Project Gutenberg's Notes on Veterinary Anatomy, by Charles J.

Korinek

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most
other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you'll have
to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this ebook.

Title: Notes on Veterinary Anatomy

Author: Charles J. Korinek

Release Date: December 18, 2019 [EBook #60949]

Language: English

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON VETERINARY ANATOMY ***

Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)

Transcriber’s notes:
The text of this e-book has been preserved as in the original, including inconsistent
capitalisation and hyphenation. Archaic and inconsistent spellings have also been preserved
except where obviously misspelled in the original. A list of corrections and inconsistencies is
appended at the end. Archaic phraseology has been retained. Incorrect paragraph numbering
on p. 17 has been corrected, and several missing full stops have been inserted. Cross
references to a page or illustration have been hyperlinked.
The cover image of the book was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.
VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION
OF AMERICA
 NOTES ON

VETERINARY ANATOMY
BY

CHARLES J. KORINEK, V. S.
Graduate of the Ontario Veterinary College, in
affiliation with the University of Toronto, Canada.
Hon. Member of the Ontario Veterinary Medical
Society. Ex. State Veterinarian for Oregon. Ex.
President of the Oregon State Veterinary Medical
Board of Examiners. Author of “The Veterinarian”.
Principal of the Veterinary Science Association of
America. Sixteen years of Practical Experience as a
Veterinary Surgeon.

PUBLISHED BY THE

VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION

OF AMERICA
 COPYRIGHT 1917
by the

VETERINARY SCIENCE ASSOCIATION

OF AMERICA

TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Page
Plate I. Skeleton of the Horse 7
Plate II. Muscles of the Horse, superficial layer 29
Plate III. Muscles of the Horse, deep layer 31
Plate IV. Digestive and Urinary Organs of the Horse 37
Plate V. Heart and Chief Blood Vessels of the Horse 69
Plate VI. Nervous System of the Horse 73
Plate VII. Structure of the Horse’s Foot 78

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
 Page
Chapter I.Osteology, or Structure of the Bones 8
Chapter II.Arthrology, or Study of the Joints 21
Chapter III. Myology, or Study of the Muscular System 28
Chapter IV. Splanchnology, or Study of the Digestive,
Respiratory, Urinary and Generative
Systems 38
Chapter V. Angiology, or Study of the Blood-Vascular
System, as the Heart, Arteries, Veins,
Lymphatic Vessels and Glands 67
Chapter VI. Neurology, or Study of the Nervous
Tissue, as the Brain, Spinal Cord and
Their Nerves 73
Chapter VII. Aesthesiology, or the Study of the Organs
of Special Sense, as the Ear, Eye and
Organs of Sensation, as Skin, Hair,
Foot, etc. 75
Chapter VIII.Embryology or Development of the Foetus 81

PREFACE
There are a number of excellent works on Veterinary Anatomy, and many of
them will amply repay the student for the time taken to master them, but for
quick reference none seem to contain the wants of the veterinary practitioner and
student for which this humble little work is primarily intended.
It has been my endeavor to briefly describe each organ as found in the healthy
animal; its functions, etc., in a condensed yet complete form. I am positive that
the student or veterinary practitioner will find its pages highly instructive as well
as profitable and interesting.
In compiling this work a few authorities have been consulted and quoted, while
it has not been practical to give individual credit for the use of ideas and
language, a general acknowledgement is here made:
Veterinary Science, Hodgins and Haskett.
Veterinary Anatomy, Strangeways.

CHARLES J. KORINEK, V. S.
 DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMY
Osteology is a term applied to that section of descriptive anatomy which treats of
the bones. Arthrology, to the consideration of the joints or modes of union
between the bones, while by Myology is meant the doctrine of the muscular
system. Splanchnology treats of the viscera, Angiology of the circulatory and
absorbent systems. Neurology deals with the nervous system. Aesthesiology with
the organs of sense; while Embryology, as before stated is the consideration of
the animal frame at periods preceding its birth.
In this work the various departments are discussed in the order here given. The
structures which are the subject of the first three divisions are sometimes classed
together as the Organs of Locomotion; for bones form the frame work of the
body and often act as levers; the joints connect the bones, permitting more or
less motion between them; while the muscles move the bones, and so produce
motion of a part of the body—or it may be locomotion, or change of situation in
the entire frame.
In the study of comparative Anatomy the terms analogy and homology are
frequently met with. Although these words are unfrequently used
indiscriminately, the following differences should be noted. Organs are said to be
analogous when, though differing in structure, they perform the same function;
but when their functions are different, which, in the broad sense, they correspond
in structure or form, they are said to be homologous. Thus the middle finger of
the human hand is the homologue of the anterior (front) digit of a horse, because
they have the same general structure, and relation to the rest of the limb; but as
the functions they perform are quite dissimilar, they cannot be termed analogous.
Again, the lungs of a mammal are analogous to the gills of a fish, for, though
they differ widely in structure, position and form, and are therefore not
homologous, their ultimate use is the same—each of them being an apparatus in
which is carried on the process of purifying the blood.
 DISSECTION.
Students must dissect as many animals as possible, so as to familiarize
themselves with the frame work or structure, and the location of the digestive,
nervous and blood systems, as it will aid materially in the art or process of
determining the nature of various diseases.
During cool weather an animal for dissecting purposes can be kept for a
considerable length of time without preservatives
It is well to have a copy of Anatomy at hand when dissecting for it will show the
location of the various organs and explain their functions.
 SKELETON OF HORSE—AFTER MEGNIN.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I

SKELETON OF THE HORSE

1. Skull, or skeleton of the head. 15. Os Melacarpi Magnus, metacarpal,
or cannon bone.
2. Cervical vertebræ or neck bones. 16. Ossa Melacarpi Parva, or splint
bones.
3. Dorsal vertebræ or back bones. 17. Proximal Phalanx, os suffraginis, or
large pastern bone.
4. Lumbar vertebræ or loin bones. 18. Great Sesamoid Bones.
5. Sacral vertebræ or rump bones. 19. Medium Phalanx, os coronæ, or
small pastern bone.
6. Coccygeal vertebræ or tail bones. 20. Distal Phalanx, os pedis, or coffin
bone.
7. Pelvic or hip bones. 21. Os Naviculare, small sesamoid, or
shuttle bone. (This bone can be
plainly seen Plate VII).
8. Sternum or breast bone. 22. Femur, or thigh bone.
9. Ribs. 23. Patella, or stifle bone.
10. Scapula or shoulder blade. 24. Tibia, or leg bone.
11. Humerus or shoulder bone. 25. Fibula. (This bone is little
developed in the horse.)
12. Radius or bone of the fore-arm. 26. Tarsus or hock bones.
13. Ulna or bone of the fore-arm. 27. Metatarsus, or os metatarsi magnus.
14. Carpus or bones of the knee. 28. Ossa Metatarsi Parva, or splint
bones of the hind leg.

Names of joints placed according to numbers.

I. Shoulder Joint. VI. Coffin Joint.
II. Elbow Joint. VII. Hip Joint.
III. Carpus or knee joint. VIII. Stifle Joint.
IV. Fetlock Joint. IX. Tarsus or hock joint.
V. Pastern Joint.
 CHAPTER I.

