Task-based learning

Jane Willis

ENGLISH TEACHING
PROFESSIONAL

October 1998 Issue Nine

Este material se utiliza con fines

exclusivamente didácticos
CONTENTS

MAIN FEATURES

Jane Willis . Task-Bade Learning ....................................................................................................... 3

Luke Prodromou. The best medicine ................................................................................................ 16
Dick Edeistein. Low-Risk Activities .................................................................................................. 29

ARTICLES

Chris Mares. A writer’s view .............................................................................................................. 7

Tim Murphey. Image streaming ......................................................................................................... 9
Jill and Charles Hadfield. Renewable Resources ............................................................................ 11
Sylvia Chalker. Tense Times ............................................................................................................. 12
Simon Haines. Difficult, Lonely and Boring .................................................................................... 21
Katie Head. Six Category Intervention Analysis ............................................................................. 35
Paul Bress. Coping with negative feedback ...................................................................................... 37
Jon Taylor. Minimax .......................................................................................................................... 42

REGULAR FEATURES

Jim Wingate 10 Ways to... Correct ................................................................................................... 14

Bill Mascull and Helen Woodfield. Distinctions and Dichotomies. Use and usage revisited ....... 19
Mark Fletcher. Copy Centre. Rainbow Grammar...................................................................... 23-26
Jeremy Harmer. Desert island Elt .................................................................................................... 27
Michael Vaughan-Rees. Book Survey. Pronunciation top ten ....................................................... 40
Jack Scholes. Changing English ........................................................................................................ 48
Talkback ......................................................................................................................................... 13,20
Reader’s questions Reader’s answers ............................................................................................... 28
It works in practice ............................................................................................................................. 32
Book Reviews ...................................................................................................................................... 38
Competition ......................................................................................................................................... 48
TASK-BASED LEARNING

Jane Willis teaches at Aston University, UK, on their new modular Masters
in TESOL/TESP. Her books include Teaching English Through English (Longman),
Challenge and Change in Language Teaching (with Dave Willis, Heinemann), and
A Framework for Task-based Learning (Longman).

Jane Willis shows how the study of grammar and lexis is integral to a task-based learning approach.

There is a tendency to associate communication tasks and task-based learning (TBL) with an
increase in fluency activities and a reduction in the concern for accuracy. Indeed, I have heard some teachers
admit to feeling guilty about teaching grammar. This need not, and research shows that it should not, be the
case.
A focus en both accuracy and fluency can be naturally incorporated if tasks are used systematically
as the central part of a larger framework. Grammar and language study arise out of the task and
accompanying materials where the emphasis is en their meaning and actual use. Specific features of
language form are highlighted after the learners have experienced language in use within a holistic context
during the task cycle.

What is a task?

My definition of ‘task’ (which is more specific than that used by Andrew Littlejohn in ETp Issue
One) is:

a goal-oriented activity in which learners use language to achieve a real outcome. In other
words, learners use whatever target language resources they have in order to solve a problem, make
a list, do a puzzle, play a game, or share and compare experiences.

In this sense, the following is a language practice activity, not a task, because the focus is on form,
not outcome: Use the question form ‘Did you ever...’ to ask your partner about their childhood.
Tasks vary in length. A beginners’ task might only take a minute or so: Ask three people in your
class for their phone numbers and write them down. More creative tasks, such as anecdotetelling may take
around ten minutes.
Some, such as this reading task, may take longer: Compare the summary of the text with the original
and spot the two mistakes.

Task design

As a basic principle, it is impossible to design communication tasks with the express intention of
eliciting specific language forms. (If learners are free to express their own meanings in response to the task,
how do we know what they will want to mean?) It is, however, realistic to start from topics and texts, design
appropriate tasks, and then exploit the language that occurs naturally in the task interaction and/or the text.
So, choose your topic (eg cats, or families, or funny things small children do) and then try this model for
designing some tasks. (There are many different types of tasks, but for designing your own, I have found this
classification with six basic task types to be the most generative.)

