SCHOOL OF BIOTECHNOLOGY

September 2024 version.

BIOLOGY (BT312IU)

Labwork Manual

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 GENERAL ISSUES

GRADING
Labwork assessments

Prelab (individually) 30%

Lab report (in group) 40%

Lab examination (individually) 30%

Total 100%

CODE OF CONDUCT

1. Students must understand, remember and follow the Laboratory safety (see next page) before
starting this course.
2. Absence without permission is not allowed, due to the nature of the labs. For make-up class,
join another group having that practical session.
3. Pre-labs must be submitted at 8:15AM or 1:15PM on each practical class.

4. Examination is composed of practical performance and questions answering.

*** More information, please go to:

OUTLINES
LABORATORY SAFETY
PRACTICAL 1: MICROSCOPY AND CELL OBSERVATION
PRACTICAL 2: ORGANIC COMPOSITIONS OF THE CELL
PRACTICAL 3: PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND TRANSPIRATION
PRACTICAL 4: OSMOSIS AND LEAF STOMATA
PRACTICAL 5: ENZYMES
PRACTICAL 6: CELL DIVISIONS-MITOSIS & MEIOSIS
FINAL EXAM: WRITING AND PRACTICAL SKILL
GUIDELINE FOR LAB REPORT

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 LABORATORY SAFETY
Before doing lab-work, students should be aware of the risks, hazards and safety conditions
maintained in laboratory. Risk is identified as a substance or biological agent that might be harmful
under specific circumstances while hazard is the ability of a substance or biological agent to cause harm.
In any case, a person working with chemicals, bio-chemicals or other related agents should follow strictly
certain principles applied in each laboratory, and all practical works must be carriedout with safety in
mind to minimize the risk of harm to yourself and to others. The followings are the basic rules for
laboratory work.
1. Make sure that you know what to do in case of fire, including exit routes, how to raise the
alarm, and where to gather after leaving the building. Remember that the most important consideration
at all time is human safety.
2. Follow tutor’s instructions and the laboratory principles while doing lab work.

3. Wear lab-coat and closed footwear at all time.

4. Do not smoke, eat or drink in laboratory because of the risks of contamination by inhalation
or ingestion.
5. Do not mouth-pipette any liquid.

6. Take care when handling glassware.

7. Know the warning symbols for specific chemical hazards (see below).

8. Use fume cupboard for hazardous chemicals.

9. Work in a logical, tidy manner and minimize risks by planning in advance.

10. Clean up working bench and experimental tools at the end of each lab session.

11. Dispose wastes in appropriate containers.

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 Practical 1: MICROSCOPY AND CELL OBSERVATION

AIMS OF THE PRACTICAL:

✓ Familiarize students with the use and care of microscope, an indispensible instrument for
anyone who works in biological fields.
✓ Introduce students the microscopic sample preparation of plant cells and animal cells.
1. MICROSCOPY
Microscopy is defined as a study of using microscopes to
observe very small objects that are invisible to the human naked eye.
Light microscope can enhance our capacity to view detail by 1000
times, so that we can see samples as small as 0.1 μm in diameter.
High-tech microscopes, such as Transmission Electron Microscope
(TEM) and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), are able to give
visual magnification up to 200,000 times and fascinating features in
comparison with unaided visibility. In fact, the biological
understanding of cell structures and functions would be extremely
restricted without microscopes.
All microscopes consist of a coordinated system of lenses
arranged so that a magnified image of the specimen can be seen by
Figure 1.1: Basic principle of
the viewer. The main differences among different types of
a light microscope or optical
microscopes are the power source to produce the picture
microscope.

and the arrangement of the lens system and maximal resolution (resovling power) they can offer. In
general, microscope works base on the magnification of specimen image through a series of lenses.
There are different types of microscope: Compound light microscopes, Stereoscopes, Confocal
microscopes, Scanning electron microscopes, Transmission electron microscopes…
Construction of a compound Microscope

✓ Eyepieces (ocular lens): are placed at the top of the body tube. They transmit and magnify the
image from the objective lens to eyes. Eyepiece has its own magnification power. The eyepieces that you
use will have magnification power of 10 (10x).
✓ Objective lens: are lens or series of lenses that gather light from specimen and help to magnify
the specimen image. This is the most important part of a microscope. To figure the total

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magnification of an image that you are viewing through the microscope, take the power of the
objective lens (4x, 10x, 40x, 100x) and multiply by the power of the eyepiece.

Figure 1.2: Different parts of a compound light microscope.

✓ Body tube: allows light to travel from the objectives through a series of magnifying lenses to
the eyepieces. In your microscope, the eyepieces are held at an angle for convenient use, and the body
tube contains a prism that bends the light rays so that they will pass through the eyepieces.
✓ Stage: is the surface or platform on which you can place your specimen. Stage clips or
specimen holder is used to clamp your specimen on the stage. For your microscope, the stage is movable
and is called a mechanical stage. The movement is controlled by two knobs (X-axis and Y- axis knobs)
located on the bottom of the stage. They allow the specimen to move vertically and horizontally.
✓ Condenser: is a lens system under the stage that gathers light from the light source and focuses
it onto the specimen.
✓ Condenser adjustment control: is to adjust the height of the condenser. Usually, the condenser
always will be all the way up.
✓ Aperture iris diaphragm: is to control the level of light that can go through the condenser.

✓ Light source: the illuminator of most microscopes is built into the base of the microscope and
controlled by on/off switch. You can control the light intensity by adjusting the voltage of a transformer
attached to the illuminator.

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 ✓ Coarse focus knob and fine focus knob: You focus a microscope by using the Coarse and Fine
Focus knobs. Both coarse (large) and fine (small) adjustment knobs are found on both sidesof our
microscopes. Remember that the coarse adjustment is used only with the low-power objective (4x). These
knobs control a gear mechanism that raise and lower the stage.
Proper Use of a Compound Microscope

1.1. General instructions

➢ Avoid dropping the microscope, banging it against a lab bench, or having the eyepieces fall out.

- Carry the microscope upright using both hands. Keep one hand on the arm and another at the
bottom of the microscope.
- Keep microscope away from the edge of the bench.