OSTEOLOGY.
STRUCTURE OF THE BONES—Bones are hard, yellow-white, insensitive objects,
which form the skeleton and give attachment to soft structures (muscles, tendons
and ligaments); they are of various sizes, forms and densities. In the limbs the
bones are ordinarily more or less long, circular bodies, with expanded ends,
effectually supporting the body, supplying leverage and attachment for soft
structures, and forming the basis of all joints. Where cavities, such as the
cranium, chest, and pelvic, enclosing the organs requiring protection and
support, the bones tend to assume a flat, expanded form.
Living bone is bluish pink, insensitive, and elastic; on exposure to air it becomes
diseased and blackened, very sensitive and painful; (the teeth excepted) which
are harder and of a higher specific gravity than any other bone formation.
Bones are composed of two kinds of substance—animal, which makes the bone
tough and flexible; earthy, which makes it hard and fragile. In young animals the
animal matter forms about one-half of the bone substance; in the adult, it
diminishes to about a third, while in old animals it is still less; hence the bones
of very old animals are brittle, more liable to fracture and harder to mend.
Bones in a six-year-old horse contained, Phosphate of Lime, 54.37 per cent;
Carbonate of Lime, 12.00 per cent; Phosphate of Magnesia, 1.83 per cent;
Soluble Salts, 0.70 per cent, or mineral matter, 68.90 per cent. While they
contain Cartilage, 27.99 per cent; Fat, etc., 3.11 per cent, or animal matter 31.10
per cent.
In bone tissue there are two modifications of texture, the compact and the
cancellated. The former—hard, dense, and ivory-like, is always situated
externally; the latter porous and spongy lies within.
Although the compact tissue appears uniformly dense, and destitute of porosity,
yet, if we transversely sectate the shaft of a long bone, and examine it under the
microscope, by transmitted light, it is found to contain numerous round
openings. These are called Haversian canals. They transmit bloodvessels, and
run in a longitudinal or slightly oblique direction, opening on either the outer or
inner surface of the bone.
The external (outer) surface of every bone is covered by a tough, fibrous,
inelastic membrane called periosteum, which can be seen by examining the bone
of an animal which has recently died. The only exception to this is at the joints
where one bone articulates with another, and where a tendon or muscle plays
over a bone; here we find its place taken by articular cartilage. By its strength it
sometimes retains bones in contact after an oblique fracture; in the young, it is
thicker and more vascular than in the adult. Blood-vessels which penetrate the
periosteum pass directly to the bone; the outer surface of the bone is always
studded with numerous foramina through which these enter.
The periosteum owing to its inelasticity, is, when inflamed, the seat of intense
pain; and should any part of it be stripped off, there is every probability of the
denuded bone dying and separating.

CONTENTS OF BONE.—Red marrow is found in the extremities or near the ends of

bones, white marrow is found in the shaft.

CLASSES OF BONES.—Bones are classed as long, flat, and irregular. Long or

cylindrical bones are found in the limbs or extremities, and serve as levers and
pillars for traveling and to support the body. Descriptively, a long bone is
divisible into a center or shaft and two ends or extremities. Flat bones are found
where visceral organs need protection. As the shoulder or scapula and ribs, to
protect the heart and lungs; pelvic or hip bones, to protect the rectum and urinary
and genital organs; also the cranial bones, to protect the vital organ called the
brain. Irregular bones are found in the spinal column and in the joints, such as
the knee or carpus, hock or tarsus, where great strength is required. They usually
possess many angles and indentations, with surfaces for articulation and
tendonous attachment, and consist of a thin, dense, external (outer) case of
compact bone enclosing cancellated tissue. In proportion to their size they
present a much larger extent of articular surface and greater mechanical strength
than any other class.

1. SKULL, or skeleton of the head, the most anterior (forward) part of the horse’s
skeleton, articulates with the first cervical vertebra (or atlas), from which it is
suspended by its posterior (or back part) extremity, its anterior (forward)
extremity being free. Its position varies with the attitude of the animal; but in our
descriptions we shall always suppose it to be placed in a horizontal position.
In the young animal the skull is composed of a number of bones, all of which,
with the exception of the lower jaw, the teeth, the bones of the tongue, and
ossicles of the ear, become united by ossification (growing together) in the adult.
In speaking of the different points of importance in connection with the head
bones of the horse, and other animals, suppose a cross or longitudinal section of
the head is made. It will be noticed that it is full of cavities or sinuses. The uses
of these are to lighten the head and also to warm the air as it passes into the
nostrils, on its way down to the lungs. It will also be found full of foramen or
small holes through which the nerves from the brain and various blood vessels
pass to the organs situated in the head, such as the tongue, lips and the various
glands in and around the head.
Then there are the cavities in which the eyes are situated, one on each side of the
head, called the orbital fossa. In examining this fossa you will find a small
opening or foramen, through which the optic nerve passes in coming from the
brain to the eye. This is the nerve of sight. Then the most important part of all to
consider is the cranial cavity in which that very important organ is situated called
the brain, which controls all the various functions and movements of the body.
Another important point is the situation of the ear drum. It is situated in the
hardest bone found in the whole skeleton, called the petrosal. The nerve that
gives the function called hearing comes from the brain down to the petrosal bone
and enters by a small foramen or hole into the drum of the ear to give hearing.
This nerve is called the auditory nerve.

2. CERVICAL VERTEBRAE OR NECK BONES.—These bones are seven in number. The

first and second bones proceeding from the head receive special names. The first
one is called the atlas, from which the head is suspended and to which it is
attached; it somewhat resembles the body of a bird with wings extended. The
second bone receives the name of dentata. This is the bone which allows the
head to turn in any direction, hence it is sometimes called the axis or pivot of the
neck. Between these two bones, on the upper surface, is the only place where the
spinal cord is not covered with bone, a spot about three-fourths of an inch in
diameter. The next four bones receive no name, and are about the same in size
and length. The last, or the seventh bone, is only about one half the length of the
preceding ones and receives no special name.

3. DORSAL VERTEBRAE OR BACK-BONE.—Dorsal bones are eighteen in number.

The chief point of interest about them are the height of the spines on the upper
surface of the bones. These large spines form the withers of the horse, as will be
noticed in the skeleton. On either side of these bones the ribs are attached, 18
pairs corresponding with the number of bones in this region.

4. LUMBAR VERTEBRAE (or the bones which form the skeleton of the loins). These
bones are six in number, and they are situated immediately above the kidneys.

5. SACRAL VERTEBRAE OR RUMP BONES.—There are five of these bones in the

young horse, but in the adult they unite as a single bone, somewhat triangular-
shape. These are situated between the upper hip bones and help to form the
rump. Beneath these bones the bladder is situated.

6. COCCYGEAL VERTEBRAE OR TAIL BONES.—These are 18 to 20 in number. There

is no complete canal, like in the previous vertebraes, for enclosure of the spinal
cord.

7. PELVIC OR HIP BONES.—The pelvic bones are flat, but somewhat irregularly-
shaped, and they form the sides, floor, and part of the roof of the pelvic cavity.
Above they are connected with the sacrum, and below united to each other, in
the adult, by ossification (union of bone). In the young animal, as above stated,
and especially in the foetus, each side consists of three parts, which retain their
names of ilium, ischium, and pubis, even after union by ossification. They all
three meet in the acetabulum, or articular cavity for the femur or hip bone.

8. STERNUM OR BREAST BONE.—This bone is small and short in the horse and is
situated on the lower surface of the chest cavity. The principle points to be noted
in this bone are that of its softness, and that the first eight pairs of ribs are
attached to it on either side. This bone, in the horse resembles the keel and cut-
water of a boat.

9. RIBS.—In the horse the ribs usually number eighteen on each side. They
extend in a series of arches of varying curvature from the dorsal vertebrae above,
towards the sternum and sides of the abdomen below. Their shape, in a great
measure, determines the conformation or shape of the thorax or chest cavity;
they protect its contents, and materially aid in its contraction and expansion.
They are continued downward and forward by a small piece of cartilage or
gristle, and are just slightly attached to the breast bone or sternum; these are
called the false ribs. Note that, starting with the first rib, they get longer until the
ninth rib is reached; they then get shorter, the last rib being only a few inches
long.

10. SCAPULA OR SHOULDER BLADE.—The scapula is a flat bone situated on the

antero-lateral (front side) surface of the thorax or chest cavity, it is triangular in
shape, the base being turned upwards. The inferior or lower extremity articulates
with the humerus or shoulder bone.

11. HUMERUS OR SHOULDER BONE.—The humerus is a long bone extending from

the scapula to the radius and ulna in an oblique direction downwards and
backwards. Like all long bones it possesses a shaft and two extremities and two
articular surfaces.

12. RADIUS, OR BONE OF THE FORE-ARM.—The radius is a long bone, and occupies
a vertical position between the humerus and the carpus.
13. ULNA, OR BONE OF THE FORE-ARM.—The ulna is an irregular bone, in form
triangular, with the base uppermost, and is placed on the supero-posterior or
(upper and back) part of the radius.