Ordering, sorting, classifying

Listing Comparing

ANY TOPIC

Sharing
Problem opinions,
solving personal experiences
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Creative tasks
or projects
 Tasks of different kinds can be designed for any topic or suitable text. To increase relevant exposure
to spoken English, fluent speakers can be recorded doing the tasks and/or reporting how they did them, thus
providing spontaneous language data for subsequent language study. This also provides a sample interaction
for learners to experience. Having done their own task first, they will understand what meanings are likely to
be expressed in the task recording, so as they listen, they can look out for the forms that act as a vehicle for
those meanings. The transcription then provides data for a subsequent focus on grammar and lexical phrases.
Tasks can be done singly, or in a series on the same topic, with one task arising out of another. Let’s
look at a concrete example at beginner level.
Topic International words
Listing How many words of English can you think of that are known internationally? Teacher gives
some examples: football, goal, taxi, hamburger. Students continue in pairs. Time limit, one minute, after
which pairs read out their words which are then written on the board (five to ten minutes). Ask which pair
found the most words.
Classifying How can you classify these words? (Sports or food, etc.) In pairs, think of other
categories, put the words into your categories and add more words if you can.
Comparing Compare your categories and lists with another pair. What extra words do you/they
have?
Sharing personal opinions Which food, sports, etc, does your partner like and not like? Find three
things you have in common.
After each of the first three tasks, there could be a lot of interaction between teacher and students. As
the learners offer words to fit the categories, you might say: Tennis. Who said tennis? You? So do you play
tennis? No? And you? Do you play? Or do you watch tennis on TV? I like watching tennis on TV Wimbledon,
especially...

Why TBL?

TBL recognises the fact that language learners are first and foremost grappling with a new system of
meaning. They will only learn new words, phrases and patterns if these fit the stage of development they are
at in their own system, ie if they understand the meaning. Meaning and use must come first. It’s no good
spending a lot of time teaching decontextualised word forms or patterns that cannot be accommodated by the
learner. For example, we all know that learners can express questions quite understandably without using
standard question forms, even though these forms have been ‘taught’. As they gain more experience of the
new language m use, they slowly begin to use other forms. We have all had the experience of presenting and
practising a particular language pattern, with learners getting it right during the form-focused practice stage,
but then, at the meaning-focused free production stage, they do not use the ‘new’ item at all. Language
learning is a gradual organic process rather than a piece by piece additive process. As Nunan puts it, it is far
more like helping a garden to grow, than building a wall one brick at a time.
The TBL framework was designed to help create optimum conditions for natural language learning.
The three essential conditions for learning are:
· exposure to the target language in use, both spontaneous and planned language, in spoken and
written form.
· opportunities to use the target language for expressing meaning –both in private and in public
situations, in pair and small group interactions, monologue and writing.
· motivation to engage with and try to understand the exposure, and to use what they know to
communicate what they mean.
A further desirable condition is:
· focus on language form to prevent fossilisation and help learners improve upon what they can do
already.
It is useful to examine the approach your learners are currently used to, to see which of these conditions
are fulfilled and which are lacking. If they find it difficult to talk, for example, they may not have had
sufficient exposure to spontaneous spoken English or have lacked opportunities to use it. Maybe they
have had too much focus on form which has affected their confidence.

A TBL framework

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 A TBL framework is shown in the box. The following notes give additional information about the
role of teacher and learners, with examples. Your own task as you read, is to decide:
1. Which of the four ‘conditions for learning’ mentioned earlier are met during each phase?
2. At which phase/s might learners most benefit from correction of form? During which phase/s
might you decide generally not to correct? Why?

Pre-task: Introduction to the topic and task instructions

This gives exposure to teacher talk, but brainstorming useful topie words and pfirases is a good way
of involving students in this phase.

