to the picture. Figure 3-4. A, B, C and D
shows CLSM images of unlabeled AI20 beads, AI20 beads with FITC-labeled inulin,
AI20 beads with RBITC-labeled alginate, and AI20 beads with RBITC-labeled alginate
and FITC-labeled inulin, respectively. According to the excitation applied to the
beads, the red fluorescence (a), the green fluorescence (b), or both (c) could be
observed. Figure 3-4.A presents the negative control of the experiment where no
fluorescence was observed regardless the applied excitation due to the absence of
labeling. Figure 3-4.B shows CLSM images of AI20 beads with FITC-labeled-inulin in
the absence of the RBITC-labeled alginate. Only the green fluorescence from FITC
was observed in Figure 4.C. The images of figure 4.B show uniform distribution of
FITC-labeled inulin throughout the bead wall and matrix. Figure 3-4.C shows CLSM
images of AI20 beads with RBITC-labeled alginate in the absence of FITC-labeled
inulin. Only red fluorescence from RBITC was observed in Figure 4.C. The images
indicate that RBITC-labeled Alginate was also uniformly distributed throughout the
wall and the matrix of the bead. Figure 3-4.D shows CLSM images of AI20 beads
prepared of RBITC labeled alginate and FITC labeled inulin. These images indicate
that inulin and alginate are entangled homogeneously throughout the bead wall and
matrix. Observation of three-dimensional reconstructions by imaging several coplanar
sections throughout the mixed AI20 beads (Figure 3-4.E) confirmed the homogenous
distribution of inulin and alginate throughout the beads. Regardless of the
concentration of inulin from all other formulations, the same result was obtained (data
not shown). This homogenous distribution of the two polymers was similar to the
distribution of chitosan and alginate observed by Garrait et al. (2014) in microparticles
and by Mladenovska et al. (2007) in beads.
In order to study the molecular structure of the polymeric network formed at the
molecular scale, FTIR characterization of the structure of beads was conducted.
94
Figure 3-4 Confocal laser scanning microscope (CLSM) Images of: [A]
Unlabeled AI20 beads. [B] AI20Beads with FITC labelled inulin. [C] Beads with
RBITC labelled alginate. [D] Beads with FITC labelled inulin and RBITC labeled
alginate. [E] 3D image of bead with FITC labelled inulin and RBITC labeled
alginate. (a) Images obtained by RBITC excitation. (b) Images obtained by FITC
excitation. (c) Images obtained by superposition of (a) and (b).
95
3.6.2.4 FTIR spectroscopy
The Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) was used to identify functional groups and
characterize the relationship between alginate and inulin. FTIR spectra of A, AI5 AI20
beads and pure inulin powder were presented in Figure 3-5 [A]. FTIR Spectrum of
alginate beads (Figure 3-5.A.a) showed bands in the range of 3600-3000 cm-1
corresponded to OH stretching vibration. Absorption bands in the range of 2900–
2700 cm−1 are assigned to stretching vibrations of aliphatic C–H groups. Bands
Observed at 1592 cm-1 and 1415 cm-1 are attributed to asymmetric and symmetric
stretching modes of COO-, respectively. These bands were commonly used to
distinguish between alginate and its conjunction products [426]. The bands at 1021
and 817 cm−1 were attributed to the C–O stretching vibration of pyranosyl ring and
the C–O stretching, respectively, with contributions from the deformation modes of C–
C–H and C–O–H.
FTIR spectra of inulin powder (Figure 3-5.A.d) showed same aliphatic C–H stretching
vibrations. In addition, inulin spectrum showed a band at 3489 cm−1 due to OH
stretching, and two shoulders at 928 and 1016 cm−1. Such bands were reported to be
the inulin fingerprint bands thus they were absent in the spectrum of the beads
prepared from alginate only. Inulin spectrum showed other bands with low intensity
arise at 1641 cm−1 and 1412 cm-1 but are not specific for inulin.
FTIR spectra of AI5 beads (Figure 3-5.A.b) and AI20 beads (Figure 3-5.A.c) showed
a shift to lower wavenumbers and a decrease of intensity of the band assigned to
asymmetric COO- gradually with increasing of the inulin amount. Fourier self-
deconvolution (FSD) was applied to the spectra in order to resolve the overlapped
bands in the region between ≈1600 and 1700 cm−1 (Figure 3-5.B). FSD spectra
indicated the involvement of the COO- groups of alginate in interaction with inulin. AI5
and AI20 spectra showed also a shift in the band assigned to OH stretching of inulin
to lower wavenumbers. This shift indicated the involvement of the OH groups of inulin
in the interaction with carboxyl group of the alginate.
96
Figure 3-5 : [A] FTIR spectra of: A: Alginate beads; AI5: Alginate- Inulin 5% w/v beads. AI20: Alginate-inulin 20%
w/v beads and I: Inulin powder ;[B] deconvolution spectra between 1600-1700 cm-1
97
Therefore, the mechanism of alginate-inulin matrix formation could be illustrated
based on their chemical structure. Alginate is basically formed by two monomers: L-
guluronate (G) and D-mannuronate (M). M units could be linked together to form
homogeneous M blocks. Alternately, M units could be linked to the G unites to form
heterogeneous M-G blocks. G units could also be linked to form homogeneous G
blocks [285]. Homogeneous G blocks bind to divalent cationic calcium ions to form
“egg box” structure during the inotropic gelation of alginate [427]. The “egg box”
structure is responsible for maintaining the gel structure stability. In the inulin-alginate
matrix, Inulin could be trapped evenly into the alginate network, as detected by
CLSM, due to the nucleophilic attack between the OH group of inulin and COO- group
of alginate, as confirmed by FTIR results.
98
Tableau 3-1 Bacterial counts made on MRS agar (log UFC g-1 of beads)
Another method of counting was applied using a LIVE/DEAD BacLight staining kit
LIVE/DEAD method is commonly known as a rapid measure of the viability of
individual cells [421] [431] [432]. The percentage of the dead cells was 90% of the
total population, which is equivalent to the loss of one log observed with the method
of counting on agar. The results observed by fluorescence microscopy (figure 3-6)
were similar to those obtained by counting on agar indicating that the loss is
effectively due to the encapsulation process. In their work, Krasaekoopt et al (2003,
2004, 2006), observed a fairly similar decrease using alginate-
galactooligosaccharides, with the same encapsulation method on other probiotic
strains: Lactobacillus casei 01, Lactobacillus acidophilus 547 and Bifidobacterium
bifidum ATCC 1994. Hébrard et al., (2010) have also reported similar results using
the same encapsulation method on yeast as probiotics with alginate-whey protein
matrix.
Therefore, in order to recover the loss of bacteria, an enrichment step was employed
to the prepared beads. The results of enumeration of bacteria on agar after the step
of enrichment were presented in Table 3-1. The number of bacteria significantly
increased from 1.33x109 UFC/g of beads to 1.2 x 1010 UFC/ gram of beads for P.
acidilactici, from 8.91x108 UFC/g of beads to 6.0 109 UFC/g of beads for L. reuteri
and from 4x109 UFC/g of beads to 1.1 1010 UFC/g of beads for L. salivarius. Overall,
the enrichment step allowed to increase the initial level of living bacteria in beads.
99
Figure 3-6 a photographic image of the probiotics suspension, taken under
fluorescence microscope after release. Red : Dead cells. Green: Living cells .
100
Tableau 3-2 Inhibitory potency of probiotics on pathogenic bacterial strains, before encapsulation, in AI5 beads and
after release
S. aureus + - - +++ ++ ++ - - -
E. coli MC4100 ND ND ND ++ ++ ++ + - -
Negative (-) : inhibition zone< 1 mm; Weak (+) : 1<inhibition zone< 3 mm ; Intermediate (+ +) : 3<inhibition zone< 5 mm : Strong (+ + +) : inhibition
101
In beads and after dissolution, the level of inhibition decreased to intermediate level
for all strains except E. coli where the inhibition had no significant change. The
bacterial inhibition obtained in this study was consistent with the literature. L.
salivarius showed strong inhibition before encapsulation against E. faecalis, L.
monocytogenes LSD 530 and L. innocua. The inhibition was intermediate against E.
coli, weak against S. montevideo and no inhibition obtained against S. aureus. The
level of inhibition in beads and after dissolution remained stable against S.
montevideo and S. aureus, dropped to intermediate levels against E. faecalis, L
.monocytogenes LSD 530 and L. innocua and no inhibition obtained against E. coli.
Same results were obtained from other formulas regardless of the concentration of
inulin. Overall, these results showed that the encapsulation process slightly affected
the antimicrobial capacity of probiotics depending on the probiotic strain and the
pathogenic bacteria. In this study, the bacterial inhibition obtained from P. acidilactici
UL5 and L. reuteri was consistent with those described in the literature. Dabour et al.