14. CARPUS, OR KNEE.—The carpus, knee or wrist, as it is incorrectly termed in

quadrupeds, is composed of seven and often of eight small, irregular bones
arranged in two rows of three each, one above the other, the seventh being at the
back of the three in the upper row, and the eight, when present, in a similar
position with respect to the lower row. Their names are as follows: scaphoid,
lunar bone, cuneiform bone, trapezium, trapezoid, os magnus, unciform,
pisiform, which is not always present.

15. OS METACARPI MAGNUS, METACARPAL OR CANNON BONE.—The large

metacarpal, or cannon bone, is a long, straight bone, placed in a vertical
direction. Its superior or upper extremity articulates with the carpus and its
inferior or lower extremity articulates with the os suffraginis and the two
sesamoids.

16. OSSA METACARPI PARVA, OR SPLINT BONES.—The two small metacarpal, or

splint bones, tuberous in form (marked or covered with projections) at the carpus
and tapering distally (lower portion), are attached to the large bone, one on each
side of its posterior (back) surface, by ligaments in the young animal, and by
ossification (union of bone) in most grown up, and in all old animals.

17. PROXIMAL PHALANX, OS SUFFRAGINIS, OR LARGE PASTERN BONE.—The os

suffraginis, or large pastern bone, passes obliquely downwards and forwards,
and articulates with the cannon bone above, and the median phalanx or os
coronae below. It belongs to the class of long bones.

18. GREAT SESAMOID BONES.—These bones, two in number, are placed side by
side at the postero-inferior (back and lower) part of the metacarpus and postero-
superior (back and upper) part of the os suffraginis; they are irregular in shape,
their back parts are covered with cartilage, for the passage of the flexor tendons
of the digit or the last four bones of the limb. Their superior or upper surface is
roughened, and their sides, which are grooved for the reception of the
suspensory ligament. (This is called the fetlock joint.)

19. MEDIAN PHALANX, OS CORONAE, OR SMALL PASTERN BONE.—The second

phalanx, os coronae, or small pastern bone, has no marrow canal, and belongs to
the class of irregular bones. It is inclined, like the os suffraginis, obliquely
downwards and forwards, and is partly covered by the hoof. The upper portion
of this bone articulates with the os suffraginis and the two sesamoids, the lower
part articulates with the os pedis.

20. DISTAL PHALANX, OS PEDIS, OR COFFIN BONE.—The third, or ungual phalanx,

os pedis, or coffin bone, is an irregular bone situated within the hoof, and, when
in a healthy state, corresponding somewhat to it in shape, being semilunar in
form, with the convexity to the front. This bone is very hard and porous, having
many openings for the transmission of arteries and veins. In this bone we notice
the wall, the sole, the tendonous surface, the articular surface, and the alae or
wings. This bone articulates with os coronae superiorly (upper) and posteriorly it
articulates with the os navicular bone.

21. OS NAVICULARE.—The naviculare, third or small sesamoid, or shuttle bone, is

an irregular bone, situated with its long axis transversely, behind and below the
os coronae, and behind the os pedis, with both of which it articulates, the
articulation of the three forming the so-called coffin joint. The lower surface of
this bone is important as it is covered with cartilage, and together form a kind of
a pully over which plays the great flexor perforans muscle. The remaining
portion of the anterior limb or front leg, will be considered under anatomy of the
foot. The navicular bone can be plainly seen on Plate VII, anatomy of the foot.

22. FEMUR OR THIGH BONE.—The os femoris, femur or thigh bone, the largest,
thickest, and strongest bone in the body, belongs to the class of long bones, and
is placed in a direction obliquely downwards and forwards, articulating with the
cup-shaped cavity in the pelvic or hip bones superiorly (or upper), and with the
tibia and patella inferiorly (or below). This bone is roughened for the attachment
of the powerful muscles of the hip.

23. PATELLA, OR STIFLE BONE.—This, the kneepan or stifle bone, is placed in front
of the pully-shaped groove of the femur. It is very compact, its front surface
being irregular, round and very much roughened, for ligamentous attachment,
and its posterior (or back) surface very smooth to articulate with the groove in
the femur, presenting two depressions divided by a ridge, the inner being the
larger, and in the fresh state enlarged still more by projecting cartilaginous lip, or
elevation. The patella increases the power of the hind leg, and it is this bone that
causes stifle joint lameness when it slips out of the groove in which it glides
normally.

24. TIBIA, OR LEGBONE.—The tibia or leg bone, is a long bone, larger at its upper
than its lower end, situated between the femur and the astragalus, slanting
downwards and backwards. This bone is three-sided, possessing outer, inner and
back surfaces, all of which are wider above than below. This bone gives
attachment to the flexor muscles of the hip.

25. FIBULA.—This is a long slender bone, little developed in the horse, and is an
appendage to the tibia, being attached to the outer side of that bone, and
extending from its head to its lower third, to which it is affixed by a ligament;
the space between the two bones is called the tibial arch. The fibula gives
attachment to the peroneus muscle, the muscle that is supposed to be severely
contracted when an animal is affected with string-halt.

26. TARSUS, OR HOCK BONES.—The tarsus, or hock, corresponding to the ankle-

joint of a man, is composed of six irregular compact bones, situated between the
lower end of the tibia and the superior or upper extremity of the metatarsus; they
are arranged in two series; one consisting of the cuboid and three cuneiform
bones, the magnum, medium, and parvum, corresponds to the lower row or
carpal bones; the other upper series consists of the astragalus and calcaneum; the
first, forming with the bone above the mobile portion of the joint, may be said to
correspond to the upper row of carpal bones, while the latter, being the lever
bone, corresponds to the trapezium. These bones, like those of the carpus, are
thickly covered with cartilage on their articular surfaces, which acts as a
protection against concussion. It is these bones that become diseased and united
when an animal is affected with bone spavin. The calcaneum bone which forms
the prominent part, termed the point of the hock, and corresponds to the heel-
bone of man. This bone gives attachment to the calcaneo-cuboid ligament, and it
is this ligament that is sprained or ruptured in curb of the hock.

28. METATARSUS, OR OS METATARSI MAGNUM.—This bone presents the same

general appearance as the large metacarpal or cannon bone, from which it differs
principally in being about one-sixth longer and flattened from side to side. It is
rounded and more prominent in front. This bone articulates above with the tarsus
bones, and its lower portion articulates with the os suffraginis.

29. OSSA METATARSI PARVA, OR SPLINT BONES OF THE HIND LEG.—These also
present the same general form as the small metacarpal bones of the front leg; the
outer is the longest and largest, and has the largest head, with two surfaces which
articulates with the cuboid bone; the inner one has also three articular surfaces,
two for small, and one for the middle cuniform bones. The two surfaces on each
head articulate with corresponding ones on the large metatarsal bone. The
remaining bones of the hind extremity, viz.: the three phalanges, with their three
accessory bones, so closely resemble the corresponding bones of the fore
extremity, that it seems at first sight difficult to distinguish one from the other;
the chief differences being, that the first phalanx of the hind extremity is longer;
its upper end larger, and its lower end smaller, than in the fore extremity.

COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY.
In this section we shall endeavor to point out where the skeleton of the
domesticated animals, other than the horse, differ from the typical skeleton of
the latter in any important particular. The following descriptions are therefore in
all cases comparisons, where comparison is possible, between the typical
skeleton and the skeleton in question.
 RUMINANTIA.
(Cud Chewing Animal.)
In this class we take the ox as the animal which represents the best for our
purpose, the family of ruminating or cud-chewing animals, as cattle, sheep and
goats.

THE SKULL OR CRANIUM.—In the skull of the ox an important feature is the

development of the frontal or forehead bone, which extends from below the eyes
to the back of the skull, forming the entire forehead and crest or top, in the
middle of which is the forehead tuberosity or knob-like elevation, which is very
large in hornless animals. Springing from the sides of the top are two processes,
varying in size and shape, but corresponding to the shape of the horns, which
they support.