- Switch off the illuminator and remove power cords from the power supply when not in use.

➢ Avoid breaking a coverslip and microscope slide, and even the objective lens while focusing.

- First adjust the stage to the lowest position.

- Locate the ready specimen using the lowest power objective lens, and then switch to the higher
power objective lenses.
- Never focus the high power lenses with the coarse adjustment knob, and never use these lenses to
examine thick specimens.
1.2. Focusing

Notice: Always use clean microscope slides, and proceed from the lowest power to the highest power
objectives.

Figure 1.3. Preparing a wet mount slide

1. Clean the eyepieces and objective lens using lens-cleansing papers (if necessary)

2. Cut out a letter “e” from a newspaper or other printed page. Clean a microscope slide and
prepare a wet mount of the letter, following Figure 1.3.
3. Put the lowest power objective (4x) in position, lowest the stage of the microscope, and place
the slide on the microscopic stage.
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 4. Switch on the illuminator and diaphragm fully, and adjust the condenser level appropriately.

5. Move the specimen into the bright area on the stage using X and Y-axis knobs.
6. Lift the stage up close to the objective lens using the coarse focus (clock-wise direction) while
observing through the eyepieces until the specimen comes into focus.
7. Use the diaphragm to adjust the light intensity as necessary as well as center the specimen by
moving the slide using X and Y-axis knobs.
8. Switch from the scanning objective (4x) into the high-power objective (10x). Refine the focus
by gentle adjustment with fine focus knob only.
9. Switch to the higher-power objective (40x or 100x) and again adjust the focus with the fine
focus knob only.
2. CELL OBSERVATION
Objective: Observation different cell types (plant cells and animal cells) under microscope at
different objective lens.
Materials and Equipments:

• Onion bulb • Lugol solution

• Light microscope, • Blade

analytic balance,
fridge, water • Forceps
distiller
• Tooth-pick
• Glass slides
• Scissors
• Coverslips
• Tissue paper
• Distilled water

• Pasteur pipette

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 2.1. Plant Cells – Onion Epidermis Cells

1. Remove a piece of an onion leaf from a section of an onion bulb.

2. Break the piece of onion leaf into half as shown in Figure 1.4. The outer epidermis layer should
be easy to separate from the rest of the leaf.

Figure 1.4. How to obtain a piece of onion for slide preparation

3. Place the epidermis layer flat on a slide. Wrinkles will trap air bubbles and obscure your
observations.
4. Add a drop of distilled water/Lugol solution and cover with a coverslip.
5. Excess distilled water/Lugol solution should be removed using tissue paper.
6. Observe your slide with your microscope and take photo. Remember to locate a good region of
the epidermis with the lowest magnification (4x) lens before observing details of cell structure with
higher magnifications up to 10x and 40x.

2.2. Animal Cells – Human Cheek Cell Epithelium

1. Gently scrape the inside of your cheek with the broad end of a toothpick. (You won’t need to
puncture your cheek to obtain a good supply of cells.)
2. Smear your cheek scrapings on a clean slide. Wrap your toothpick in a dry paper towel and
immediately dispose it into the waste-container provided.
3. Make a wet mount of your cheek cells by adding a drop of Lugol solution to the slide. Excess
Lugol solution should be removed using tissue paper.
4. Add a coverslip and observe the slide at very low light intensity. It helps you to observe the cells
easily.
5. When you locate some cheek cells, at 4x objective lense center them in the field of view and
move to the next power level (10x) for observation. Re-focus and center your cheek cells and then view
them with the high power (40x) objective lens. Observation and take photo with 40x objective lens.
 Practical 2: ORGANIC COMPOSITIONS OF THE CELL
PRE-LABS
1. What are 4 classes of biological macromolecules and their building blocks?

2. Describe structure of carbohydrate (starch, sugar).

3. What is the difference between Lugol and Iodine solution? How can we prepare them?

4. Describe structure of protein.

5. How would you prepare 100 ml of 0.5% CuSO4 solution from CuSO4.5H2O (MW = 250)?

6. Where can we find lipid in plant cells and animal cells?

7. Describe structure of nucleic acid.

8. In the forthcoming practical session, you will have to use a number of different chemical
solutions: Lugol solution, concentrated HCl, NaOH, CuSO4, soudan III, 20% ethanol and glycerin. List
three solutions, which are most potentially toxic and thus require caution while handling, in your opinion.
Explain your reason.
AIMS OF THE PRACTICAL:
Help students to identify the three main organic compositions of the cell: carbohydrates, proteins
and lipids on different samples.
1. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates make up a group of chemical compound found in plant and animal cells. They have
the empirical formula CnH2nOn or (CH2O)n. An empirical formula of carbohydrate tells the atomic
compositions of the compound. Carbohydrates are divided into 4 groups: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Most monosaccharides, or simple sugars, are
found in grapes, other fruits, and honey. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose and maltose; the
disaccharide sucrose can be found in sugar beets and cane sugar. Disaccharides are composed of two
monosaccharide units linked together by a glycosidic bond. Oligosaccharides, which consist of three to
six monosaccharide units, are rather infrequently found in natural sources (bamboo shoots, vegetables,
onion, wheat, etc.). Polysaccharides (the term means many sugars) represent most of the structural and
energy-reserve carbohydrates found in nature. Large molecules may consist of as many as 10,000
monosaccharide units linked together, polysaccharides vary considerably in size, in structural
complexity, and in sugar content (such as cellulose, starch, glycogen). Oligosaccharides and
polysaccharides are also linked together by glycosidic bonds.
Glucose (carbohydrate) is the primary products of plant photosynthesis. The simplified light-
driven reaction of photosynthesis results in the formation of carbohydrates:

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 nH2O + nCO2 → (CH2O)n + nCO2.

This type of carbohydrate is found in the structure of plants and is used in the reverse reactions of
photosynthesis (respiration) or is consumed as fuels by plants and animals. The excess glucose is stored
in form of starch in plants. While in animal, the excess produced glucose is stored in form of glycogen
in liver and muscles.
The most stable three-dimensional structure for starch and glycogen is a tightly coiled helix

stabilized by inter-chain hydrogen bonds.