(2009) obtained similar results for P. acidilactici UL5 against L. monocytogenes, and
Fernandez et al. (2014) observed a quite close inhibition against L. ivannovi. For L.
salivarius, the results are consistent with those mentioned by Messaoudi et al. (2013).
Generally the decrease of antimicrobial capacity of strains observed in beads (table2)
can be explained by the fact that after encapsulation bioactive compounds were
trapped inside beads and unlike the free bacteria they were not totally diffused
through the agar gel.
3.6.3.3 Effect of encapsulation on acid tolerance of probiotic strains
Tolerance of high acid levels is an important criterion of probiotics [11]. Under in vivo
conditions, the value of the gastric intramucosal pH in pigs changes in fed and fasted
state, ranging from1.7 to 4.5 respectively (Snoeck et al., 2004; Castillo et al., 2007).
In vitro research, usually applies more drastic conditions than in vivo. For instance,
the pH value of SGF provided by pharmacopeia was 1.2 [423]. Fernandez et al
(2003) have reported that good probiotic sources should be able to withstand a pH
value of 3.0. Thus, pH values of 1.2, 3, and 4.5 in addition to 6.8 as a neutral control
were selected to test the effect of encapsulation on acid tolerance of probiotic strains.
102
The effect of the acid juice on the viability of the encapsulated and free bacteria is
presented in Figure3-7. The count of bacteria was constant at pH 6.8 (control) while
there was a reduction in probiotic counts when exposed to pH 1.2, 3.0 and 4.5. This
reduction increased with decreasing the pH value and with increasing the duration of
the exposure. Free bacteria were always the most affected compared to the
encapsulated bacteria. A significant difference was observed between the bacteria
encapsulated in alginate alone and bacteria encapsulated in matrices containing
inulin. AI5 and AI20 formulas protected more the tested strains while the A
formulation had failed to meet the minimum requirement of 6 log CFU per ml of viable
cells, set by FAO/WHO at pH 3 after exposure for 2 hours [11]. No significant
difference was observed between AI5 and AI20. The same results were obtained for
the three tested bacterial strains. In gastric environment with low pH alginate shrinks
and converts into a porous insoluble material so-called alginic acid skin [250]. In
acidic pH, the presence of inulin decreased the porosity of the alginic acid skin, which
explains the significant increase in the protection obtained in case of IA5, AI20
formulas. This phenomenon has been observed in other studies using other
prebiotics as Psyllium which was tested at pH of 1.8 (Lotfipour et al. 2012), or Hi-
maize starch was tested at pH 2 (Iyer & Kailasapathy 2005).
103
Figure 3-7 Survival of probiotic after exposure to acid pH.(A) Pediococcus acidilactici UL6 (B) Lactobacillus reuteri
(C) Lactobacillus salivarius Free () ; encapsulated with: Alginate () Alginate- inulin 5% (),Alginate- inulin 20%
() in pH 6.8 (blue), pH 1.2 (red),pH 3 (green),pH 4.5(orange). Each value is the mean±standard deviation of three
trials. CFU, colony-forming units
104
3.6.3.4 Effect of encapsulation on bile tolerance of probiotic strains
The resistance to bile salt is also an important criterion in the evaluation of synbiotic
products (FAO/WHO 2006), exposure to bile salts causes cellular homeostasis
disruptions which can lead to the dissociation of the lipid bilayer from their cell
membranes, resulting in leakage of bacterial content and cell death (Sahadeva et al.
2011). Figure 8 showed that the survival rate of bacteria exposed to bile salts was
similar to the trend showed in the acid tolerance test. The survival rates decreased
with the increase of the bile salts concentration. Free bacteria and bacteria
encapsulated in the AI20 formulation were the most affected by bile salts. AI5 was the
most efficient formulation that protected the bacteria strains from the bile salts. The
protection may be explained by the solubility behavior of AI20 beads in the neutral pH
environment. Indeed, AI20 beads dissolved completely in the neutral pH, unlike the
IA5 that remains intact. Studies at neutral pH have shown that the Na+ ions available
in the surrounding simulated intestinal medium (containing NaCl), can exchange with
the Ca2+ ions in the alginate gel, resulting in swelling of the gel increasing the
unzipping of egg box structure [437] [438]. In the presence of inulin, at low
concentration (AI5), the porosity of the network decreased, reducing the ion exchange
in the gel. As such, a high stability network matrix obtained in case of AI5 formula.
However, the presence of high concentration of inulin (AI20) can cause a reduction of
node chains that bind alginate by steric effects, which weakens the polymeric
network, and further favors its unzipping resulting in a very fragile polymer that
completely dissolved under neutral conditions.
105
Figure 3-8 Survival of probiotic strains after exposure to bile salts.(A)Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (B) Lactobacillus
reuteri (C) Lactobacillus salivarius.Free (); encapsulated with: Alginate () Alginate- inulin 5% (), Alginate- inulin
20% () in 0% of bile salts (blue), 0.3% of bile salts (red), 0.6 % of bile salts (orange), 0.8 % of bile salts (green). Each
value is the mean±standard deviation of three trials. CFU, colony-forming units
106
3.7 Conclusion
3.8 Acknowledgments:
The authors would like to thank Mr. Pascal Dubé, Ms. Diane Gagnon (Institute of
nutraceuticals and functional foods, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada)
Mr. Richard Janvier (Plate-forme d’Imagerie Moléculaire) and Ms Caroline Vachias
(GReD, Université de Clermont-Ferrand, France).
107
Chapitre 4 :
Une version de ce chapitre a été soumise pour publication dans « International Journal
of Pharmaceutics »
108
4. Chapitre 4: A prebiotic matrix for encapsulation of probiotics:
Biopharmaceutical study of a colonic controlled release formulation
4.1 Résumé
Cibler le côlon par une forme orale et de façon spécifique est un défi de taille,
principalement lorsqu’il s’agit de composants bioactifs très sensibles comme des
bactéries probiotiques. Les formes synbiotiques pourraient être utilisées pour protéger
les probiotiques durant le transit gastro-intestinal et contrôler leur libération dans le
côlon. Pour atteindre cet objectif, l’inuline a été ajoutée à l’alginate pour former des
billes. Ce travail a pour objectif d’étudier le comportement biopharmaceutique des billes
d’alginate (A) et des billes d’inuline-alginate (AI), contenant différentes concentrations
d’inuline (5%, 20%) dans 2% d’alginate (AI5, AI20) et encapsulant trois souches
probiotiques (Pediococcus acidilactici Ul5, Lactobacillus reuteri et Lactobacillus
salivarius). La dissolution des billes a été étudiée par appareil à flux continu USP4, dans
des conditions mimant les paramètres in-vivo, suivie par un dénombrement bactérien
spécifique par qPCR afin d’évaluer le taux de survie des différentes bactéries. Le
caractère mucoadhésif des billes a été étudié par une méthode ex-vivo utilisant une
muqueuse intestinale. Pour comprendre le comportement de chaque formulation,
l’ultrastructure du réseau polymérique a été étudiée par microscopie électronique à
balayage (MEB). Les interactions entre l’alginate et l’inuline ont été étudiées par
spectroscopie FITR. L’analyse des profils de libération donne des indications sur le
comportement de chaque formulation sous différentes conditions. Les résultats
suggèrent que la présence d’inuline dans les billes fournit une meilleure protection aux
bactéries contre le pH acide. La formulation AI5 a été la plus efficace pour libérer les
probiotiques au niveau du côlon. Elle semble être une matrice prometteuse pour le
développement d’une formulation à libération contrôlée dans le côlon.
109
4.2 Abstract
Colon targeting as a site-specific delivery for oral formulation remains a major challenge,
especially for sensitive bioactive components such as therapeutic forms of prebiotics-
probiotics association phages and probiotic bacteria. Synbiotics could be used to protect
encapsulated probiotics during the gastrointestinal tract and control their release in the
colon. To achieve that goal, effective prebiotics such as inulin could be combined with
alginate - the most exploited polymer used for probiotic encapsulation- in the form of
beads. This work is aimed to study the biopharmaceutical behavior of alginate beads (A)
and inulin-Alginate beads of different inulin concentrations (5 or 20 %) in 2% alginate
(AI5, AI20). Beads were loaded with three probiotic strains (Pediococcus acidilactici Ul5,
Lactobacillus reuteri and Lactobacillus salivarius). Dissolution of beads was studied by
USP4 under conditions simulating the gastrointestinal condition. The survival rates of the
bacterial strains were measured by a specific qPCR bacterial count. Mucoadhesiveness
of beads was studied by an ex-vivo method using intestinal mucosa. To understand the
behavior of each formulation, the ultrastructure of the polymeric network was studied
using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Molecular interactions between alginate
and inulin were studied by FTIR. Dissolution results suggested that the presence of
inulin in beads provided more protection for the tested bacterial strains against the acidic
pH. AI5 was the most effective formulation to deliver probiotics to the colon. FTIR and
SEM investigations explained the differences in behavior of each formula. The
developed synbiotic form provided a promising matrix for the development of colonic
controlled release systems.