VERTEBRAE.—The true vertebral column is made up of 26 bones divided into

seven cervical or neck-bones, 13 dorsal or back-bones, and six lumbar or loin
bones.

CERVICAL OR NECK-BONES.—The bodies of these bones are shorter than those of

the horse, but same in number.

DORSAL OR BACK-BONES.—These bones are longer than in the horse, but have the
same general form. It gives attachment to 13 ribs on each side in the same
manner as those of the horse.

LUMBAR OR LOIN BONES.—The lumbar vertebrae are longer and thicker than in
the horse, their bodies being more round on the sides and lower surfaces.

SACRUM, OR RUMP BONES.—The sacrum is larger and more arched, and the upper
surface more round than in the horse.

COCCYGEAL OR TAIL BONES.—The tail bones are from 15 to 20 in number, are

strong and rougher than those of the horse.

PELVIS OR HIP BONES.—The pelvis is larger, but presents the same general
appearance as in the horse.
In studying the bones of the limbs in ruminants, the only point of difference is in
bones below the knee. The large metacarpal bone presents a vertical groove
down its front, which marks the original division of the bone into two bones. The
lower extremity is divided by a deep groove into two articulations, each
resembling the single one of the horse. The outer one being always the smaller, a
rudimentary metacarpus is placed on the back and outer surface. The pasterns
and sesamoids in either limb are double, one set forming each digit; they are
small and narrow, the coffin bone resembles half of that of the horse, equally
divided.
In the aged ruminant, two bones are commonly found in the heart, and may be
termed the cardiac bones. They are found related with auriculo-ventricular rings.
In shape they present three angles, three borders, and two surfaces. The left bone
is somewhat smaller than the right.

OMNIVORA.
Animals eating both vegetable and animal food.
The omnivora are represented in veterinary anatomy by the hog.

CARNIVORA.
An order, suborder, or family of mammals, especially wild animals, including
the dog and cat, etc. Animals that eat flesh.
In this order our description alludes mostly to the dog.

AVES.
The scope of the present work will allow only very brief treatment of this part of
the subject.
Of or pertaining to Birds, Poultry, Etc.
The bone tissue or substance of birds are exceedingly compact and hard, white in
color; and some of the bones are pneumatic, or contain air instead of marrow,
notably these are bones of the skull, the sternum or breast bone, and the upper
bones of the limbs. There are a great variety in the amount of pneumaticity or air
possessed by the skeleton of different species, but it is not necessarily
determined by the flying power of the animal.
 CHAPTER II.

ARTHROLOGY.
What is known regarding the articulations of bones of joints. The several bones
which form the skeleton are united by means of certain soft structures, forming a
number of articulations or joints, the study of which is termed arthrology.
Before considering the different forms of joints, it will be advisable to describe
briefly the various tissue, other than bone, which enter into and contributes
towards their formation. These are chiefly cartilage, connective and elastic
substance or tissues, and fat.
In health, one bone never comes directly in contact with another, cartilage or
fibrous tissue being always interposed; an exception to this exists in the adult
skull, most of the bones of which become firmly united by ossification of the
interposed soft material.

CARTILAGE.—Cartilage, known also by the familiar name of gristle, is a firm,

bluish-white elastic animal substance, somewhat transparent, resilient, and
flexible, possessing great cohesive power. That which forms the original basis of
the bony framework is termed temporary, and that which persists in the adult,
permanent cartilage; the former disappears as it is replaced by bone, but the
latter, of which alone we have to treat here, never under normal circumstances
become ossified. Cartilage consists of corpuscles or cells, usually embedded in
an intercellular substance.
The articular cartilage is important as it encrusts the articular surfaces of bones,
helping to form joints by supplying smooth, elastic cushions, which diminishes
both concussion and friction.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE (White fibrous tissue.)—In one form or another this tissue is
found in all parts of the body. The chief varieties are the areolar and the fibrous;
the former serving as a connecting medium, and support to the various organs,
and to the structures of which they are formed. It appears as a loose, transparent
mesh, its interwoven bundles forming spaces termed the areolar or cells.
Connective tissue contains nerves and blood-vessels, for the supply of
neighboring structures as well as for its own nourishment. When healthy it is
little sensitive to pain.

YELLOW ELASTIC TISSUE.—This differs from the white or connective tissue in

being yellow, elastic, and not so tough or strong. Its fibers are usually large but
when mixed with the white tissue in tendons the size diminishes.
Yellow elastic tissue is found nearly pure in the ligamentum nuchae, and tunica
abdominis, the coats of the largest arteries and elsewhere. The lungs contain a
large quantity of this tissue.
When white fibrous tissue is boiled gelatine is obtained, which is not the result
of boiling the yellow elastic tissue.

ADIPOSE TISSUE.—Fat or adipose tissue consists of cells containing an oily

material, and arranged in isolated groups, or slightly separated by meshes of
areolar tissue. It is found in many parts of the body, and varies greatly in
quantity; in joints it occurs between the ligaments, and serves the purpose of a
packing material, while in the form of medulla or marrow it occupies the cavities
of bones. In fat cell a nucleus is very rarely visible.

LIGAMENTS.—Ligaments are dense, fibrous, connecting structures. They exist in

most articulations, and are made up principally of white fibrous tissue. There are
two kinds—capsular or bursal, and funicular or binding ligaments.
Capsular ligaments are membranous structures enclosing true joints. They
consist of a dense interlacement of fibers attached to bones, round the edges of
the articular cartilages; some regard them as a continuation of the periosteum or
the covering of bone. They are never closely applied, their use being to form
cavities round the joints, enclosing and protecting the synovial or lubricating
apparatus inside.
Funicular or binding ligaments consist of rounded or flattened cords, or bands of
fibrous tissue, passing from one bone to another, firmly attached to roughened
portions of their surfaces. They hold the bones in their places, at the same time
allowing the requisite amount of motion in the joints. Ligaments which are
situated between bones are often termed interosseous. Annular ligaments are
those which bind down and protect the tendons of muscles in certain joints,
converting grooves in the bones into channels or tubes which are lined with
synovial membrane, and through which the tendons play.
Some ligaments are composed almost entirely of yellow elastic tissue, such as
the ligamentum nuchae (the elastic ligament of the neck) and the ligaments
connecting the vertebral arches (arches between the bones of the spinal column).

SYNOVIAL MEMBRANES.—These are thin membranes lining the capsular ligaments

of joints, or they are interposed elsewhere between structures which move one
upon another, and which would otherwise be injured by the friction. Near the
borders of articular cartilages the membrane is generally found as a projecting
fold, the projection being due to a small pad of fat, interposed between the
membrane and the capsular ligament. These projections were once erroneously
termed synovial glands, but their use is probably to assist in forcing the synovia
between the opposing surfaces of cartilage.

SYNOVIA.—Synovia or joint oil, is a viscid, transparent fluid, colorless, or pale

yellow, physically resembling oil, but it contains very little fatty material,
consisting chiefly of albumen, salts and water; it is secreted by the cells of the
inner surface of the synovial membrane. When an animal is in active exertion,
there is a greater demand for joint oil than when at rest, consequently there is an
increased secretion of it.

CLASSES OF JOINTS.—Joints may be divided into three classes—Immovable,

movable and mixed.

MOTION IN JOINTS.—The following terms express the various movements allowed

by joints—Extension tends to bring two bones as nearly into a straight line as the
structure of the joint will permit; flexion is the reverse of this, and diminishes the
angle that extension increases; abduction expresses the outward movement of a
limb or bone from the central line of the body; adduction is the reverse action;
rotation signifies the partial revolution of a bone or number of bones, as it were,
on their own axis; circumduction implies the movement of the lower end of a
bone or limb, where it describes a curve, as the bow of a circle, ellipse, etc. The
term gliding explains itself, and is peculiar to movable and other joints having no
frictional surfaces.
Important points of joints to be considered will be described on Plate I by
Roman figures to correspond with those given below.

JOINTS OF THE FRONT LEG.

I. SHOULDER JOINT.—This joint is formed by the lower end of the scapula, or

shoulder blade, and the upper end of humerus or shoulder bone. This is a ball-
and-socket joint, and is held in its place by ligaments and muscles. This belongs
to the class of rotation joints, its action is outward, inward, backward and
forward.