In amylose (with no branches) this structure is regular enough to allow crystallization and thus
determination of the structure by X-ray diffraction. Each residue along the amylose chain forms a 60o angle
with the preceding residue, so the helical structure has six residues per turn. For amylose, the core of the
helix is of precisely the right dimensions to accommodate iodine in the form I3- or I5- (iodide ions), this
complex has the deep blue color and this interaction with iodine is a common qualitative test for amylose.

However, this glycosidic bond is easily wrecked by heat, enzyme, acidic or basic treatment.
Hydrolyzing the starch with acid or exposing to high temperature result in the formation of mixture of
saccharides with different lengths (including the one-, two- or number of glucose chains). Once the
helix structure of homopolycarbohydrate is broken, the conformation with iodine no longer exists.

Figure 2.1: Interaction between amylose and iodine ions when starch is treated with Lugol solution

Objective: How to detect the starch in the sample/solution by Lugol solution. And understand
the effect of temperature to the structure of the starch.
Materials and equipments:
• Potato, rice starch suspension,
• Light microscope, water distiller, fridge, analytic balance, water bath
• Glass slides, coverslips
• 1 test tube, test tube racks, test tube clamps, Lugol solution, knife, tooth-pick
• Pasteur pipette, 2M HCl solution, distilled water, tissue paper
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 1.1. Task 1 – Microscopic Observation of Starch Granules
1. Prepare the clean glass slide and coverslip.
2. Cut the potato and scratch potato at the edge of this cut.
3. Collect the scratching and place on the slide, add a drop of distilled water and cover with
coverslip. Excess distilled water should be removed using tissue paper.
4. Observe under microscope 4x and 10x. Please take photo.
5. After that, adding 1 drop of Lugol solution to the edge of the coverslip, observe the color
change and please do not use microscope for observation. Please take photo, too.
1.2. Task 2 – Chemical detection of starch

1. Add 5ml of starch suspension into a test tube.

2. Then, take out a drop of rice starch suspension and put onto the glass slide. Add 1 drop of Lugol
solution and mix well using a toothpick. Then, please put another drop of Lugol soultion on the same glass
side. Observe the color change of the mixture (compare with the original color of Lugol solution). Please
take photo.
3. After that, add 5 drops of 2M HCl solution into that test tube containing 5ml of starch
suspension. Mix well.
4. Take out 1 drop of starch-HCl mixture onto another glass slide and test the color with 1 drop of
Lugol solution. Please take photo.
5. Next step is to place the test tube containing starch and HCl into the rack which has been already
submerged in the hot water (the waterbath is set to 100oC) and boil this suspension. Every 2 minutes,
take out one drop of hydrolysed starch-HCl mixture using pateur pipette and put onto another clean glass
slide and add 1 drop of Lugol solution, mix well using tooth-pick. Observe the change of color intensity
and take photo.
6. Continue to boil and test with Lugol solution until no color change is detected. Mark the time
that the color does not change.
2. PROTEINS

Proteins are complex polymers composed of amino

acids. Amino acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and sometimes sulfur and serve as monomers for
making peptides and proteins. Amino acids are linked
together by peptide bonds in which the carboxyl carbon of
Figure 2.2: A peptide bond links two
one amino acid forms a covalent bond with the amino
amino acid residues
nitrogen of the other amino acid.

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 Short chains of amino acid are called peptides, longer chains of amino acids are called
oligopeptides or polypeptides.
In the strong basic environment, two nitrogen atoms from two adjacent peptide bonds can
coordinate with other two nitrogen atoms on other peptide chain in the conformation with metal ions
such as Cu, Zn… if present. The complex gives out the color ranging from purple to red depending on
the length of peptide chain (or the number of peptide bonds). The Biuret reaction is used to detect
the presence of peptide or protein in sample.

Figure 2.3. Protein-Copper complex formation in Biuret reaction

Objective: Understand the Biuret reaction and the role of chemical reagents in protein detection.

Materials and Equipment:

• Protein suspensions (egg white and cow milk)

• 2 test tubes, test tube rack, 2 beakers

• Pasteur pipette, 10% NaOH solution, 0.5% CuSO4 solution

• Water distiller, fridge, analytic balance

Qualitative Detection of Proteins
1. We need 2 test tubes, each test tube containing 2 ml of protein suspension.

2. Add 2 ml (or 10 drops) of 10% NaOH solution into each test tube. Mix well.

3. Then, add 3 drops of 0.5% CuSO4 solution into each test tube. Mix well.

4. Observe the color and take photo of 2 test tubes.

3. LIPIDS
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble
vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids,
and others. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits
or "building-blocks": ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Using this approach, lipids may bedivided into eight
categories: fatty acids, glycerolipids, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids, and

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polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids and prenol lipids (derived
from condensation of isoprene subunits).
The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural
components of cell membranes. Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small
molecules; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles,
liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment.
Objective: Detect and observe the lipid in plant cells using red Soudan III solution.

Materials and Equipments:

• Peanut (soaked in water) • Light microscope, water

distiller, analytic balance
• Soudan III solution
• Glass slide and coverslip
• 20% Ethanol
• Pasteur pipette, 1 beaker
• Blades, distilled water
• Tissue paper, knife
Qualitative detection of lipids

1. Scratch the peanut by knife (which was soaked in water).

2. Place it on glass slide; add a drop of Soudan III solution. Keep sample in this solution for
staining in 10 minutes.
3. Wash the slide with 20% ethanol.
4. Add a drop of distilled water to the sample then put the coverslip on. Excess distilled water should
be removed using tissue paper.
5. Observe the lipid granules stained in peanut cells using microscope 40x. Please take photo with
40x objective lens.

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 Practical 3: PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND TRANSPIRATION
PRE-LABS
1. What are autotrophs and heterotrophs? Give each one example.