110
4.3 Graphical Abstract
111
4.4 Introduction
Over the last three decades, animal health companies have spent thousands of million
dollars and many years of research for the development of new drugs and functional
food formulations. This enthusiasm for veterinary products has resulted in an explosion
of the veterinary drug market. According to the last report of the International Federation
for Animal Health (IFAH), the animal health market is estimated to worth more than 26
billion dollars, of which the largest portion is occupied by oral delivery systems
(ODSs)[439]. The popularity of these systems rises steeply because of their ease of
administration and convenience of use [440] [441]. In addition, ODSs can provide the
ability to control the release of bioactive compounds and make it site-specific [442]–
[444]. The growing development of ODSs has made the use of labile bioactive
components possible [445]. In addition, it enabled the use of microorganisms as
bioactive substances such as live attenuated vaccines for oral administration [446]–
[448], oral phage therapy [8] [449]–[451] and the most documented formulas of this
development remain the probiotics that have a potential contribution to the market of
animal health [10] [63] [452]–[454]. Probiotics were defined by the expert group
assembled in 2001 under the supervision of the Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) along with the World Health Organization (WHO) as: "live microorganisms which
when consumed in adequate doses confer benefits on the host’s health"[11]. Over the
last decade, use of probiotics have skyrocket; their market was widely expanding and
recording sales up by more then 10% every year. This sustained success in such a
niche market is linked to the fact that probiotics have always been associated with the
basics of dairy products widely used all over the world [12] [13]. Even in literature,
reviews providing information on probiotics are de facto mostly coming from the world of
food research [14]–[18]. The interest for this field with a pharmaceutical approach is
more judicious because it is paving the way for the application of pharmaceutical
concepts such as the Paul Ehrlich's magic bullet concept (Nobel Prize 1908) - the very
first draft of the encapsulation on probiotics [19]. A multitude of studies conducted on
probiotic suggests that their simultaneous use with prebiotic increases their
effectiveness significantly [112] [113] [119] [190] [410]. Prebiotics are defined as non
digestible polysaccharides that induce the growth and/or the activity of commensal
112
microorganisms that contribute to the well being of their host. Prebiotics are generally
oligosaccharides or polysaccharides, which escape to digestion in the small intestine.
They are potential substrates for hydrolysis and fermentation by colonic
bacteria[175][190][380][455]. Examples for prebiotic can be listed as hi-maize starch,
raftiline, raftilose, lactulose and even inulin which has principally several virtues for
animal health in particular for swine[201][203][368].
Due to the synergistic effect existing between prebiotics and probiotics, their association
is often referred to as ‘Synbiotics’[191][380]. Synbiotics are typically dosage forms that
target the colon[38][456]–[458].Like any ODS the efficiency of synbiotic forms depends
mainly on their composition and their biopharmaceutical properties [21,25]. These
properties are particularly their behavior in the gastrointestinal tract [26], their release
kinetics[38][112][119][170][380][456][458] and their mucoadhesiveness [459] [460].
Over the last few years, several studies have tried to develop synbiotic formulas
particularly by the process of encapsulation. In their works Iyer and Kailasapathy
demonstrated that encapsulating probiotics in alginate-prebiotic (Hi-maize starch ,
raftiline and Raftilose) beads improve protection of L. acidophilus CSCC 2400 or CSCC
2409 under in-vitro acidic and bile salt conditions and also in stored yogurt[410]. Divya et
al have developed alginate-mannitol matrix for encapsulation of Lactococcus lactis in
skim milk and ice cream [461]. Sathyabama et al have used alginate-sugar beet and
alginate-chicory as a source of inulin to encapsulate Staphylococcus succinus (MAbB4)
and Enterococcus faecium (FIdM3) [26].
The previous studies were only focused on human application and they were rarely
interested in the mucoadhesive properties of synbiotics. Mucoadhesion occurs between
two surfaces which one of them is a mucous membrane and they adhere to each other
[286] [287]. Mucoadhesion is an important property which may improve in-vivo
performance of dosage forms specially those that target the colon[288][289].
In a prior work we have developed and characterized the physicochemical properties of
several types of alginate-inulin beads loaded with three probiotic strains namely,
Pediococcus acidilactici Ul5 (UL5), Lactobacillus reuteri (LR) and Lactobacillus salivarius
(LS) [463] showing that beads containing 5% (AI5) and 20% (AI20) of inulin were the
most effective formulations to preserve the integrity of the used bacterial strains [463].
113
These results lead to the hypothesis that the probiotics encapsulated in a prebiotic
matrix can be delivered alive in sufficient quantity to their target site, the colon. The aim
of the current work is to investigate the biopharmaceutical properties of these two
formulations, AI5 and AI20. Specifically: i) the mucoadhesive properties and ii)
biopharmaceutical behaviour with an in-vitro gastric and intestinal simulation system.
114
4.5 Materials and methods
4.5.1 Materials
Inulin was kindly provided by Sensus America, (Lawrenceville, NJ, USA). Sodium citrate,
Sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), isopropanol,
Agarose and ammonium acetate, were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St-Louis, MO,
USA). Alginic acid, sodium salt from brown algae (4-12 cps for 1% w/v aqueous solution
at 25 °C, mannuronic/guluronic acid ratio of 0.65) and calcium chloride (CaCl2), were
purchased from the Sigma Chemical Company (St Louis, MO, USA). Sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) were purchased from fisher scientific (Ottawa, ON,
Canada). Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) was purchased from Serva (Heidelberg, Germany).
Sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl) and potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KH2PO4), were purchased from EDM (Darmstadt, Germany). DNeasy Blood & tissue
DNA extraction kit purchased from (Mansfield, CA, USA), propidium monoazide(PMA)
dye was purchased from Biotium (Hayward, CA, USA), Brilliant III ultra-Fast SYBR Green
qPCR Master Mix was purchased from Agilent Technologies (Carlsbad, CA, USA).
4.5.2 Methods
Three bacterial strains were used in this study. The first strain, Pediococcus acidilactici
UL5 (UL5) [412], a pediocin PA-1 producer provided by Dairy Research Centre (Laval
University culture collection, Quebec, Canada). The second strain, Lactobacillus reuteri
ATCC 53608(LR) [413], reuterin producer provided by American Type Culture Collection
(Rockville, MD, USA) and the third strain is Lactobacillus salivarius (LS), isolated from
the pig intestine by our research group and reported to have a potent antimicrobial
activity[397]. Strains were grown in MRS (MRS Broth; Difco Laboratories, Sparks, MD,
USA), Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 [412] and Lactobacillus salivarius were incubated
aerobically, while, Lactobacillus reuteri was incubated anaerobically. Each bacterial
strain was subcultured at least three times (1%, v/v) in MRS. Experiments were carried
115
out aseptically in a laminar flow cabinet. The solutions and material used were
autoclaved.
4.5.2.2 Preparation of beads
Pellets of each probiotic strain were collected from 100 mL bacterial culture by
centrifugation at 15,000 g for 10 minutes and washed twice with 10 mL Phosphate
Buffered Saline (PBS). Collected pellets were resuspended in 10mL of alginate-Inulin
mixtures (2% alginate and 0%, 5% or 20 % inulin). Beads were then prepared by
extrusion/ionotropic gelation method as described by Joshi et al [283]. Briefly, bacterial
suspension in polymeric mix were poured through a drop-by-drop system with a 0.9 mm
diameter needle at a constant flow (2mL/min) in a solution of calcium chloride (0.1M/L)
at a low magnetic stirring [416]. Beads of alginate with inulin concentration of 0%, 5%, or
20% were abbreviated as A, AI5, and AI20, respectively. Each formula was used to
encapsulate one single strain individually at a time and to encapsulate the three tested
strains together.
4.5.2.3 Ex-vivo evaluation of the Mucoadhesiveness of beads:
4.5.2.3.1 Ethics statement
The study was conducted in full obedience of the ethics committee. The protocol was
approved by the Research Ethics Committee for experimental and clinical studies at the
Faculty of Pharmacy of Clermont-Ferrand, Université d’Auvergne . Animals used were
adult male Wistar rats weighing 290 ± 30 g (Elevage Dépré, St. Doulchard, France).
Animals were housed for an acclimation period of ten days in animal facility conditions of
12 h light/12 h dark cycle , controlled temperature (22 ± 3°C) and constant humidity as
recommended by Ritskes-Hoitinga et al. [464]. During the acclimation period, animals
were allowed free access to a commercial standard diet (A04, lot 21206, UAR, Epinay-
sur-Orge, France) and tap water, as previously reported[465].