II. ELBOW JOINT.—This joint is formed by the lower part of the humerus and the
upper portion of the radius and ulna. It is covered with ligaments and muscles
similar to the above mentioned joint. This is a hinge joint the action of which is
only forward and backward, or flexion and extension. It has no lateral
movement.

III. CARPUS OR KNEE JOINT.—This joint has been explained very thoroughly in the
previous chapter. There are three separate articular surfaces in this joint. This
joint has a large capsular ligament, and has binding ligaments one above the
other, the seventh being at the back of the three in the upper row, and the eight,
when present, in a similar position with respect to the lower row. Thus there are
three separate articular surfaces in this joint. The upper surface of the carpus
articulates with the radius; this forms the hinge joint of the knee and is where
flexion and extension takes place. Another articulation between the upper and
lower carpus bones give slight motion to the knee, but not so much as the upper
articular surface. Between the lower surface of the lower row of carpus bones
and the upper extremity of the metacarpal, or cannon bones, is another articular
surface which gives motion to the knee. This joint has a large capsular ligament,
and has binding ligaments inside and outside. In addition to the flexion and
extension movement the knee joint possesses, it also serves as a cushion and
relieves concussion of the fore limb.

IV. FETLOCK JOINT.—This joint is formed above by the lower portion of the
metacarpal, or cannon bone, and below by the part of the os suffraginis or the
large pastern bone. At the back of this joint there are two small bones called the
sesamoid bones. This joint has a capsular and two lateral binding ligaments. The
motion of this joint is a backward and forward or flexion and extension, same as
that of the knee.

V. PASTERN JOINT.—This joint is situated just above the hoof, and is formed by
the lower end of the os suffraginis or large pastern bone and the upper end of the
os coronae or small pastern bone. It has a capsular and lateral binding ligaments,
same as the fetlock joint. It also has the same motion as the fetlock joint, and is
often the seat of what is termed a high ringbone.

VI. COFFIN JOINT.—This joint is situated within the hoof. It is formed above by
the lower end of the os coronae or small pastern bone, and below by the upper
surface of the os pedis or coffin bone. Immediately behind this joint, and
articulating with the two mentioned bones, is the navicular, or shuttle bone—it
gets its name from its likeness to the shuttle of a sewing machine. This bone
when diseased is the seat of navicular disease, or coffin-joint lameness. The
action of this joint is very slight forward and backward.

JOINTS OF THE HIND LEG.

VII. HIP JOINT. The hip joint is formed by the pelvis and femur bone. This is a
true ball-and-socket joint similar to the shoulder joint. It has a capsular, and is
called the round ligament, in the joint, holding the head or ball on the femur in
the socket of the pelvis. This can be seen plainly by examining the joint. This
round ligament is important, as it often becomes strained, being the seat of hip
joint lameness. It is also held together by the strong muscles of the hip. Its
motion is rotation similar to that of the shoulder joint.

VIII. STIFLE JOINT.—This joint is formed above by the lower end of the femur, or
hip bone, and the upper end of the tibia or thigh bone. These two bones in front
form a pulley-like surface on which the patella, or stifle bone, is situated. This
bone, when the joint is in motion, glides up and down over the pulley-like
surface. It sometimes becomes displaced, and this is termed dislocation of the
patella or stifle bone. This is an important point to notice about this joint. It has a
capsular and lateral, or binding ligament, which hold the stifle bone to its place
as it plays upon the pulley-like process of this joint. The action of this joint is
only forward and backward or flexion and extension. It has no lateral or side
motion.

IX. TARSUS OR HOCK JOINT.—This joint contains six bones. The two upper bones,
one of which is a pulley-like bone placed in front, and the other placed behind,
forms that portion of the hock which is called the point of the hock to which the
muscles of the gambe are attached. It can be easily seen or felt. The upper
surface of these two bones articulate with the lower portion of the tibia or thigh
bone, and forms a true articulation of the hock joint. This part is what gives most
of the motion to the joint. Below these are three other small, irregular bones,
placed one upon the other, having an articular surface between them.
Immediately behind these three small bones is what is called the cuboid bone.
This bone also articulates with the three small irregular bones, helping to form
the articular surface of the hock. The lower articular surface helps to give a small
amount of motion to the joint. This joint is the seat of bone or bog spavin due to
severe sprains, or poorly conformed joints.
Fetlock, pastern and coffin joints of the hind leg are so closely allied to those of
the fore leg that it is not worth while discriminating between them.
 CHAPTER III.

MYOLOGY.
The branch of anatomy which treats of the muscular system is called Myology.
Muscles are the active organs of motion, or locomotion, each being separated
from the other by a thin delicate membrane made up of connective tissue, which
forms a sheath for the muscle. A muscle is divided into two parts, viz.: muscular
and tendinous. The muscular part is the larger of the two. It is sometimes called
the belly of the muscle or flesh. This part is known as muscular tissue, and has a
reddish, meaty color. At both ends of the muscle there is a tendinous part, or the
hard, white portion of the muscle which becomes attached to the bone. All
muscles are attached to two or more places of different bones, and when
contracted, the joints of the body are moved. They are well supplied with nerves,
which give strength and feeling, and also well supplied with small blood vessels,
from which the muscle is fed. Muscles are found in separate groups, all of which
have different actions to perform. There are two kinds of muscles—voluntary
and involuntary. The voluntary muscles are under the control of the will of the
animal; example—the muscles of the head, neck, back, hip and legs. The
involuntary muscles are beyond control of the animal, and will act even though
the animal were asleep—such as those of the heart, the large muscular curtain
which separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity, which is one of the
great muscles of breathing; also the muscles around the chest which assist in
breathing.

MUSCLES OF THE HORSE—SUPERFICIAL LAYER—AFTER

MEGNIN.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

MUSCLES OF THE HORSE.

This illustration shows the superficial muscles of the body after the skin and
panniculus carnosis muscle has been carefully removed. This muscle is spread
over the greater part of the body, which is related externally with the skin;
internally with the superficial layer of muscles. Its action corrugates the skin,
and thus enables the animal to expel or shake off insects and irritating bodies, its
use being thus protective to some extent; it also supports and binds down the
superficial muscles.
SUPERFICIAL LAYER.
The panniculus and tunica abdominalis are removed.
1. Abducens. 31. Caput magnum extensor brachii.
2. Retrahentes muscles. 33. Extensor metacarpi magnus.
2′. Attollens maximus. 34. Humeralis obliquus.
2″. Attollens anticus. 35. Extensor pedis.
3. Temporalis. 36. Flexor metacarpi externus and medius.
4. Nasalis longus. 37. Flexor metacarpi internus.
5. Orbicularis palpebrarum. 46. Cervical
6. Levator labii superioris alæque nasi. 47. Dorsal serratus magnus.
7. Dilatator naris lateralis. 48. Rhomboideus longus.
8. Orbicularis oris. 49. Superficialis costarum.
9. Zygomaticus. 50. Splenius.
9′. Buccinator. 52. Intercostales.
10. Depressor labii inferioris. 54. Tensor fasciæ latæ.
11. Masseter. 55. Triceps abductor femoris.
12. Levator humeri. 56. Gluteus externus.
13. Trapezius cervicalis. 61. Biceps rotator tibialis.
14. Trapezius dorsalis. 62. Rectus femoris.
15. Latissimus dorsi. 63. Vastus externus.
18. Pectoralis parvus. 65. Gastrocnemius externus.
19. Pectoralis magnus. 68. Flexor pedis perforans.
20. Sterno-maxillaris. 69. Peroneus.
23. Subscapulo-hyoideus. 70. Extensor pedis.
24. Antea-spinatus. 71. Flexor metatarsi.
25. Teres externus. 72. Flexor pedis accessorius.
26. Postea-spinatus. 74. Obliquus abdominis externus.
30. Caput medium of the triceps.