Task Cycle

Learners use language in varying circumstances and are exposed to others using it.
The Task Phase gives opportunities for interactive spontaneous use of language in the privacy of
their pairs where mistakes don’t matter.
The Report Phase encourages a combination of accuracy and fluency (learners don’t want to make
mistakes in front of the class).
The Planning Phase is the time for teacher input and advice. Learners plan what to say at the report
stage, to correct mistakes, to strive to use ‘better’ language and to focus on form.
The optional listening phase allows students to hear how fluent speakers did the same task.

Language Focus: Analysis and practice

Learners get repeated exposure to the language from the task cycle and have a chance to focus on
form and ask questions about language features.
Examples include consciousness-raising activities such as identifying, classifying, and focusing on
specific language features (eg verbs ending in -ing). These help learners systematise what they already know
while noticing new things about language and the way it is used. Practice activities may help them remember
new phrases and patterns from texts or transcripts of task recordings.

A TBL example

The following is an example of the TBL framework in use. This is a text-based, problem-solving
task, which gives rise to two task cycles. It is given here primarily as an example of how a TBL approach
works in practice and how and when to incorporate language input, correction, etc.

The Peanut Butter Story

Pre-task As an introduction, brainstorm the topic of peanut butter. What do you/we know about
peanut butter? (I hate it. Who likes it? How is it made? What’s it like? It’s sticky. In America they eat it on
bread with jam or jelly.)
Set the task. This is a problem-solving task-with a difference. I’m going to give you the solution. You
have to talk with your partner and try to guess what the problem was. You have two minutes to think of two

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different problems. Here is a drawing of a slice of bread and peanut butter. But it’s not on a plate, it is stuck
on a wall beside a back door. (Talk as you draw.) This was the solution to someone’s problem. What was the
problem? How and why did the slice of bread and peanut butter end up on the wall?

Task One

Students work in pairs to generate ideas. (You might like to think about it too!) Encourage all
attempts at expressing ideas. Resist the temptation to correct –your aim here is to boost their confidence.
Suggest they think of two alternative possibilities for problems. Encourage pairs to think of two (or more)
possibilities. Stop them once everyone has got at least one idea and some pairs have got two or more.
Planning One Decide whether pairs will report in written or spoken form. Tell students they will be
choosing their best idea to tell the whole class. It must be in their best English because everyone will
read/hear it. Allot the role of writer or spokesperson for each pair. Students plan what to write or say,
checking their grammar, spelling or pronunciation. Have dictionaries ready for use. This phase will take
longer than the task phase.
Report One Ask each pair to report their idea, either by speaking in turn, or by putting up their
writing on the wall. Other pairs make a list of the ideas. Chair the report session, commenting positively on
the ideas offered (not, at this point, on the language used). Then ask them to decide in pairs which ideas to
nominate for silliest/funniest/most probable, and take a vote.
Follow-up to Report One Either read them the original story, or make copies and let them read it
silently. Then discuss whose story was the most similar and whether you prefer this version or the ones the
class invented.

Task Two

To promote more language use and deeper processing of the text, ask students in pairs to retell or
rewrite the original story from memory as if it had happened to them.
If necessary, write the story structure on the board:

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 Situation: Playing in the garden, got hungry, went into the kitchen...
Problem:
Solution:
Ending: ...went out, happily

Planning and Report Two After some planning time, learners take turns to read out a part of their
version of the story. Others comment and suggest improvements before moving on to the next bit of the
story.
Follow-up to Report Two Learners read the story again to see which pair remembered best, or to
compare the class version with the original.
Language Focus Let students read through the original story a couple of times. Ask them to look for
the words and phrases that signal the problem (but..., too small to...), the solution (an easy one!) and the
ending (happily, as in they all lived happily ever after).
There are bound to be some words students still don’t know. Encourage them to guess meaning from
the context and/or the grammatical form (eg begging for is the same pattern as asking for). Don’t waste time
discussing unusual words like plastered, a quick demonstration will do.
Continue with some (not all) of the following activities which are grouped under three starting
points. Learners generally gain from working in pairs and having a language notebook at hand to write down
useful phrases and patterns.