4.5.2.3.2 Ex-vivo experiments
An ex-vivo method was established to evaluate the beads’ mucoadhesiveness (figure 4-
1). This method is mainly based on the combination of the rinsed channel
method[287][289][466]–[468] and the method described for measuring
mucoadhesiveness of water-soluble polymers [469],[470], with some modifications. After
116
24 hours of water diet, rats were anesthetized by intraperitoneal injection of 1mL of
ketamine-xylazine mixture at a proportion of 80-10 mg/kg[471]. Twenty centimeters
squared of jejunal and colonic tissues were collected, washed with 100 mL of
physiological saline and fixed, by their serosal faces, to a Petri dish with cyanoacrylate
glue. About 60 beads (N0), beforehand hydrated with small amount of the simulated
gastric fluid (SGF), were dispersed on the mucosal faces of tissues, and fixed by
applying a light force with a fingertip for 30 seconds. In order to favor the formation of
interaction between the beads and the mucosal surface, Petri dishes were then placed
for 20 min in a chamber with a constant relative humidity of 97% [289] [466].
The Petri dishes were fixed to USP 2 apparatus (Distek dissolution system 2100C, North
Brunswick, NJ, USA) and moved at 10 rpm in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF) at
37±0.5°C. The number of beads detached from the mucosa (Nt), was counted by naked
eye, at pre-set time intervals. Mucoadhesion strength was then calculated as a
percentage using equation (1) [466] [468]:
x 100 (1)
where : N0 is the initial number of bead
Nt is the number of beads detached from the mucosa at t time.
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The simulated gastric fluid (SGF) and the simulated intestinal fluid were prepared and
sterilised without enzymes according to USP [371]. Dissolution test was done with flow-
through method as described previously [322]. The USP 4 assembly used during the
study is formed of two 12 mm flow cells (Leap Technologies, Carrboro, N.C., USA).
Each cell was prepared by placing a 5-mm ruby bead in the apex of the cone; this bead
acted as a check valve. Glass beads (0.8 g of 1 mm) were then added to the cone area
to form a glass bead bed (figure 4-2.A). After, 5g of beads sample (A, AI5, AI20) were
positioned on the glass bead bed. The system was then set in closed loop configuration
(figure 4-2.B) and placed in a water bath with adjusting the temperature at 37.0 ± 0.5°C.
In this experience SGF at pH 1.2 was used to mimic extreme acidic conditions of the
fasting stomach, SGF at pH 4.5 was used to mimic acid conditions of the filled stomach,
Finally SIF at pH 6.8 was used to mimic neutral intestinal conditions. Beads were
incubated in SGF (pH 1.2) for half an hour, followed by incubation in SGF pH 4.5 for
another 1.5 h, and finally in SIF (pH6.8) for 4h. Dissolution experiments were performed
on the different formulas of beads. Each formulation encapsulating one single strain or
the three strains together were tested; a control experiment was performed using free
bacterial strains. Samples of beads and of media were taken at fixed time intervals
during the course of dissolution (T0min, 30min, 60min, 120min, 140min, 160min,
180min, 240min, 300min, 360min). Beads samples undergo liquefaction in 55 mM
sodium citrate[420], then liquefied beads and samples from the media were treated by
PMA as follows.
118
Figure 4-2 [A] Flow-through cell, [B] The USP 4 assembly [B] with (---) open-loop
configuration (---) closed-loop configuration.
119
4.5.2.4.3 DNA extraction
The DNA extraction protocol used here is based on the protocol developed by Yu and
Morisson [474] and the protocol provided in DNeasy® Blood & Tissue handbook [475]
with some modifications. Cell lysis was achieved by mechanical and chemical
processes. Pellets from each sample were bead beated with 200mg of 0.1 mm glass
beads and inoculated for 30 min at 70°C in lysis buffer (4% (w/v) SDS, 50mM tris-HCl,
500 mM NaCl, and 50 mM EDTA). After bead beating, glass spheres were removed by
centrifugation. Impurities and the SDS were eliminated by precipitation in ammonium
acetate (10mM), and then the nucleic acids were precipitated with isopropanol. The DNA
was purified via digestions with proteinase K, followed by the use of a DNeasy Mini Spin
Column as indicated in manufacturer’s instruction, provided with the DNA extraction kit
[475]. Purity of the DNA sample was checked by measuring the 260/280 ratio using a
Nanodrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer (Nanodrop Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA).
4.5.2.4.4 Bacterial enumeration by the qPCR method
qPCR was carried out on an ABI 7500 real-time PCR system (Applied Biosystems,
Streetsville, ON, Canada), with Brilliant III ultra-Fast SYBR Green QPCR Master Mix , in
96-well plates. Each qPCR reaction mixture (25 μL) was prepared from: 1 μL at 5μM of
the forward primer, 1 μL at 5μM of the reverse primer (primers used were shown in
Table 4-1), 5.5 μL of DNase free water, 5 μL of a 1/10 dilution of purified DNA and 12.5
μL of a 2X SYBR Green master mix. Standard curves were generated from freshly
extracted DNA from 1 mL of pure cultures of each strain treated with PMA. These
cultures were also enumerated as colonies (cfu) on agar medium. The DNA extracted
from each strain was then serially diluted tenfold in ultra-pure water to obtain 109 to 102
cfu/mL. Standard curves were generated from plots of the threshold cycle (Ct) versus
bacterial count (cfu/mL). The bacterial count (cfu/mL) was interpolated from the
averaged standard curves. A detection limit of 5 x 10 3 cfu/mL was calculated for all used
stains.
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Tableau 4-1 Primers used in this study
Images of different formulations of beads (A, AI5, AI20) were taken at pre-designated
time intervals during dissolution using a Bio-Rad ChemiDoc Imager (Bio-Rad
Laboratoires, ON, Canada). At T0 min,140 min, 160 min and 180 min for formulation A.
T0 min ,140 min and 160 min for formulation AI20, and at T0 min ,140 min, 160 min and
360 min for formulation AI5.
4.5.2.6 Study of polymeric network microstructure by Scanning Electron
Microscopy
Formulas A, AI5, And AI20 before and after being incubated for 10 min in pH1.2 or
pH6.8 were examined under Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) (JSM-5310LV
Scanning Microscope, Tokyo, Japan). Beads were mounted on metal grids using
double-sided adhesive tape and gold coated under vacuum. Observations were
performed at a magnification power of x9000.
4.5.2.7 Study of the molecular structure of synbiotic formulas in different
dissolution media by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
A, AI5, And AI20 formulas were incubated 10 min in pH1.2 or pH6.8. Then the IR
spectra were performed with a Nicolet 6700 FT-IR spectrometer equipped with a
deuterated triglycine sulfate (DTGS) detector and continuously purged with dried air.
Spectra were acquired via a single reflection ATR (Attenuated Total Reflection). A total
of 128 scans was accumulated for each sample at a resolution of 4 cm−1 in the mid-IR
region (950 — 4000 cm-1). The spectra were baseline corrected. Data processing was
done using the Omnic 8.2 (Nicolet, Thermo Electron Cooperation).
121
4.5.3 Statistical analysis
Data were presented as mean ± standard deviation. SigmaPlot 12.0, systat Software
(San Jose, CA, USA) was used to draw graphs. Data were analyzed by using Minitab
software, statistical comparisons were made using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and P
values ≤ 0.05 were considered significant.
Mucoadhesion parameter plays a key role in the efficiency of the form. As a result the
probiotics will have enough time to get released from beads and colonize the colon [466]
[478]. It is therefore judicious to consider formulas with high mucoadhesion to colonic
tissues, to have prolonged duration of action and enhanced efficiency which help in
reducing the dosing frequency. Figure 4-3 shows the mucoadhesiveness properties of
different types of beads on jejunal [A] and colonic mucosa [B]. Generally the
mucoadhesion strength decreases with time, regardless of the mucosal type or bead
type. In the case of jejunal mucosa [A] no significant differences were observed between
the three types of beads during the first 15 min of the test. After 15 min mucoadhesion
strength of (A) beads dramatically decreased and reached 0% at 45 min. However, the
mucoadhesion strength of AI5 and AI20 beads was significantly higher than the alginate
beads and reached zero after 45 and 90 min in case of IA20 and IA5 formulas,
respectively. It is worth noting that, AI20 formula was totally dissolved at 45 minutes.
Between 15 and 45 min no significant differences were observed between AI5 and AI20.
In case of colonic mucosa [B], no significant differences were observed between the
three types of beads during the first five minutes of the test. After 5 min, mucoadhesion
strength of (A) beads dramatically decreased and it reached 0% at 60 min. However, the
mucoadhesion strength of AI5 and AI20 beads was significantly higher than the alginate
beads and reached zero after 45 min and 120 min for the IA20 and IA5 formulas,
respectively. Similar to jejunal mucosa, AI20 beads were completely dissolved at 45
minutes. Between 5 and 45 min no significant differences were observed between AI5
and AI20. Overall, mucoadhesion strength decreases faster for jejunal mucosa than for
122
colonic one. This can be explained by the thickness of the mucin layer, which is
generally 5 to 10 times thicker in the colon relative to the jejunum [479] [480]. It is also
noted that the addition of inulin significantly increased mucoadhesion. However,
mucoadhesion strength was not affected by the inulin concentration.