VOLUNTARY MUSCLES.—The voluntary muscles are in groups. The first muscle we

will call the student’s attention to, after removing the skin, is the panniculus
carnosus (not shown in Plate I), which is a thin muscle, and almost entirely
covering the body, which is sometimes accidentally removed by a careless
person in skinning the animal. The action of this muscle is to shake the skin
when flies or other objects bother the horse. This muscle is not shown in Plate I
it having been removed in order to show the more important ones.

HEAD MUSCLES.—At the head there is a group of muscles which assist in

chewing, or masticating, the food.

GULLET OR PHARYNX MUSCLES.—Around the throat is another set of muscles,

sometimes called the muscles of the gullet, or pharynx, which assist in
swallowing.

NECK MUSCLES.—The neck muscles are divided into two groups, one on each
side. The action of these is to raise and lower the head, also to turn the neck and
head from side to side.

MUSCLES OF THE BACK.—The muscles of the back are generally divided into two
groups, one above the spinal column and the other below. The muscles above the
spine assist the animal in running, jumping and rearing. The muscles below the
spine are sometimes called the psoae, or lumbar, muscles, situated below the
lumbar bones, or the bones of the small of the back. The action of these muscles
is to assist the animal in getting up. These muscles are important, for when
paralyzed the horse cannot use his hindquarters. Below these muscles are the
kidneys.

HIP OR GLUTEAL MUSCLES.—The muscles of the hip are very large, filling in
around the hip bones. The action of these is much the same as those of the back,
as they assist in jumping, running, rearing and in flexing and extending the hind
leg.

MUSCLES OF THE HORSE—DEEP LAYER—AFTER MEGNIN.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

 MUSCLES OF THE HORSE.
Deep Layer.
1. Temporalis. 22. Humeralis obliquus.
1. Stylo-maxillaris. 22´. Caput parvum (of triceps extensor brachii).
2. Rectus capitis anticus major. 23. Extensor suffraginis.
3. Sterno-thyro-hyoideus. 24. Extensor metacarpi magnus divided.
4. Sterno-maxillaris. 25. Extensor metacarpi obliquus.
5. The Trachea. 25´. Its tendon.
6. Scalenus. 26, 28. Flexor pedis perforans and perforatus.
7. Splenius. 29. Obliquus abdominis internus.
8. Funicular part of ligamentum nuchæ. 30. Gluteus maximus.
9. Rhomboideus longus. 31. Erector coccygis.
10. Cervical. 32. Curvator coccygis.
15. Costal serratus magnus. 33. Depressor coccygis.
11. Cartilage of prolongation. 34. Rectus femoris.
12. Rhomboideus brevis. 35. Vastus externus.
13. Transversalis costarum. 36. Part covered by triceps abductor.
14. Longissimus dorsi. 37. Biceps rotator tibialis.
15. Serratus Magnus. 38. Gastrocnemius externus.
16. External intercostals. 39. Plantaris.
17. Internal intercostals. 40. Flexor pedis perforans.
18. Rectus abdominis. 41. Peroneus.
19 19. Pectoralis magnus. 42. Flexor metatarsi.
20. Postea-spinatus minor. 43. Extensor pedis (cut across).
21. Flexor brachii.

TAIL OR COCCYGEAL MUSCLES.—Here there are four that are important, one
situated on the upper side of the tail when straight out, the action of which is to
raise the tail; two, one on each side of the tail, have the power of drawing the tail
to either side; the fourth is situated under the tail and is the smallest one of the
four. Its action is to draw the tail down.

ABDOMINAL MUSCLES.—The abdominal or belly muscles, are four large, flat

muscles on each side of the abdomen. The outer edge of these muscles is
attached to the outer ends of the false ribs, also to the processes of the lumbar
bones and the outer angles of the pelvic or hip bones. They unite below to what
is called the linea alba, a hard, white fibrous cord. They pass back in the center
of the belly and are attached to the front of the pelvic bones, called the lower
bones of the pelvic cavity. About ten inches from where it is attached here,
passing forward, is a small slit or hole, which is called the navel, or umbilical
opening. Here the navel vessels pass in and out during the foetus life, or before
the colt is foaled. This is a point of importance to note, for sometimes at the time
of birth this opening does not close and allows the bowels to come down and
form what is known as umbilical or navel rupture.
Before finishing the description of this group of muscles a very large, important
ligament should be noted, which is found spread all over the abdomen of the
horse. It is of a yellowish color and about one-eighth of an inch thick, attached in
front to the back of the breast bone and to the pelvic bones behind. This is the
first structure seen after removing the skin from the abdomen. This ligament
gives great support to the organs contained in the abdominal cavity. The action,
or uses, of the abdominal muscles are to support the organs contained in the
abdominal cavity, to flex the back-bone and assist in passing of the feces. In the
mare these muscles assist in parturition, or foaling.

SHOULDER MUSCLES.—The shoulder muscles are very large and powerful. There
are only three of great importance. Two situated on the outside of the scapula or
shoulder blade are important, as they are muscles affected in the disease called
shoulder sweeny. The other important one is that which passes down over the
shoulder joint through the groove or pulley-like surface on the humerus, or
shoulder bone. This is a long, powerful muscle, attached above to the lower end
of the scapula, or shoulder blade, passing down through the groove mentioned,
and is attached to the upper and front part of the radius or fore arm bone. Its
chief point of importance rests in its action in raising the front leg, where it
passes over the pulley-like surface mentioned, when it becomes injured or
diseased; it is the seat of shoulder joint lameness.

MUSCLES OF THE FRONT LEG.—Muscles of the front leg, from the shoulder down,
are divided into two separate kinds, the extensor and flexor muscles. The
extensor muscles are those which bring the leg forward. These muscles above
are attached to the bones around the elbow joint, passing down in front of the
arm bones. About three inches above the knee they become changed into the
tendinous part of the muscles, or what is called the cords of the leg. Some of
them are attached to the bones about the knee joint, while others pass over the
front of the joint and are held down to their place by a band or ligament, forming
a loop, as it were, for the tendinous portion of the muscle to glide into when the
leg is in action. Each one of these loops through which the muscles pass are
supplied with a synovial membrane to secrete the synovia, or oil, which lubricate
it during action, the same as in the joint. This is a point of importance, as
sometimes, on account of injury or strain of this part of the joint through which
the muscles play there may be found a small, puffy enlargement containing oil
secreted by the synovial membrane. This disease is called bursal enlargement.
The flexor muscles are situated at the back part of the leg, attached above to the
back part of the elbow joint, passing downwards at the back part of the leg.
About two or three inches above the back part of the knee joint they become
tendinous, and from there down to the back part of the coffin bone, where two of
the principle muscles are attached; these form what is known as the back
tendons, or cords, of the leg. Some of them become attached to the back part of
the knee, same as the muscles on the front part of the leg, while the other two
principal tendons pass through a loop formed by ligaments, the same as those
mentioned in the front part of the knee. In tracing these tendons down from the
knee to the fetlock, notice that they pass through another larger loop or sheath
formed at the back of the fetlock, where some of the fibers are attached, while
others continue down at the back part of the pastern bones, and are attached to
the os pedis or coffin bone. These tendons are important, because when they are
strained the fact is spoken of as the strain of the back tendons. The action of
these muscles is to flex the leg, bend the knee, pastern joints and fetlock.

MUSCLES OF THE HIND LEG.—These are also divided into two groups, extensor
and flexor. The extensor muscles are situated in front of the hind leg. They are
attached above, around the stifle joint, and pass downward in front of the tibia,
or thigh bone, one being attached to the front part of the hock. The other passes
through sheaths, or loops, supplied by a synovial membrane, formed by
ligaments, to hold the muscles firm in front while the leg is in action. In tracing
them down, in front of the shin bone to the fetlock, note that they pass through
loops, or sheaths, and continue down in front of the pastern bones to where they
are attached. The action of these is to bring the leg forward.
The flexor muscles of the hind legs are attached, above, around the back part of
the stifle joint. In tracing them down it will be found that they become
tendonous. Two of the principal ones pass down to that part of the hock joint,
which forms the point known as the cap. These form what is called the gambe of
the leg, and are partly attached at the point of the hock, and other part passing
down to the fetlock joint through a loop, or sheath, along the back part of the
pastern bones, and are attached to the os pedis or coffin bone of the foot. This
muscle, from the hock down, forms one of the back tendons of the hind leg.
Another important muscle is found passing down underneath those already
mentioned, through a loop, or sheath, at the back part of the hock, where it is
supplied with a synovia sac. This is a point of importance, because when it
becomes sprained it is the seat of what is called thoroughpin. It then passes down
the back part of the shin bone beneath the other tendons already mentioned,
through the loop at the fetlock to the back part of the os pedis or coffin bone,
where it is attached. The action of these muscles are to flex or bend the fetlock
and raise the hock joint in traveling.