2. What is “photosynthesis”? How many stages are there in the photosynthesis? Describe.

3. Where is the chlorophyll distributed in plants and animals?

4. What is the function of chlorophyll?

5. Define the terms “transpiration” and “respiration”. What is the difference between them?

6. What are stomata and guardcells? Describe their distribution on the leaf.

AIMS OF THE PRACTICAL:

Help students to understand the process of photosynthesis by examining the products of
photosynthetic reaction.
1. PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, some bacteria, and some protistans use the energy
from sunlight to produce sugar, which can then be converted into ATP, the "fuel" used by all living things
via cellular respiration process. The overall photosynthesis reaction can be summarized asfollow:
6H2O + 6CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis is associated with the activities of

the green pigment chlorophyll. Several modifications of
chlorophyll occur among plants and other autotrophic
organisms. A pigment is defined as a substance that can
absorb light. The color of the pigment comes from the
wavelengths of light reflected (in other words, those are
not absorbed). Chlorophyll, the green pigment common
to all photosynthetic cells, absorbs all wavelengths of
Figure 3.1: Structure of a chloroplast
visible light except green, which reflects the green colour
to be seen by our eyes.

Chlorophyll is embedded in the membrane of a specific structure called thylakoid. This is the
unit of photosynthesis. Thylakoids are stacked like pancakes in stacks known collectively as granum.

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The areas between grana are referred as stroma. While the mitochondrion has double membrane
systems, the chloroplast has three, forming three compartments.
Objective: In this experiment, we will examine the presence of photosynthetic products in plant.

Materials and Equipments

• Waterweed branches

• Leaves with covered part (you have already prepared at home)

• Waterbath, water distiller, analytic balance

• Ethanol 70%, Lugol solution

• Beaker, funnel, 3 test tubes, test tube rack, test tube clamps

• Petri dish, forceps, tissue paper, foil paper

Task 1 – Examination of Oxygen Formation

1. Prepare one beaker with two thirds of water.

2. Turn down the funnel to the beaker.

3. Put 3 waterweed branches into the funnel.

4. Cover the tunnel end with the test tube filled with water and bring this beaker to the light
condition (near the window).

5. Observe the formation of coming up bubbles and record the level of water goes down every
5 days up to 15 days. Take photo please.
6. After the incubation time, take out the test tube from the funnel while still keep it at the
original orientation, cover the test tube by hand and upturn this test tube.
7. Remove hand and immediately test the gas in test tube with the burned match.

8. Observe what happens with the fire from match.

1.1. Task 2 – Examination of Starch Formation

1. Choose one leaf on a growing tree. Clean this leaf with water and tissue paper and then dry.

2. Use a piece of black paper or cotton to cover the middle half of this leaf, make sure that no light
can penetrate to this part. Leave it for at least two weeks. (*should not use electric tape – too stick to
remove without breaking the leaf)
3. On the day of doing the experiment, pick this leaf from the tree.

4. Remove the cover (paper or cotton). Notice the color difference between two areas of the leaf and
take photo.

5. Put this leaf into the boiling water (waterbath) for 5 minutes.

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 6. Use forceps to take out the leaf from hot water and put it into the test tube with ethanol 70%,
put this test tube with leaf into boiling water in the rack, continue to boil until the green color disappears.

7. Take out the leaf from test tube, wash with water and dry the boiled leaf with tissue paper. Then,
stretch it out on a petri dish and then add Lugol solution into the dish.
8. Observe the color in 2 areas of the leaf. Take photo please.
2. TRANSPIRATION
Water enters the root and is transported up to the leaves through specialized plant cells known as
xylem. Land plants must guard against drying out (desiccation), mainly via the leave system. Adaptation
through evolution has made the leaf surface usually covered by a cuticle layer in order to avoid water
evaporation. However, the leaves also contain specialized structures known as stomata to allow gas to
enter and leave the leaf. This is especially important for photosynthesis process. Carbon dioxide cannot
pass through the protective waxy layer covering the leaf (cuticle), but it can enter the leaf through an
opening the stoma flanked by two guard cells. Likewise, oxygen produced during photosynthesis can
only pass out of the leaf through the opened stomata. Unfortunately for the plant, while these gases are
moving between the inside and outside of the leaf, a great deal water is also lost though the same way.
Cottonwood trees, for example, will lose 100 gallons of water per hour during hot, sunny days.
Objective: We will examine the evaporation of water in leaf by using the indicator from Co2+. The
Co2+ ion can form the complex with absorbed water and change its original color (blue) to the color
of its conjugate with water (pink).
CoCl 42- + 6H 2O Co(H2 O) 2+ + 4Cl-

blue pink

Materials and Equipments

• Tissue paper, petri dish,
• One healthy leaf, 3% CoCl2 solution sticking tape

• Absorbent paper (2 pieces/group)

• Forceps, scissors

• Electrothermal drying oven

• Water distiller

• Analytic balance

Examination of water loss on leaf surface

1. Cut the absorbent paper into pieces with size smaller than size of sticking tape and of leaves
examined.
2. Soak these paper into 3% CoCl2 solution for two minutes and then dry the paper at 80oC
in electrothermal drying oven till dried. Each group will need 2 pieces of CoCl2 paper. Notice the color

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of paper and take photo.
3. Clean and dry one healthy leaf with tissue paper (make sure that the leaf is completely dry).

4. Use forceps to take out the dried pieces of CoCl2 paper and place them on a sticking tape.
5. Quickly and tightly apply these tapes onto two surfaces of leaf at the same time (upper and
l ower surfa ces) . Yo u need to ensure that no moisture from the air can enter to the CoCl2
paper. Then, take photo as observation time of 0 min.
6. Check the color change of paper on both surfaces of leaf after every 5 mins and notice the time
needed for this color change. Repeat this step until 30 mins. During the experiment, you need to
take photo as indicated time.
 Practical 4: OSMOSIS AND LEAF STOMATA
PRE-LABS
1. What does sodium chloride (NaCl) do in osmosis process?

2. After adding hypertonic solution (5% NaCl), plant/animal cells decrease their size
during osmosis process. Could you explain this phenomenon?