Figure 4-3 Mucoadhesion test results of different types of beads: alginate (),
alginate-inulin 5% (), and alginate-inulin 20% () on [A] jejunal mucosa , and [B]
colonic mucosa.
Mucoadhesion is a complex process; its mechanisms are not yet fully elucidated.
Several theories have been reported in literature to explain mucoadhesion: the wetting
theory generally applied to liquid forms [286] [469], the mechanical interlocking theory
which only considers the adhesion between liquid and a rough surface, the fracture
theory which applies to solid forms with the reduced contact area as tablets [286] [287],
the electronic transfer theory which assumes that there is transfer of electrons between
mucus and the mucoadhesive form [286] [468], the adsorption theory suggests that
there are various surface interactions including formation of primary and secondary
bonds that result in adhesion. In the current work, no effects of the inulin concentration
were observed; the two latter theories can also be brushed aside. Finally, the
mucoadhesion improvement of the bead by the addition of the inulin could be explained
123
by the diffusion-interpenetration theory. This theory is the most widely used to explain
mucoadhesion between polymers and the mucus[286][289][478][481]–[483]. This theory
describes mucoadhesion as a process that involves two steps; the first step consists of
the contact between dosage forms and mucus. The second step is the interpenetration
of polymer chains from the delivery system into mucus by formation of bioadhesive bond
[482]–[484].Once intimate contact is achieved, the mucin and adhesive chains move
along their respective concentration gradients into the opposite phases[483][485]. Depth
of diffusion is dependent on the diffusion coefficient of both phases which depended on
the molecular weight of the polymer strand and also on the cross-linking density or the
polymer branching degrees [482] [484]; diffusion coefficient is generally higher for linear
polymers like inulin and decreased with the increasing of the degree of branching.
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4.6.2 Monitoring survival and release profiles of bacteria during dissolution tests
Dissolution tests are well described in the different pharmacopeias chapters, especially
in the American and the European ones (USP and EP), they are also cited in the FDA
guidelines [423] [486] [487].
In the current study USP4 was selected as a dissolution system. The USP4 or the flow-
through apparatus offers several advantages over the other dissolution systems USP1,
USP2 and USP3. The advantages of USP4 lie mainly in its ability to maintain immersion
conditions due to the continuous circulation of dissolution medium in the dissolution cell
and the ease of use with the composition and pH of the medium that can be changed
over the course of the test [322]–[324]. Thereby use of USP4 simplifies the handling of
the experience and limits the risk of contamination. In this experience pH 1.2 and pH
4.5 was used to mimic acid conditions of the fasting stomach and of the filled stomach,
respectively. Finally pH 6.8 was used to mimic neutral intestinal conditions.
To monitor survival profiles of the three used strains (UL5, LS and LR), enumeration was
carried out on the beads after liquefaction with sodium citrate, that has the ability to
dissolve beads due to its calcium chelating properties [246]. The count of each bacterial
strain was performed using PMA treatment followed by qPCR. The PMA treatment
limited the detection and quantification of the viable bacteria only[59][472]. Figure 4-4
shows the survival profiles of free bacteria and individually encapsulated bacteria in
different matrices (A, AI5 and AI20). The survival profiles of bacteria in the same matrix
were very similar regardless the used strains. Free bacteria completely died in the first
minutes of exposure to pH 1.2. Whereas, the encapsulated bacteria resisted the
dissolution phases. The obtained survival profiles can be divided into two phases: The
first phase is the gastric phase in which no significant difference was observed between
AI5 and AI20. But both differerd to the formulation (A). The second phase was the
intestinal phase in which bacterial survival was reduced in both (A) and AI20 formulas
but continued to be stable for the AI5 formulation, during the duration of the experiment.
125
Figure 4-4 Survival of probiotic strains encapsulated separately in beads
composed of Alginate (), Alginate-inulin 5% () and Alginate- inulin 20%
();after incubation at pH 1.2 (30 min) followed by 1h30min in pH4.5 and 4h in pH
6.8. (a) Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (b) Lactobacillus salivarius (c) Lactobacillus
reuteri.
126
Figure 4-5 shows the survival profiles of the three bacterial strains encapsulated
together in different matrices (A, AI5 and AI20). The obtained profiles are similar
regardless the used strain they are also similar to those obtained for the individually
encapsulated bacteria. No significant differences were observed between different
bacterial strains throughout the dissolution experiment and no interference was
observed between the three strains, Finally, the results showed that neither the
encapsulation of the three strains together or separately, nor the inulin concentration
affected, in anyway, the survival profile of the tested strains.
127
Figure 4-5 Survival of probiotic strains encapsulated together in beads composed of alginate
(A), alginate- inulin 5% (AI5) and Alginate- inulin 20% (AI20), after incubation at pH 1.2 (30
min) followed by 1h30min in pH4.5 and 4h in pH 6.8. () Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 ()
Lactobacillus salivarius () Lactobacillus reuteri.
128
To monitor the release profiles of the tested strains, enumeration was done in
dissolution media. Figure 4-6 shows the release profiles of the tested strains from the
three matrices. Like the survival profiles, the release profiles for the same formulation
have the same pattern regardless of the tested bacterial strain. Release profiles can also
be divided into two phases: the first phase, the gastric phase, marked with a very slow
and very low release that did not exceed 8% bacterial release without any significant
difference among the three tested formulations. The second phase, the intestinal phase,
started with a rapid bacterial release. The encapsulated bacteria in the formulations (A)
and AI20 were totally released during the first 40-60 minutes of exposure to pH 6.8
depending on the bacterial strain. However, the release of the
Encapsulated bacteria from formulation Al5 remained significantly lower than the other
formulation and limited to only 10 % of bacterial count after 6 hours of dissolution (the
duration of the experiment).
129
(b) LS
(a) UL5
(c) LR
Figure 4-6 Bacterial release from beads composed of Alginate () Alginate- inulin 5%
()Alginate- inulin 20% (), in pH 1.2 (30 min) followed by 1h30min in pH4.5 and 4h in pH
6.8. For (a) Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (b) Lactobacillus salivarius (c) Lactobacillus reuteri.
130
To understand the behavior of each formulation, macroscopic aspects of beads during
the dissolution were studied using images taken by Chemdoc (figure 4-7). These
pictures show that formulation A and AI20 are degraded gradually upon dissolution.
However, the AI5 formulation remains intact throughout the duration of the experiment.
Figure 4-7 Evaluation of the macroscopic appearance of beads during the USP4 dissolutions
The microstructure of the beads was then investigated using SEM. Figure 4-8 shows
the microstructure of A, AI5 and AI20 beads before (control) and after incubation in
simulated gastric (SGF) or intestinal fluids (SIF). The formulation (A) showed a very
porous appearance. As a function of the addition of inulin, this porosity was filled
gradually resulting in a more compact appearance in the formulations AI5 and AI20.
During the simulated gastric phase, these formulations were incubated at pH 1.2
followed by pH 4.5. The structure became more compact due to the acidity effect.
However, when incubated at pH 6.8, during the simulated intestinal condition, (A) and
AI20 formulations became porous again, but not the AI5 formula which remained stable.
To explain these differences in the behavior of the different formulations a molecular
131
structure study was performed using FTIR.
Figure 4-8 Microstructure of A, AI5 and AI20 beads before (control) and after incubation in
simulated gastric (SGF) or intestinal (SIF) fluids.
132
4.6.3 Study of beads behavior in different dissolution media by Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy.
Figure 4-9 [A] shows FTIR spectra of Inulin, AI5 and AI20 formulations in the range
between 3700 and 3000 cm-1 in the mid-IR range. The band at 3298 is attributed to OH
stretching vibration[488][489]. This band shifts from 3289 in inulin spectrum to 3280 in
AI5 spectrum and to 3269 in AI20 spectrum. This shift indicated the possibility of the
involvement of the OH groups of inulin in an interaction with alginate. Figure 4-9 [B]
shows FTIR spectra of A, AI5 AI20 Formulation in the area between 2000 & 1300 cm -1
the mid-IR range. Bands Observed at 1592 cm-1 and 1415 cm-1 are attributed to
asymmetric and symmetric stretching modes of COO-, respectively. These bands were
commonly used to distinguish between alginate and its conjunction products (like
calcium alginate ) [426]. Bands observed at 1592 cm-1 for (A) formulation shifted to 1602
cm-1 for the AI5 and further to 1620 cm-1 for the AI20. This shift was accompanied by a
decrease in the intensity of the band assigned to asymmetric COO- gradually with
increasing of the inulin amount. This shifts indicated the possibility of the involvement of
the COO- groups of alginate in an interaction with inulin.