INVOLUNTARY MUSCLES.—Involuntary muscles, or muscles not under the control

of the will. The first to notice are those of breathing or respiration. They form a
group situated about the chest in such a way as to be the means of increasing or
decreasing the size of the chest cavity. When these muscles expand the chest
cavity is enlarged, causing the air to rush into the lungs, known an inspiration.
On the other hand, when these muscles contract the air is expelled from the
lungs, known as expiration.
The diaphragm is a muscular curtain which separates the chest from the
abdominal cavity. It also assists greatly in drawing the air in, when it contracts.
This muscle also assists in passing faeces, and in the mare foaling. It separates
the heart and lungs from the bowels, liver and stomach. This muscle should be
carefully examined by the students. It can be seen by opening any dead animal.
There is one muscle which is both voluntary and involuntary. It is situated in the
penis, surrounding the urethra, or the tube, which carries the urine from the
bladder to the penis in the male animal. Its action is voluntary while the animal
is passing urine. It is involuntary during sexual intercourse, forcing the semen
down through the penis.
 DIGESTIVE AND MALE URINARY APPARATUS OF A HORSE—
AFTER MEGNIN.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV

DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF THE HORSE

1. Mouth. 13. Rectum.
2. Pharynx. 14. Anus.
3. Œsophagus. 15. Left kidney and ureter.
4. Diaphragm. 16. Bladder.
5. Spleen. 17. Urethra.
6. Stomach (left sac). a. Hard palate.
7. Duodenum. b. Tongue.
8. Liver (upper extremity). c. Soft palate.
9. Great colon. d. Trachea.
10. Cæcum. e. Pulmonary artery (divided).
11. Small intestine. f. Heart.
12. Floating colon. g. Posterior aorta.
 CHAPTER IV.

SPLANCHNOLOGY.
Study of large interior organs in any of the four great bodily cavities especially
those in the abdomen.

DIGESTIVE ORGANS OF THE HORSE.—The digestive organs comprise the alimentary

canal and the accessories by which the alimentary matter is received and
subjected to specific actions, which adapt it for purposes of nutrition. Digestion,
therefore, embraces the collective operations and changes which the food
undergoes in the alimentary canal.
The whole digestive track from the mouth to the anus which is situated just
below the tail, is sometimes called the alimentary canal.
The mouth is an oval cavity at the commencement of the alimentary or digestive
canal. In front of the mouth are the lips, one above and one below; at the sides
are the cheeks. The mouth is lined with what is known as the mucous membrane,
in which are several small openings, from the glands, which are situated about
the mouth. Through these the saliva is poured. On the upper part of the mouth
the mucous membrane is thrown into ridges, or folds, from 18 to 20 in number.
This is a point of importance in connection with bleeding a horse with lampas. It
is never safe to bleed back of the third bar because there is a large artery which
runs down through the roof of the mouth and enters the hole in the bone just
before it reaches this bar. The tongue, which has the chief nerves of the sense of
taste, is situated in the mouth; this organ also has a very important part to
perform in masticating the food and mixing it with saliva. The teeth, which also
take a very active part in the masticating of food, are dealt with under the
heading of “Teeth.”

SALIVARY GLANDS.—These glands secrete the saliva that is poured into the mouth
while the animal is eating. There are only three pairs of much importance. One
large pair, one on each side of the throat below the ears, known as the parotid
glands, fill up the space between the jaw bone and the neck. This pair has tubes
passing around and under the lower jaw and up into the cheek muscles entering
the mouth opposite the fourth molar tooth. These tubes, known as steno’s ducts
are about an eighth of an inch in diameter and convey the saliva from the glands
into the mouth. The next pair are situated under the pair just mentioned. Their
tubes enter into the bottom part of the mouth. The third pair are situated under
the tongue, one on each side. They pour their secretion into the mouth by several
small openings near the front under the tongue. This can be seen by examining
the under surface of the tongue closely. This is very important fluid in
connection with the digesting of the food.
The gullet is a cavity situated just back of the mouth. It is chiefly made up of
muscles which perform the act of swallowing the food. It is lined with the
continuation of the mucous membrane of the mouth.
The oesophagus, or the continuation of the gullet, is a tube extending from the
gullet to the stomach, and is used to convey the food to that organ. It is made up
of two coats, the muscular and the mucous. The former contains fibers which,
when once the food enters the tube, contract behind it, forcing it down to the
stomach. Its lining is a continuation of the mucous membrane of the mouth and
the gullet. In tracing the oesophagus or tube down the neck from the gullet, note
that it passes down the left side of the neck, entering the thoracic, or chest cavity,
between the lungs over the heart through the large muscular curtain known as the
diaphragm, then enters the stomach an inch or two after passing the diaphragm.

THE STOMACH.—This organ is very small in the horse in comparison with that of
the ox. It holds only about four gallons, and is situated just back of the curtain
which separates it from the lungs. It lies mostly to the left side. The walls of the
stomach being composed of three coats. That on the outside is called the serous
membrane, a name applied to membranes which line closed cavities, such as the
abdominal cavity. The inside lining is a continuation of the mucous membrane
lining the organs before mentioned. The lining in the left part of the stomach or
the part where the food is prepared for digestion is the same color as that of the
mouth. The lining of the right part of the stomach, which is the true digestive
part, is of a deep red color resembling velvet, and when placed under a
microscope has the appearance of a honey-comb. When the stomach is empty
this membrane is thrown into loose folds. Several small openings may be noticed
through which the gastric juice and pepsin from the glands, situated in the walls
of the stomach, enters. These are very important fluids as they assist greatly in
digesting the food. The third coat is known as the muscular coat already
mentioned. Its action is to give the stomach a churning motion, rolling the food
around and mixing it with the juices. The opening to the stomach is guarded by a
valve which prevents the food from passing back through the gullet. There is
also a valve at the opening of the bowels, preventing any coarse, undigested food
from entering them. The stomach is held in its place by five large ligaments, and
is well supplied by blood-vessels and nerves. Digestion of the food takes place
very quickly in the horse in comparison to other animals. Frequently a change of
food or working too soon after eating will interfere with the digestion, thus
setting up what is known as indigestion. This is a very painful disease in the
horse. After the food is acted upon by the juices in the stomach it changes into
what is known as chyme, which passes into the bowels.