3. What will happen when plant/animal cells are in contact with isotonic solution (0.85% NaCl)?

4. Are the stomata necessary for plants? Why?

5. What will the leaf stomata respond when plants lack of water?
AIMS OF THE PRACTICAL:
✓ Examine the osmosis process in plant cells.
✓ Observe the leaf stomata on the both surfaces of plant cells.
1. OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the process where water molecules flow across a differentially permeable membrane
from a solution with a lower solute concentration to a solution with a higher solute concentration. This
membrane allows only certain types of molecules to pass through it or permeate it freely. Cellular
membrane is a type of differentially permeable membrane.
Osmosis does not require expenditure of energy but an energetically "downhill" process. Since the
water must lose energy as it moves by osmosis, water must move from an area of greater water potential
to an area of lower water potential:
• Hypertonic solution has water potential outside the cell lower than inside the cell, then there
will be a net movement of water out of the cell.
• Hypotonic solution has water potential outside the cell greater than inside the cell, then
osmosis will be a spontaneous net movement of water into the cell.
• In isotonic solution, the water potential on each side of a cell membrane is the same, there
will be no net movement of water across the membrane.
Osmotic pressure of a solution is proportional to the effective concentration of dissolved particles,
regardless of the size or chemical nature of the particle.
Objective: Demontrate and observe the osmosis and osmotic pressure using epidemic plant cells from
Tradescantia spathacea leaf.
Materials and Equipments
• Tradescantia spathacea leaf

• Distilled water (0% NaCl - sodium chloride solution) → hypotonic solution

 • 5% NaCl (sodium chloride) solution → hypertonic solution

• 0.85% NaCl (sodium chloride) solution → isotonic solution

• Glass slides, coverslips, forceps, tissue paper, scissors

• Light microscope, analytic balance, water distiller

Plant cells – Plasmolysis

Plant cells always have a strong cell wall surrounding them. When taking up water by osmosis they
start to swell, but the cell wall prevents them from bursting. Plant cells become "turgid" when they are
put in dilute solutions. Turgid means swollen and hard. The pressure inside the cell rises; eventually the
internal pressure of the cell is so high that no more water can enter the cell. This liquidor hydrostatic
pressure works against osmosis. Turgidity is very important to plants because this iswhat make the green
parts of the plant "stand up" into the sunlight.
When plant cells are placed in concentrated NaCl solutions they lose water by osmosis and they
become "flaccid"; the exact opposite of "turgid". If you put plant cells into concentrated NaCl solutions
and look at them under a microscope you would see that the contents of the cells have shrunkand pulled
away from the cell wall: they are said to be plasmolysed. And this phenomenon is call plasmolysis.
When plant cells are placed in a solution which has exactly the same osmotic strength as the cells
they are in a state between turgidity and flaccidity. We call this incipient plasmolysis. "incipient" means
"about to be". When one forgets to water the potted plants, their leaves drop. Although their cells are not
plasmolysed, they are not turgid and so they do not hold the leaves up into the sunlight.
Procedure

1. Break Tradescantia spathacea leaf into half to easily separate from the rest of the leaf. You
need to collect a thin epidermis layer (purple side) of the leaf. Prepare 3 glass slides for 3
specimens.

2. In each specimen, add a drop of 0.85% NaCl, 5% NaCl or distilled water (0% NaCl) on a clean
glass slide.

3. Place the purple layer to the saline on the slide. Add a coverslip.

4. Excess saline solution should be removed using tissue paper.

5. Examine the plant cells with the lowest power lens (4x) first, after observing the plant cells,
you use the next power level (10x and 40x) for observation.
6. Observe the plant cells and the difference among samples (focus to the cellular content
- purple area) that occur as the solutions reach them. Please take photo at objective lens 40x.
3.1. Animal cells – Hemolysis

The cell membrane of erythrocytes (red blood cells) is permeable to water but relativelyimpermeable
to salts. If red blood cells are placed in an isotonic saline solution (0.85% NaCl), the cells will retain their shape
and size.
If the red blood cells are in a hypotonic saline solution, water will enters the cells more rapidly than it
leaves. As a consequence, the red blood cells swell and ultimately bust, releasing hemoglobin. This
phenomenon is called hemolysis. Red blood cells if placed in a hypertonic saline solution will shrink and
appear to have a bumpy, irregular outline. The cells are said to be crenated.
2. LEAF STOMATA

Stomata, any of the microscopic openings or pores in the epidermis of leaves. They can also occur on
young stems but less commonly on leaves. Stomata are generally more numerous on the underside of leaves.
They provide for the exchange of gases between the outside air and the branched system of interconnecting
air canals within the leaf.
A stoma opens and closes in response to the internal pressure of two sausage-shaped guard cells that
surround it. The inner wall of a guard cell is thicker than the outer wall. When the guard cell is filled with
water and it becomes turgid, the outer wall balloons outward, drawing the inner wall with it and causing the
stoma to enlarge.
Guard cells work to control excessive water loss, closing on hot, dry, or windy days and opening when
conditions are more favourable for gas exchange. For most plants, dawn triggers a sudden increase in
stomatal opening, reaching a maximum near noon, which is followed by a decline because of water loss.
Recovery and reopening are then followed by another decline as darkness approaches. In plants that
photosynthesize with the CAM carbon fixation pathway, such as bromeliads and members of the family
Crassulaceae, stomata are opened at night to reduce water loss from evapotranspiration.
The main functions of stomata:

1. Gaseous exchange- Stomatal opening and closure help in the gaseous exchange between the plant and
surrounding.

2. It helps in transpiration and removal of excess water in the form of water vapour.

3. Stomatal closure at night prevents water from escaping through pores.

4. It maintains the moisture balance according to weather by opening and closing.

5. Stomata facilitate carbon dioxide uptake and release of oxygen during the process of photosynthesis.

Objective: To observe leaf stomata on the lower surface of plant cells from paper flower (Bougainvillea
spectabilis) leaf.
Materials and Equipments:

• Paper flower (Bougainvillea spectabilis) leaf, glass slides, clear nail polish

• Light microscope
 • Scissors, sticking tape
Procedure

1. Pick a healthy leaf from the potted plant.

2. Paint a swath of the nail polish on the lower surfaces of the leaf.

3. Try to avoid the veins if possible as they can make the polish harder to deal with later.

4. Let the nail polish patch dry for a couple of minutes.

5. When the nail polish dried, then cover it completely with a piece of sticking tape.

6. Press down gently but firmly. Carefully peel the tape off the leaf if the nail polish patch is
dry.

7. The tape should lift the patch off with it. You will be able to see the patch as a cloudy
impression on the tape.
8. Stick the tape onto a glass slide, use a microscope and look at the nail polish under 40X
magnification.
9. Observe stomata on the lower surfaces of leaf. Please take photo with 40x objective lens.
 Practical 5: ENZYMES
PRE-LABS
1. What is a catalyst and a catalysis reaction?