The OH groups of inulin and COO- groups of the alginate have been identified as
potentially involved in an interaction. Inulin is a very nucleophilic compound due to its
richness with OH groups, while the COO- groups of alginate have a double bond with a
dipole moment. As such, the interaction between inulin and alginate could be explained
by a nucleophilic attack of the OH group of inulin to the COO- group of Alginate.
Figure4-9 [C] shows FTIR spectra of A, AI 5 and AI20 after exposition to pH 1.2 and 6.8,
in the range of 2000 and 1300 cm-1. These spectra show that band assigned to COO-
shifts with increasing the amount of inulin in the formulation AI% but not for formulation
AI20 after incubation in pH 6.8 for which COO- band regains its initial value. This may
indicate the breakdown of interaction between alginate and inulin for the AI20 after
incubation in pH 6.8. This can explain the instability AI 20 formulation at this pH. To
understand better these observations, it is paramount to know well the alginate
structure. Alginate is a polymer made from two monomers L-guluronate (G) and D-
133
mannuronate (M). M units can be linked together to form homogeneous M blocks; they
can alternate with the G units to form heterogeneous M-G blocks; G units can also be
linked to form homogeneous G blocks. These latter are responsible for the formation of
the “egg box” structure during the ionotropic gelation. It is also essential to know that
these “egg box” are the structures that maintain the gel stable.
In pH1.2 and as it is lower than pKa of alginate (3.38-3.65) this latter may precipitates
and shrinks[490]. In addition it is known that acidic pH is very favourable to nucleophilic
attack [491]. These limits exchanges with the environment and consolidate the structure
of the gel keeping the integrity of the “egg box” structures and favoring interactions
between alginate and inulin. These arguments may explain the stability of the three
formulations in the gastric environment, regardless inulin concentration.
In pH 6.8 the intestinal environments the gel is dilated and become very porous which
favours ion exchange with the environments. These ion exchange can therefore
destabilize egg box structure, since the divalent calcium can be exchanged with non-
gelling monovalent ions, which are very abundant in the intestinal media such as the
sodium ions [492]. The destabilization of the egg box structures causes the beads
dissolution. When small amount of inulin was added to the formulation as in the
formulation AI5, this latter contributes to the consolidation of polymeric network through
the alginate-inulin interaction which remains stable as proved by the FTIR results, it also,
reduce the porosity of the polymeric network, as seen in the pictures of scanning
electron microscopy, that makes the beads even more stable at pH 6.8.
For AI20 formulation, since distribution of the two polymers is uniform and homogeneous
as shown by the work of Atia et al (2014) and since FTIR results shown, that at high
concentration of inulin, the inulin-alginate interaction is not stable at pH 6.8. In parallel
the microscopic appearance of beads containing 20% of inulin before incubation is also
very compact but after incubation in pH 6.8 it becomes highly porous. All these findings
lead us to think that the abundant presence of inulin in the network causes readily
destabilization of egg box structures by steric hindrance, which further weakens the
polymeric networks and leads to its degradation at pH 6.8 and therefore the total release
of bacteria.
134
[A] [B]
Ab Ab
sor sor
ba ba
nc nc
e e
AI5
(ar (ar
bit bit A
rar rar
y AI20 y
uni uni
tes tes AI5
) )
I AI20
[C]
Abs
orb
anc
e
(ar
bitr
ary
uni
tes)
Figure 4-9[A] FTIR spectra of Inulin (I), AI5 and AI20 Formulation between 3700 & 3000 cm -1,
before incubation.[B] FTIR spectra of: alginate beads; alginate-Inulin 5% beads and alginate-
inulin 20% beads between 2000 & 1300 cm-1 before incubation, [C] FTIR spectra of: Alginate
135
beads; Alginate-Inulin 5% beads alginate-inulin 20% after exposition to pH 1.2 and 6.8,
between 2000 & 1300 cm-1.
Following all these facts, we propose in figure 4-10 a schema that sums up grossly the
behaviour of the three used formulations (A, AI5 and AI20) in the gastric and in the
intestinal conditions, The A and the AI20 formulation adopts the classic behaviour of the
alginate ie it shrinks in gastric environments and swells and ultimately crumbles in the
intestinal environment. However, the AI 5 formulation remains intact even at pH 6.8. In
conclusion, the egg box structure and alginate-inulin interaction are the two pillars of
alginate-inulin beads stability; the integrity of both of them is the sine qua non condition
for the stability of the beads.
136
Figure 4-10 Explanatory schemas of the behavior of different formulation in various
gastrointestinal conditions
137
4.7 Conclusion
Colonic specific delivery has attracted great interest because it provides a possible
approach for the oral delivery of labile bioactive components as probiotic bacteria
without being degraded in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract, and forwards them
to their desired local site in the colon. Several formulations prepared from alginate and
alginate-inulin were investigated in this work. Formulations containing inulin improved
mucoadhesion properties of the beads. They also increased the protection of bacteria
from the acidic pH. Moreover, inulin interacts with the alginate and forms a complex
matrix that, at low amounts of inulin (5%), enhanced the stability of polymer networks
under simulated intestinal conditions. However, high concentration of inulin (20%)
destabilized the polymeric network under simulated intestinal conditions. A mechanism
was proposed to explain the behavior of different formulations in different
gastrointestinal conditions. AI5 formulation was the most effective formulation to deliver
probiotics to the colon. This study explored that the addition of prebiotics such as inulin
to alginate, could form a promising matrix for bacterial encapsulation creating a potential
synbiotic oral formula with a controlled release properties targeting colon.
4.8 Acknowledgements
This work was supported by FQRNT and INAF through travel Grant for international
internships (A.ATIA). The authors would like to thank Ms Marine Béguin and Ms Diane
Gagnon (Institut de recherche sur la nutrition et les aliments fonctionnels, Université
Laval, Québec, QC, Canada) and the EA-CIDAM’s team members (Biopharmacie lab,
Faculté de Pharmacie, Clermont-Ferrand, France).
138
Chapitre 5 :
Étude et compréhension du
comportement de billes synbiotiques à
base d’alginate et d’inuline dans des
conditions coliques simulées
Une version de ce chapitre sera soumise dans « Systematic and Applied Microbiology »
139
5. Chapitre 5: Study and understanding of the behaviour of alginate-inulin
synbiotics beads in colonic simulated conditions
5.1 Résumé
140
5.2 Abstract
141
5.3 Introduction
142
the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number
of probiotics, and thus improves host health [379].
The idea of combining prebiotics and probiotics led to the possibility of encapsulating
probiotic in a prebiotic matrix. Thus, there are a wide variety of encapsulation methods.
That makes the choice of the appropriate technique complicated. The various
approaches are often based on the use of a single or a mix of polymer. They could be in
a particular structure that provides chemical and physical resistance enough to transport
the probiotics through the digestive tract and control their release in the colon [10].
Encapsulation of probiotics requires the use methods that are soft, which do not require
high temperatures and physicochemical conditions that impact bacterial survival [39][40].
Among methods of probiotics encapsulation, spray drying, extrusion and emulsification
technologies are the most used [10] [22] [26] [39] [40] [502]. The efficiency of these
methods must be evaluated using several techniques exploring physico-chemical
properties of the matrix [41]–[44], microbiological characteristics of the probiotic [43]–
[45] and simulating the physiological conditions under which these products ending up
once ingested [46] [47] [323].
In a previous study (Atia et al. ) [503], we developed synbiotic formulations based on a
mixture of three potential probiotic strains (Pediococcus acidilactici UL5, Lactobacillus
reuteri ATCC 53608 and Lactobacillus salivarius) encapsulated by an
extrusion/ionotropic gelation method in an alginate/inulin prebiotic matrix. We
demonstrate that the matrix containing 2 % alginate and 5 % inulin (named AI5) was the
most effective formulation in terms of gastrointestinal protection and probiotic delivery in
the colon. To our knowledge, works that have succeeded to deliver live and functional
probiotics to the colon are very rare. Since the target of AI5 formulation is the colon
which is considered as an integrated metabolic space [504], and described by some
authors as a superorganism [500] [505], the behavior of the formulation needs to be
studied precisely in colonic condition.
Thus, the aim of the current work is to study: (i) the behavior of AI5 formulation in the
fermented (FM) or unfermented (UFM) simulated colonic media and (ii) the bacterial
dynamics of encapsulated strains inside beads during the passage through the digestive
tract.
143
5.4 Materials and methods
5.4.1 Materials
Alginic acid sodium salt from brown algae (4-12 cps for 1% w/v aqueous solution at
25 °C, mannuronic/guluronic acid ratio of 0.65), calcium chloride (CaCl2), sodium citrate,
isopropanol, agarose and ammonium acetate were purchased from Sigma Chemical
Company, St Louis, MO, USA. Inulin Frutafit® was kindly provided by Sensus America,
(Lawrenceville, NJ, USA), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) were
purchased from fisher scientific (Ottawa, ON, Canada). Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) was
purchased from Serva (Heidelberg, Germany). sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium
chloride (KCl) and potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4) were purchased from EMD
(Darmstadt, Germany).