Meanings

· Read aloud five whole phrases referring to food, eg Holding the bread carefully in both hands.
· Find two time phrases. What other time phrases can you make with the same patterns? eg all day, all
night; after a moment’s hesitation/thought/refection.
· Find four phrases denoting going to/from a place. Which verb takes no preposition?

Word or part of word

· Find and read out four complete phrases in the first paragraph with a verb ending in -ing. Notice the
position of each -ing word. Which two begin a phrase? What about the last one? (This should give
insights into the narrative style of short stories.)
· Who had been playing outside all morning. Why has the writer chosen had been playing (the Past Perfect
Continuous tense) rather than was playing (Past Continuous)?
· Verb + -ing is commonly used following a preposition, eg without thinking, after realising, before
eating, on leaving. Make up three more phrases like this that could fit into the story, eg After playing
outside all morning ...
· Here are five examples from the story with the word to. Think of what to means in each case. Which one
is very different from the others? started to leave too small to open the door plastered his bread to the
wall used both hands to turn the knob went out happily to play
· Use the pattern too small to ... and tell your partner two things that were true for you when you were
young, eg When we lived in London, I was too young to go to discos.

Useful phrases to build on

My three-year-old brother
Write three or four similar ‘age’ phrases describing people you know.
Kitchen door, door knob
These noun + noun phrases are very common in English and German. Are they common in your
language? Try translating some of the examples below into your language. Then, with your partner, make a
sentence in English that explains each one in full. (It often helps if you begin with the final noun.) ice cube
(An ice cube is a cube made of ice that you put in cold drinks.)
ice tray
ice cream van
front door key
English language school student outing
Start a collection of noun + noun phrases in your language notebook. Newspapers are full of them.

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Dictionary work

· a puzzled expression came over his face Like many English words, expression has three fairly distinct
common meanings. Look these up in a good dictionary. In what senses can it be made plural? Copy
down two or three phrases you like.
· The phrasal verb come over has several different uses: the one used in the text is the most common.
Guess the meaning of come over in these sentences and then check the meanings in a dictionary.
I came over all queer.
I met him on the boat coming over.
The meaning doesn’t come over very well.
This set of sample activities shows how rich even a short text can be in its potential to contextualise
grammar.
The activities not only shed light on the language in this text, but help learners to move outside the
text and reflect on their own language experience, as they find and generate their own examples. Similar
activities can be based on the transcription of a spoken interaction.

Exposure and use

TBL rests on the premise that learners learn though direct experience of language in use (exposure)
and through using language for themselves (use). In TBL, learners start with the task, using what they can of
the target language and recalling what they know from previous lessons to achieve the task outcome. Then
they improve their language during the planning and reporting phases and build on and extend it during the
language focus component.
As teachers, rather than spending time presenting and practising one structure or pattern (the
equivalent of perfecting the laying of one brick), which some students may not be developmentally ready for,
we are helping learners to notice a whole array of language features in the hopes they will recognise them
when they see or hear them in future exposures. In this way, we help them gain insights gradually rather than
having the unrealistic aim of expecting them to learn structures all at once. We are not giving learners bricks
to build a wall we are sowing seeds, watering them, and waiting for the next shower to help them grow.

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REFERENCES
Lightbown, P and Spada, N How Languages are Learned OUT 1993
Nunan, D Teaching grammar in context English Language Teaching Journal Vol52/2 1998
Willis, J A Framework for Task-based Learning Longman 1996
Willis, J and Willis, D Challenger and Change in Language Teaching Heinemann ELT 1996
Skehan, P Second Language Acquisition Research and Task-based Instruction in Willis, J and Willis, D
1996