2. Compare the basic difference between chemical catalysts and biological catalysts.

3. What are enzymes? Describe their basic four properties?

4. How many types of enzyme are there? List them and give at least 1 example.

5. Define the term “optimal temperature” of an enzyme.

6. What makes biological catalysts specific? Define the “active site” of the enzyme and the
“substrate”.
AIMS OF THE PRACTICAL:
Familiarize students with the enzyme properties in reactions and understand the effect of
temperature on activity of enzyme.
1. AMYLASE
Amylases belong to the hydrolase group enzyme. They all act on α-glycosidic bonds of starch. The
actions of amylases on these linkages result in the formation of glucans and glucoses. Amylases are
found mostly in animal saliva, pancreas, intestine…, and in sprouting seeds.
There are three types of amylase:

• α-amylase acts on 1,4-α-D-glucan-glucan glycoside.

• β-amylase acts on 1,4-α-D-glucan-malto glycoside linkage.

• γ-amylase acts on glucan 1,4-α-glucoside and glucan 1-6-α- glycoside linkages.

Like other enzymes, amylases are heat sensitive (affected by heat). The change of reaction
temperature causes its change of activities.
Materials and Equipments

• Green bean sprout

• Foil paper, ice box
• Stach suspension,
lugol solution • Waterbath, electrothermal drying
oven, fridge, analytic balance, water
• Distilled water, 8 distiller, blender
test tubes, test
tube clamps • Pasteur pipettes

• 1 test tube rack, • 1 beaker

cloth, knife
 Procedure
1. Select 40-60 green bean sprouts, put all into the blender, add 20ml of distilled water and grind
till homogenous. Filter this suspension and collect the aqueous phase (enzyme - amylase
suspension).
2. Prepare 8 test tubes and mark them as indicated below:

Temperature 4oC RT 50oC 100oC

Marked tubes 4-S 4-E RT-S RT-E 50-S 50-E 100-S 100-E
3. Add into each tube with “E” 2ml amylase suspensions prepared from green bean sprouts and
place tubes with “4” label in ice box, “50” in warm water, “100” in boiled water (waterbath) and “RT”
at room temperature for 5 minutes. *cover the “100” test tubes with foil paper to prevent the evaporation.
4. Then, add 4 ml of starch suspension into all test tubes (8 test tubes). Continue to keep all
reactions for 10 minutes in the same condition.
5. After the time indicated, take 8 test tubes out, add 2ml of distilled water into each “S” tube (here,
we have 4 test tubes marked with “S”. Then, add 1 drop of Lugol solution into each tube. Mix very
gently, observe the color and take photo quickly.

2. PROTEASE
Proteases (proteinases, peptidases, or proteolytic enzymes) are enzymes that break peptide bonds
between amino acids of proteins. The process is called peptide cleavage. The enzymes use a molecule of
water for this and are thus classified as hydrolases.
The mechanism used to cleave a peptide bond involves making an amino acid residue that has the
character of a polarized peptide bond (serine, cysteine and threonine peptidases) or a watermolecule
(aspartic acid, metallo- and glutamic acid peptidases) nucleophilic so that it can attack the peptide
carbonyl group. One way to make a nucleophile is by a catalytic triad, where a histidine residue is used
to activate serine, cysteine or threonine as a nucleophile.
Proteases occur naturally in all organisms and constitute 1-5% of the gene content. Theseenzymes
are involved in a multitude of physiological reactions from simple digestion of food proteins to highly
regulated cascades (e.g., the blood clotting cascade, the complement system, apoptosispathways, and the
invertebrate prophenol oxidase activating cascade). Peptidases can break either specific peptide bonds
(limited proteolysis), depending on the amino acid sequence of a protein, or break down a complete
peptide to amino acids (unlimited proteolysis).
Materials and Equipments:
• One eight of pineapple, boiled white egg
• Cloth, 1 beaker, knife, pasteur pipettes, 2 test tubes, 1 test tube rack, test tube clamps
• Distilled water, foil paper, tissue paper
• Waterbath, fridge, water distiller, blender

22
 Procedure

1. Take one eight of the pineapple fruit and cut into small pieces.

2. Put pineapple pieces into blender, add 30 ml distilled water and grind till homogenous

3. Filter this mixture and collect the aqueous phase (enzyme - protease extraction) using cloth.
4. Prepare 2 test tubes and put into each tube 5 ml enzyme extract
5. Label these 2 tubes: one tube (marked 100) is then put in boiling water (waterbath), the other
(marked RT) left at room temperature for 15 minutes. You need to cover the “100” test tubes with
foil paper to prevent the evaporation.
6. Bring two tubes to room temperature; add into each tube the small piece of boiled white egg.
7. Cover tubes with foil paper, shake lightly and then incubate these tubes at room temperature. You
need to mark your group number, date.
8. After 2 days, pour out the mixture into the petri dish and compare 2 pieces of boiled egg on petri
dish. Observe results and take photo. When finishing, please make sure you clean up petri dish
and your test tubes.

3. CATALASE

Enzyme catalases, an anti-oxidant enzyme, are produced naturally in plants, animal and microbial
cells. This enzyme functions to convert peroxide into less toxic substances.
The catalase belongs to the group of oxidoreductase. The enzyme can be monitored by its ability
to convert hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into oxygen (O2) and water (H2O). When the body is infected with
high level of hydrogen peroxide, the catalase stored in peroxisome (in plant cell) or mitochondria (in
animal cell) will be activated and contribute in the process to convert this toxic compound to oxygen and
water. Thus the enzymes play an important role in the cell by mean of its detoxication ability.
Like other enzymes, catalase is also heat inactivated. When enzyme loses activity, the production
of oxygen and water is decreased. Potato is known to be the abundant source of catalase.
Materials and Equipments

• Potato
• 1 beaker, ice box, test tube clamps
• Distilled water
• 4 test tubes, test tube rack, knife
• H2O2 solution (20%)

• Cloth, • Waterbath, electrothermal drying oven,

fridge, analytic balance, water distiller,
• Pasteur pipette
blender

23
 Procedure

1. Put 100 g potato and 100 ml water into blender. Blend this mixture until smooth. Filter this
suspension and collect the aqueous phase using cloth (this is enzyme - catalase suspension).
2. Prepare 4 test tubes. Mark these tubes as followings:

Temperature 4oC RT 50oC 100oC

Marked tubes 4 RT 50 100

3. Add 5ml of enzyme suspension to each test tube and mark a line at 5 cm above the solution
surface. Then bring these tubes to the indicated temperatures and incubate for 5 minutes.