5.4.2 Methods
Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 53608(LR) a reuterin producer [413] (American Type Culture
Collection, Rockville, MD, USA); Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 (UL5), a pediocin PA-1
producer [412], and Lactobacillus salivarius (LS) [397] (Dairy Research Centre, Laval
University culture collection, Quebec, Canada) were used as probiotic strains.
Pediococcus acidilactici UL5 and Lactobacillus salivarius were grown in MRS broth
incubated aerobically for 24h at 37°C [412], whereas Lactobacillus reuteri was incubated
anaerobically for 24h at 37°C [413]. Bacterial strains were subcultured three times (1%,
v/v) in MRS prior to experiments. Experiments were carried out aseptically in a laminar
flow cabinet.
5.4.2.2 Preparation of beads
For this work, all the three tested strains were encapsulated simultaneously in the
beads. One hundred milliliter of bacterial suspension grown as previously described
were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 10000 rpm and, pellets (≈10 11cfu) were washed two
times with 10 mL of Phosphate Buffered Saline (PBS). Collected pellets were
144
suspended in 10 mL of the alginate-inulin solutions (2%-5%v/v). The three strains were
encapsulated simultaneously, then beads were prepared by the extrusion/ionotropic
gelation method as described by Atia et al., (2015) [503]. Briefly, 10 mL of bacterial
suspension were poured through a drop-by-drop system with a 0.9 mm diameter needle
at a constant flow (2ml/min) into 90 mL of 0.1M calcium chloride solution at low magnetic
stirring (40 rpm) [416]. The formed beads were then separated, using a sieve, from the
calcium chloride solution for characterization and simulation of digestion.
5.4.2.3 Gastrointestinal simulation
5.4.2.4 Behaviour of synbiotic beads in the upper parts of the gastrointestinal tract
Simulation of upper part of the gastro intestinal tract was done with flow-through method
as described by Gao (2009) [322]. A two 12 mm flow cells USP 4 assembly (Leap
Technologies, Carrboro, N.C., USA) were used during this study. USP4 cells were
prepared using a check valve ruby bead (5-mm) in the apex of each cell with a glass-
bead bed of 1 mm in the cone area of each cell, then 5g of synbiotic bead sample were
145
positioned on the glass bead bed. The system was then set in closed loop configurations
and placed in a water bath with controlled temperature at 37.0 ± 0.5°C. Beads
underwent exposure to Simulated gastric fluid (SGF) supplemented with pepsin gastric
lipase at pH 1.2 for half an hour followed by exposure for 1.5h to pH 4.5, and finally to
Simulated Intestinal Fluid (SIF) supplemented with pancreatin and bile salts at pH6.8
during 4h. Samples of 10 beads (0.100g 0.003) and 1ml of medium were taken at the
beginning of the experiment and at the end of each phase. The bacterial count of the
samples was measured to monitor the survival and release of bacteria during simulated
gastrointestinal conditions.
5.4.2.5 Behaviour of synbiotic beads in the colon
Colonic environment was simulated using the medium described by Macfarlane et al.
[506] and modified to match swine colonic conditions as described by tanner et al [73].
The medium was used before and after a fermentation with colonic microbiota as
described by Le lay et al (2015) [507]. Fermented medium was taken at the end of the
stabilization period, centrifuged at 10 000g for 10min then sterilized by filtration with a
0.2 µm filter. Simulation of colonic part was performed in a sequential form using 12-well
plates. Each well was filled with 20 digested beads (0.2g±0.005) from USP4 step, in 2ml
of fermented or unfermented Macfarlane medium.
5.4.2.6 Monitoring of the survival and release of bacteria during the digestion
During the experiment, sampling was done at different time points as shown in Figure 5-
1. Beads were washed with PBS buffer, and solubilized in sodium citrate buffer at pH 6.0
(1 g of beads in 9 mL of 55 mM sodium citrate) [420]. Bead samples were used to track
the survival of strains while media samples were used to track the release of the strains
from beads. Enumeration of bacterial strains was performed by quantitative polymerase
chain reaction combined with propidium monoazide treatment (PMA-qPCR) as
described below.
5.4.2.6.1 Propidium monoazide treatment
146
Hayward, CA, USA) in DMSO 20% was prepared and stored in the dark at -20°C. An
aliquot of 2.5 μL was added to 1 mL of fresh samples. Samples were incubated for 5 min
in clear Eppendorf tubes in the dark with periodic mixing during the incubation. Following
the incubation, the Eppendorf tubes were placed on ice and exposed to a 500-W
halogen light source at a distance of 20 cm for 5 min [59] [473]. The Eppendorf tubes
were turned over manually every minute of illumination. Finally, samples were
immediately frozen by immersion in liquid nitrogen followed by storage at -80°C until
DNA extraction.
5.4.2.6.2 DNA extraction
The employed DNA extraction protocol was based on the protocol developed by by
Fernandez et al [473] [508]. Samples were washed three times in Tris–EDTA buffer (20
mM Tris–HCl, 2 mM EDTA), and the centrifugal pellet was resuspended in 200 μL Tris–
EDTA buffer containing 40 mg mL−1 of lysozyme, 200 U mL−1 of mutanolysin, and 4 μg
mL−1 of proteinase K followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Subsequent steps were
performed following the manufacturer’s instructions of the Wizard® genomic DNA
Purification Kit handbook (Promega, Madison, WI, USA). Purity of the DNA sample was
verified by measuring the 260/280 nm ratio using Nanodrop ND-1000 spectrophotometer
(Nanodrop Technologies, Wilmington, DE, USA).
5.4.2.6.3 Bacterial enumeration by qPCR
Quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) was carried out using Fast SYBR Green
qPCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystemd, Carlsbad, CA, USA). Experiments were run in
96-well plates. Each qPCR reaction mixture was prepared as shown in Table 5-2.
Negative control was introduced for each assay.
Tableau 5-1 Composition of each PCR reaction
Reagents Volume
forward primer5μM 1 μL
reverse primer5μM 1 μL
10x diluted purified DNA 5 μL
2X SYBR Green master mix 12,5 μL
DNase-free water 5.5 μL
Total 25 μL
147
The primer pairs developed by Mora et al (2006), forward -5’-
GGACTTGATAACGTACCCGC-3’; reverse-5’-GTTCCGTCTTGCATTTGACC-3’
targeting the ldhD gene was used to quantified Pediococcus acidilactici UL5. This primer
generated an amplicon of 449 base pairs (bp) [476]. Lactobacillus salivarius was
quantified using primers developed by Harrow et al (2007): forward -5’-
GTCGTAACAAGGTAGCCGTAGGA-3’ and a reverse-5’-
TAAACAAAGTATTCGATAAATGTACAGGTT-3’. They give an amplicon of 97 bp [477].
Finally, for Lactobacillus reuteri primers were: forward –5’-
TTGGAAATGTTCCACAAGAC-3’ and reverse-5’-TTGTGAGTTTGGATTGAACC-3’
[509]. qPCRs were performed on an ABI 7500 real-time PCR system (Applied
Biosystems, Streetsville, ON, Canada). Standard curves were generated from plots of
threshold cycle (Ct) versus bacterial count (cfu/mL). The bacterial count (cfu/mL) was
interpolated from the averaged standard curves. A detection limit near 5x10 3 cfu/mL was
calculated for all strains.
5.4.2.7 Study of the macrostructure and microstructure of the beads during gastrointestinal
digestion
Microbial distribution inside beads during gastrointestinal digestion was studied using L-
7012 LIVE/DEAD ® BacLight ™ Bacterial Viability kit, according to manufacturer's
instructions [421]. The kit composed of two fluorochromes: SYTO 9, green-fluorescent
nucleic acid dye and propidium iodide, red-fluorescent nucleic acid dye. The maximum
excitation/emission was 480nm/500 nm for SYTO 9 and 490nm/635nm for propidium
iodide. Thus, with an appropriate SYTO 9/propidium iodide mixture, bacteria with intact
cell membranes emit green fluorescence, whereas bacteria with damaged membranes
148
emit red fluorescence. Bead Samples at different times of digestion were collected, split
into two halves, colored, and examined under Olympus BX51 fluorescence microscope
(Tokyo, Japan). Obtained images were analyzed with the GNU Image Manipulation
Program (GIMP) software, for semi-quantitative determination of live and dead bacteria
inside the beads during the digestion.