4. After getting 4 test tubes out, add 5 drops of hydrogen peroxide into each tube at the same time;
observe what happens in each tube. Note down the time needed in each tube for the column of
oxygen bubbles forming and reaching to the marked line. Please take photo also.

24
 Practical 6: CELL DIVISIONS - MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
PRE-LABS
1. Compare the basic differences between mitosis and meiosis.

2. If an organism has a diploid number of 16 (2n=16), how many chromatids are visible at the end
of mitotic prophase? How many chromosomes are moving to each pole during anaphase of mitosis?
3. Why are mitosis and meiosis important for organisms?

4. Discribe how to use the microscope properly.

AIMS OF THE PRACTICAL:
Provide students the basic information and events happen during the division of the cell. Students
will take chance to observe the chromosomes at different stages of division using microscope.
We know that the cell cycle occurs with the cooperation of number of events that involve in the
contribution of all the cell composition. The cell division is needed for growth, replacement of cells that
are lost by wear and tear or by programmed cell death; or to produce the elements for the sexual
reproduction. Mitosis and meiosis are two processes of cell division that are different in nature and
purpose.
Materials and Equipments:
• Light microscope, immersion oil for objective lens 100X, gloves
• Tissue paper, cleaning solution, cleaning microscope paper
• Prepared slides of mitosis and meiosis
1. MITOSIS
Mitosis produces two daughter cells that are identical to the parent cell. If the parent cell is haploid
(N), then the daughter cells will be haploid. If the parent cell is diploid, the daughter cells will also be
diploid. This type of cell division allows multicellular organisms to grow and repair damaged tissue.
Events happen in mitosis process can be divided into different phases as summarized below:

Interphase (G1 and G2): Chromosomes (chromatin) are not visible because they are uncoiled.

Prophase: The chromosomes coil and condense. The nuclear membrane disintegrates and the spindle
apparatus forms. At this phase, each chromosome, which is in duplicated form, attaches to the spindle
via kinetochore. If you squash the cell and view under microscope, it is possible to see chromosomes
and count them. For example, 46 chromosomes can be seen in a normal human cell sample. This
phase may take over one hour.

25
 Metaphase: The chromosomes are mostly condensed and become aligned in to one row at the
equatorial plate of the spindle. This phase lasts for approximately 15 minutes.

Anaphase: The sister chromatids of each duplicated chromosome separate and are pulled apart
towards opposite poles of the spindle, due to the assistance of the spindle fibers. At this phase, the
total number of chromosomes present in the cell has become doubled. This stage only takes place
within 10 minutes or so.

Telophase:. The chromosomes relax again. The spindle apparatus breaks down; the nuclear
membrane reappears surrounding each group of separated chromosomes and the cell divides into two
cells via a process called cytokinesis. Now each daughter cell possesses a chromosome set identical
to each other and also to the parent cells.

2. MEIOSIS
Meiosis produces daughter cells (haploid) which have a half of the number of chromosomes
present in their parent cell (diploid). This process leads to the reduction in the number of identical

26
chromosomes from two into one. As a result, each daughter cell produced by meiosis still possesses a
single full set of chromosome 2N → N.
Meiosis enables organisms to reproduce sexually because the fusion of two haploid gametes
(sperm and eggs) via fertilization process restores the diploidy in the zygote.
Meiosis includes two rounds of division, called Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Each round also goes
through phases which are named similarly in mitosis process. Number I or II appearing along the name
of a division phase can help you to recognize whether that phase belongs to Meiosis I or II:
Meiosis I: prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I;

Meiosis II: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.

The first meiotic division involves the separation of identical chromosomes, which have been in
duplicated form, into two daughter cells.
The second meiotic division involves the separation of sister chromatids and each daughter cell is
further divided into two cells. At the end of the meiosis, therefore, four haploid daughter cells will be
produced.
Events happen in each phase are summarized below:

• Prophase I: The chromosomes coil up and appear as duplicated chromosomes. The nuclear
membrane begins to disintegrate and the spindle forms. Crossing over between homologous
chromosomes can take place during this phase.
• Metaphase I: Bivalents of homologous chromosomes (tetrads) become aligned in the center of
the cell and are attached to spindle fibers.
• Anaphase I: begins when homologous chromosomes separate, whereby chromosomes of
each identical pair will move towards different poles of the spindle.
• Telophase I: The nuclear envelope reforms and nucleoli reappears. This stage is absent in
some species.
• Interkinesis: Interkinesis is similar to interphase except DNA synthesis does not occur.

• Prophase II: The duplicated chromosomes recondense. Nuclear membrane disintegrates

again while formation of spindle is seen in each daughter cell.
• Metaphase II: The duplicated chromosomes line up into one row at the equatorial plate of
each spindle.
• Anaphase II: Sister chromatids start to separate towards opposite poles of the spindle.

• Telophase II: Nuclear envelope reforms around each single set of chromosome at each cell
pole. Cell is further divided and finally four daughter cells are produced. The chromosomes return to
relax.

27
28
 FINAL EXAM: WRITING AND PRACTICAL SKILL
This is the last session of the Practical Class in Biology. You will have a 20-minute examination,
which focuses on both laboratory skills gained through microscopic usage and practical knowledge
obtained through question answering. Each part will take 50% of your examination score.
You must carefully review all microscopic practical sessions, introduction, all prelab questions and
laboratory safety before attending the examination. Hence, you can be confident during theexamination.
Good luck!

GUIDELINE FOR THE LABWORK REPORT

1. LAB REPORT PRESENTATION

- On the front page of the report, state:

• Course name (and course’s ID)

• Instructor

• Group number

• Group member (name and ID)

• Experiment number and title (optional)

• Date of submission

- Lab reports should be typed. You can submit your lab report by printing on both 2 sides of A4 paper
or by email.

- Page number.
- Lab reports should consist all of data presentation, data analysis and possibly questions. The
information should be presented exactly as requested.
2. GUIDELINE FOR REPORT

REPORT 1
I/ MICROSCOPY
1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.
2/- Describe the function of each part of microscopy? Max 400 words.
3/- Why do we need to use the microscopy? Which fields are microscopy used? Max 250 words.
II/ PLANT CELLS AND ANIMAL CELLS OBSERVATION
1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.
2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.
3/- Results: Identify cellular membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. Take photo.
29
 Name of sample? Name of sample?
Observed at objective lense? Observed at objective lense?
4/- Discussion:

a) What is the function of Lugol solution in these experiments?

b) What is the difference between plant cells and animal cells?

REPORT 2
I/ CARBOHYDRATES:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results:

a) Microscopic observation: identify observed objective

lense and starch granule. Take photo. Name of sample?
Observed at objective lense?
b) Effect of temperature to the structure of starch: observe
the change of color intensity. Take photo.

30
 Color of spot

Lugol

Starch only

0 min

2 min

4 min
Starch – HCl mixture
6 min
8 min

10 min

? min No color change

4/- Discussion:

a) Explain the phenomenon when adding Lugol solution to potato starch granules?

b) Explain the different color in Starch – HCl mixture after time of boiling. Based on the color of
spot, why can we say that the structure of starch is affected by temperature?
II/ PROTEINS:.

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: observe the change of color and take photo.

Color Observation

Protein solutions Original Color After 0.5% CuSO4 After 10% NaOH

1. Egg albumin

2. Cow milk

4/- Discussion:

31
 a) Explain the function of 10% NaOH and 0.5% CuSO4 in Biuret reaction?

b) After adding 10% NaOH, the phenomenon in egg white is different from in cow milk, why?

c) Why is the color intensity in egg white different from in cow milk?

II/ LIPIDS:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

Name of sample?
Observed at objective lense?

3/- Results: identify observed objective lense and stained lipid in cells. Take photo.

4/- Discussion:

a) Why is Soudan 3 used to detect lipid?

b) Why do we have to wash the stained sample with 20% Ethanol before observation under
microscope?

REPORT 3
I/ PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results:

32
 a) Examination of Oxygen formation: Observe the level of water in the test tube and take photo.

Duration (days) Level of water (mm)

0
5

10

15

b) Examination of Starch formation: Observe the color of 2 areas of leaf after staining with Lugol and
take photo.

Color Observation

After 2-week
Leaf sample Original Color After Boiling After Lugol
covering

Uncovered part

Covered part

4/- Discussion:

a) Explain the phenomenon in lowering level of water in experiment 1.

b) What will happen if we get the burned match to meet the O2, CO2, H2?

c) Explain why the color of 2 areas (covered and uncovered) is different.

II/ TRANSPIRATION:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

33
3/- Results: Notice the time and observe the change of color of the paper from upper and lower surfaces
of leaf. Take photo.

Color observation

Absorbent paper Original color

After 3% CoCl2

After drying

Duration time after applying on leaf Upper surface of leaf Lower surface of leaf

0 min

5 min

10 min

15 min

20 min

30 min

4/- Discussion:

Different trees will have different level of water-out through transpiration. Based on the
character(s) of the leaf, we can tell the level high or low. What is that character(s)? Explain your
answer.

REPORT 4
I/ OSMOSIS IN PLANT CELLS

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: Describe the purple area (size and level of color) of each sample and take photo.

0.85% NaCl Distilled water (0% NaCl) 5% NaCl

34
4/- Discussion:

a) Explain the phenomenon.

b) When putting plant cells in concentrated NaCl, plasmolysis happened. When putting animal cells
in water, hemolysis occurred. What makes the phenomenon in plant cells different from in animal
cells?
II/ LEAF STOMATA ON LOWER SURFACE OF PAPER LEAF

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: Observe leaf stomata on the lower surface of leaf and take photo. Please note which part is the
guard cells.

Lower surface of leaf

4/- Discussion:

a) Why are number of stomata less on the upper surface than on the lower surface of leaf?

b) The function of leaf stomata in plants?

35
 REPORT 5
I/ AMYLASE:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: Report the observed color in different test tubes after adding Lugol solution and take photo
before and after adding Lugol solution.

Temp. (oC) Marked tubes Color Observation

Before Lugol After Lugol

4-S
4
4-E

RT-S
RT
RT-E

50-S
50
50-E

100-S
100
100-E

4/- Discussion:

a) Compare “S” with “E” tubes in each condition and explain the phenomenon.

b) Compare all “S” tubes in all conditions and all “E” tubes in all condition. Explain the
phenomenon.
c) What is the optimal range of temperature for amylase activity.

II/ PROTEASE:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: Report the observation of egg pieces’ shape after 2 days and take photo before and after 2 days.
36
 Temp. (0C) At the beginning After 2 days
RT
100

4/- Discussion:
a) Do 2 pieces of egg have different shape after 2 days of incubation? Explain.
b) What is the optimal range of temperature for protease activity.

III/ CATALASE:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: Report the time for gas column reach the 5-cm line and take photo of these tubes.

Temp. (0C) Time recorded (seconds)

4
RT
50
100

4/- Discussion:
a) Why is there different in time when bubbles columns reach the 5-cm line between different
conditions?
b) What is the optimal range of temperature for catalase activity.

37
 REPORT 6
I/ MITOSIS:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: Report different phases of mitosis and take photo of each phase. You should mention each
phase of mitosis.

Phases of Mitosis Picture

Interphase
Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase
Telophase

II/ MEIOSIS:

1/- Introduction: Should be short and general, max 250 words.

2/- Procedure: What did you do? Max 250 words.

3/- Results: Report different phases of meiosis and take photo of each phase. You should mention each
phase of meiosis.

Phases of Meiosis Picture

Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I

Telophase I
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II

38