5.4.3 Statistical analysis
All measurements were performed at least in triplicates. Data was statically analyzed by
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS software. Mean comparisons were
performed using Tukey's HSD (honest significant difference) test with a significance
level of p< 0.05
149
5.5 Resultats and discussion
The aim of this work was to study the survival and the behavior of the alginate-inulin
(AI5) beads in the colonic simulating media. Beads were loaded with three bacterial
strains namely Lactobacillus reuteri ATCC 53608(LR); Pediococcus acidilactici UL5
(UL5); Lactobacillus salivarius (LS). These probiotics strains were selected because of
their capacity to produce natural antimicrobial compounds [393]–[395] [510] [511] [463]
and their compatibility. Indeed, no effect was observed between the three strains when
they were encapsulated together as demonstrated in our previous works. Furthermore,
our previous studies demonstrated the resistance of AI5 formulation in the upper parts of
the gastrointestinal tract. Thus, the current work was a systematic study to complement
and provide information about the behavior of this formulation in the fermented and
unfermented colonic media.
In a first stage of the work, a digestion of the beads in media simulating the upper parts
of gastrointestinal tract have been performed using USP4, which is one of the systems
listed in the pharmacopoeia and recommended by FDA [314] [316] [318] [321] [323].
USP4 system offers several advantages compared to other dissolution systems USP1,
USP2 and USP3 [317]–[320] [512], Due to the continuous circulation of dissolution
medium in the USP4 cell system that easily maintains of the “sink” conditions [513] [514]
, this system presents an easy change in the composition and pH of the medium during
the test [322]–[324]. It also reduces the handling of the experience and limits the risk of
contamination.
During this stage, pH 1.2 and pH 4.5 was used to mimic acid conditions of the fasting
and filled stomach, respectively [515] [516] [517]. After acidic conditions, pH 6,8 was
used to mimic neutral intestinal conditions. Media were supplemented with gastric and
intestinal enzymes and bile salts to closely simulates in vivo conditions [515] [518] [519].
The purpose of this step was to obtain a bead digest after their passage through the
gastro intestinal upper parts namely the stomach and the small intestine.
These digests were tested in the second stage of the study that simulated colon
conditions using fermented and unfermented medium. The unfermented medium was
prepared as already described by Tanner et al. (2014). The fermented medium was
150
obtained after colonic fermentation in the presence of a human microbiota using the
colonic fermentation system described by Le Lay et al (2015). This medium contains,
among others, bacterial enzymes that are able to degrade prebiotics that were
indigestible in upper parts of gastrointestinal tract [520] [521].
5.5.1 Monitoring the survival and release of bacteria during the digestion
Bead samples were used to track survival of the used strains during digestion; the count
of each bacterial strain was performed using PMA treatment followed by qPCR. The
PMA treatment stops the amplification of DNA from dead bacteria and therefore only
quantifies living one [59] [472] [522]–[524]. Specific primers were used to detect each
strain in a very precise way. Figure 5-2 shows the survival profiles of the three bacterial
strains. Profiles obtained were similar regardless the used strain. During the first six
hours of simulated digestion that corresponding to the upper parts of gastrointestinal
tract, no mortality was observed and the survival of the bacteria was constant for the
three strains. This ascertainment confirms the results of dissolution tests reported
previously in chapter 4.
In the lower parts of gastrointestinal tract, no differences were observed between the
three strains incubated in the same medium. In unfermented medium, bacterial survival
continued to be constant. However, survival of strains in fermented medium started to
decline after one hour of incubation. Significant differences were observed between the
survival of strains between fermented and unfermented medium starting after two hours
of incubation.
151
* * Figure 5-2 Survival
To monitor the release profiles of the tested strains, enumeration was done in
dissolution media. Figure 5-3 shows the release profiles of the tested strains. As
stated in the survival profiles, the release profile of bacterial strains had similar
patterns in the same medium regardless of the bacterial strain. In the upper parts of
gastrointestinal tract, release was very slow and reached only 7 % after six hours of
152
* *
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153
incubation. This suggests that the degradation of beads in fermented medium is mainly
caused by enzymes which are abundantly present in this media.
5.5.2 Monitoring the microscopic appearance of the beads during the digestion
The microstructure of the beads was then investigated using SEM. Figure 5-5 shows
the microstructure of beads during incubation in fermented or unfermented medium. Low
magnification SEM showed that the spherical shape of the beads and their smooth
aspect were preserved during incubation in the unfermented medium. However, in the
fermented medium beads begin to deform and become rough after the first hour of
incubation and continue to deteriorate gradually until they disappear. By zooming on the
bead surface at high and very high magnification, obvious differences were
distinguished between beads of unfermented and fermented medium. In unfermented
medium, beads remained smooth and cottony with some apparent bacteria on the
surface. Whereas in fermented medium, beads were very rigorous, reflecting the
154
degradation of the beads.
Since there is no pH difference between UFM and FM, the degradation in FM is due to
the effect of enzymes that are abundantly presents in FM media in contrast to UFM
media. In this work, the bacterial dynamics inside beads during digestion was also
investigated.
155
Figure 5-5 Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) photographs of beads during
colonic digestion at low (x50), high (X2700) and very high magnification (x9000);
[A] Unfermented medium [B] fermented medium
156
5.5.3 Monitoring the distribution of bacteria inside the beads during the digestion
Figure 5-6 shows images of bead sections captured at different steps of digestion.
Images were captured after staining bead sections by fluorescence microscopy with the
Dead/Live kit . Figure 5-6A represents the image of the bead sections after digestion in
the upper parts of gastrointestinal tract. The images presented in Figure 6A showed
colored spots scattered uniformly in the matrix. More than 80% of the spots were green
while the red spots covered less than 20% of the beads. In this part, green and red spots
had a regular circular shape reflecting aspect of bacteria colony inside matrix, moreover,
their distribution in the matrix was very homogeneous.
This result supports the findings observed in Chapter 3 regarding the distribution of
bacteria inside the matrix. In colon part (Figure 5-6B) the circular aspect of colored
spots was replaced by stains diffuse aspect occupying large and continuous surfaces
through the matrix.
This change in the aspect of bacterial colony may demonstrates the growth of this latter
in the unfermented colonic media in contrast to GSF and SIF where appearance of
colony aspect remained static. Another possible cause of this change, is the presence of
Hemin (protoporphyrin IX) which is a compound that emits fluorescence in the same
wave lengths that the components of the Live/Dead test [525] this causes interference,
and change the appearance of images obtained.
In unfermented medium, the green / red proportions were between 10/90 and 20/80 and
they didn’t fluctuate significantly during the incubation, dead cells (Red) occupies usually
deep part of the beads while the living cells (green) set location on surface. Red
occupies usually deep part of the bead while green is everywhere set location on the
surface as well as beads core. Such positioning can also be explained by the growth of
living bacteria inside beads incubated in unfermented medium. In fermented medium
green/red colors proportions fluctuate and move from 80/20 in beginning of incubation to
10/ 90 at the end, respectively. This change is mainly due to degradation of beads by
the enzymes abundantly presented in the media and which attacks the surface of the
157
beads causing the deformation of these latter loosing their spherical and regular
character.
Figure 5-6 monitoring the dynamic bacterial inside the beads during the gastro
intestinal simulation by LIVE / DEAD staining [A] In the upper parts of the
gastrointestinal tract. [B] In colon; FM: Fermented Medium; UFM: unfermented
Medium.
These findings confirm the behavior of the AI 5 in GSF and ISF observed in chapter
4. and gives an idea about beads behavior in the colonic media where bacterial strains
were released under the effect of the enzymes which play a decisive role in the
degradation of AI5 matrix.
158
5.6 Conclusion
5.7 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Ms Diane Gagnon (Institut de recherche sur la nutrition et les
aliments fonctionnels, Université Laval, Québec, QC, Canada) and Richard Janvier (Plateforme
de microscopie, Université Laval)
159
Chapitre 6 :
160
6. Chapitre 6 : Discussion & Conclusion générale
161
nutritif.
Enfin, à l’issue de tous ces travaux, on peut affirmer que la formulation AI5
162
protège bien les bactéries dans les parties supérieures du tube digestif et permet
leur libération dans le côlon. Cette formulation peut être qualifiée de synbiotique et
de multifonctionnelle en raison de son effet antimicrobien. Ainsi, l’ensemble des
résultats de cette thèse a permis de vérifier l’hypothèse initialement émise.
163
microscopie FTIR. Ceci permettrait de tracer une cartographie détaillée de
la structure de la matrice [528] .
3) D’utiliser des modèles de digestion plus complexes comme le TIM-1, le
TIM-2 ou même le modèle récemment développé par Guerra et al[529].
Ces modèles sont plus complets et offrent la possibilité de mimer
l’absorption des nutriments.
4) D’étudier les effets de la formulation AI5 sur le microbiote dans des
conditions plus proches des conditions in vivo en utilisant des modèles de
fermentation colique porcine [530].
5) D’étudier la distribution des bactéries a l’intérieur des billes par
immunofluorescence [531] ou par l’hybridation fluorescente in situ (FISH)
[532]. Contrairement au Live/Dead, ces méthodes permettent de visualiser
spécifiquement la distribution des différentes souches utilisées.
164
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