THE BOWELS.—They are divided into two parts—the large and small.
The small bowels are 72 feet in length, about one inch in diameter, and are made
up of three coats, same as the stomach. The serous coat on the outside contains
small glands which secrete an oily material to lubricate the outside of the
bowels, which comes in contact with the inner wall of the abdominal cavity. The
muscular coat, made up of muscular fibers, is situated between the other two
coats, the same as in the stomach; its action is to contract the bowels, giving
them motion to convey the food along through them. The mucous coat is a
continuation of the mucous coat of the stomach. Along this coat are found small
glands known as villi lacteal; these absorb the nourishment from the food as it
passes along through the bowels and pours it into the blood. The small intestines
or bowels are attached on the upper side to what is known as the mesentery,
which is attached above to the roof of the abdominal cavity. It can be seen in any
of the smaller animals upon examination. About six inches from the stomach, in
the bowels, are found two openings. One of these receive the hepatic duct, a tube
for the purpose of carrying the bile from the liver to be poured in on the food as
it passes through the bowels. The other opening is for the duct of the gland
known as the pancreas. It secretes a clear fluid known as the pancreatic juice.
These juices act on the food in the first part of the small intestines, changing it
into chyle. After this, the action of the rest of the intestines is to absorb the
nourishment out of the food as it is passing back. The small intestines and
stomach, when in a healthy condition, should be found empty one hour after
food has been eaten. The small bowels or intestines are situated mostly on the
left side just behind the stomach.
The large bowels have three coats, the same as the small ones. The first part of
the large bowels is known as the blind bowel or caecum, and is about three feet
in length; this is generally the first thing to protrude when opening a horse’s
abdominal cavity. Its use is to act as a reservoir to hold the water and fluid of the
food; from this organ the water and fluid parts are mostly taken up into the
system. The next part of the large bowels is known as the large colon; it lays
along the floor of the abdominal cavity, is about nine feet in length and is
doubled on itself three times. In this bowel the solid part of the food is found.
Here digestion is brought about by the contraction and expansion of the muscles
of the bowel and the nourishment taken from it, after which it is worked back out
of this bowel and enters what is known as the floating colon. This is about ten
feet in length and about two inches in diameter, or double the size of the small
bowel. It is thrown into folds or pleats, and as that portion of the food containing
no nourishment passes through it is worked into balls which pass back and are
emptied into the rectum or back bowel. This is situated at the back part of the
abdominal and pelvic cavity back of the small bowels or intestines and like
them, is suspended by a fold paritoneum.
The rectum or back bowel is sometimes known as the straight bowel. It is about
18 inches long and forms the last part of the bowels or intestines. Its coats are a
continuation of those of the large bowel, but each is thicker and heavier. Above
this bowel are the bones of the sacrum, below it, in the horse the bladder and
other small glands. Below the rectum of the mare are situated the womb and the
vagina, the latter being the passage into the womb from the outside. The bones
which help to form the pelvic cavity are situated at the sides, and at the back
immediately under the tail is what is known as the annus. The use of the rectum
is to hold the balls as they pass back from the floating colon. When the rectum
becomes so full that there is pressure on the sides of the wall thus stimulating the
nerves the muscular coat contracts and forces the contents back towards the
annus. At the same time the muscles of the annus dilate, causing the faeces to
pass out.

ACCESSORY ORGANS OF DIGESTION.—In the abdominal region these organs are the
Liver, the Pancreas, and the Spleen.
The Liver is the largest gland in the body and is situated between the stomach
and the diaphragm. The liver of the horse weighs from ten to twelve pounds. It is
of a dark brown color, well supplied with blood and nerves, and is held in place
by several strong ligaments. A bitter, greenish colored fluid called the bile is
secreted from the liver and emptied into the digestive system, where it plays an
important part in its action on the food. There is no gall bladder in the horse, but
simply a tube passing from the liver to the small bowel into which it empties the
bile about six inches back of the stomach. It is important to note that it is in this
tube that gall stones sometimes collect.
The Pancreas is another very important gland. It is of a grayish, fatty color, and
may be found near the roof of the abdominal cavity in front of the kidneys. The
Pancreas secretes a clear, colorless fluid called the pancreatic juice. This fluid,
like the bile from the liver, also plays an important part in the digestion of food.
It is carried down from the Pancreas by a duct or tube emptying into the small
bowel just back of that of the liver.
The Spleen is a long, flat gland about fifteen inches in length, situated along the
left side of the stomach and to which it is closely attached. It is of a grayish red
color and feels quite soft. It is ductless, there being no secretion passing from it.
The function of this gland is not clearly understood, but by many it is supposed
to regulate the temperature of the stomach during the process of digestion and to
act as a reservoir for the blood. Some speak of it as the burying ground of the red
corpuscles. It is well supplied with blood vessels and nerves and weighs about
two pounds in an average sized horse.
 RUMINANTIA.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.—The lips of an ox are thick and hard. The upper has no hair
on it and varies in color with the color of the animal. When cattle are in good
health this space is always moist.
The cheeks on the inside are covered by many small rough processes, which give
them a very rough appearance.
The Tongue of the ox is stronger than that of the horse and is more movable. It is
very thick and heavy at the back, pointed at the front end and the upper part of it
is very rough. It is by means of the tongue that the ox takes most of the food into
the mouth.
The Salivary glands are similar to those of the horse.
The Teeth differ very much from those of the horse.
The ox has no front teeth in the upper part of his mouth, their place being taken
by a pad of cartilage or gristle. This pad takes the place of the upper row of front
teeth. The lower row of teeth press against it when the animal is cropping grass.
This accounts for the fact that cattle do not do as well on short grass as horses.
The front teeth in the lower jaw also differ from those of the horse. They are
eight in number, chisel-shaped, and are loosely set in the gum.
The molars, or back teeth, are similar to those of the horse, only they are smaller
and not so smooth on their upper surface. The ox has twenty-four molars or back
teeth, and eight incisors or front teeth, making thirty-two in all.
The Gullet of the ox is much larger than that of the horse.
The Oesophagus or tube, which carries the food down from the mouth to the
stomach is well developed, the fibers in it being very strong and possessing a
double action. When the animal is eating they carry the food from the mouth to
the stomach, and when chewing the cud they act the very opposite, carrying the
food from the stomach back into the mouth.

THE STOMACH.—The student will do well to give some time to the study of this
important organ of the ox, as it is very frequently the seat of disease.
The stomach has a capacity of fifty-two gallons and is divided into four separate
and distinct compartments: the Rumen or Paunch, the Reticulum or Honey
Comb, the Omasum or Many-plies, and the Abomasum or the true Stomach. In
the first three of these the food undergoes a sort of preparatory process, while in
the fourth the process of digestion is complete.
The Rumen or paunch is very large, and in an aged animal fills three-quarters of
the abdominal cavity. It lies up against the left side of the wall of the abdomen,
where it is attached and held to its place by the ligaments. Its situation being an
important matter, as many diseases of the rumen, or paunch, are first noticed on
the left side. Tapping for bloating is always done on the left side because of this
fact. The walls of the paunch of an ox resemble those of the stomach of the
horse, but are not so sensitive, and stand a great deal of abuse before
inflammation sets in. The paunch has two openings, both of which are at the
front; through one the food enters, while through the other it passes out into the
next division.
The Reticulum, or honey comb, is the smallest division and resembles a honey
comb in appearance. This part has little to do with preparing the food. It is
provided with two openings, one in front, where the food enters, the other at the
back, where it passes through into the third division. In the reticulum, or honey
comb, the food is softened further by the water that the animal drinks which
passes directly into the second division. The food is here pressed into balls and
prepared to be forced back into the mouth to be further masticated.
The Omasum, or many-plies, is the second largest division of the stomach. When
full it is ovoid in shape. It is placed just behind the second division and at the
right side of the paunch. The inside is full of folds, or layers of membrane, into
which all the coarse parts of the food pass and roll about until it is fine and well
prepared to pass into the last division. When this part of the stomach becomes
deranged and the food becomes dry and hard between the folds, the disease
called impaction of the many-plies, or dry murrain, is the result.
The Abomasum, or fourth stomach, is the true digestive part. In it the food is
completely digested. The walls are redder in color than those of the three first
divisions and contain the glands which secrete the acids and gastric juices. This
stomach has two openings, one through which the food enters and the other
through which it passes into the small bowels.
The Bowels, or intestines, of the ox are divided into large and small bowels.
This, together with their structure and action resembles that of the horse. The
small bowels are only half the size of the horse, being about one-half inch in
diameter, and about one hundred and fifty feet in length. The large bowels are
not nearly so long as those of the horse and are thirty-five feet in length.
The Liver of the ox resembles that of the horse, except that it is provided with a
gall bladder which resembles a pear in shape. This acts as a sac in which to store
the gall during the time it is not required in digestion. When digestion is going
on the wall of the gall sac contracts and forces the gall down to the food. The
other glands, the pancreas and spleen, resemble those of the horse. The juices
from these glands have the same action in cattle as they have in the horse.

RUMINATION, OR CHEWING THE CUD.—Food when first taken into the mouth of a
ruminant is but lightly masticated and mixed with the saliva from the salivary
glands, after which it is swallowed, passing through the oesophagus into the
rumen or paunch (first stomach). This division acts as a reservoir or storehouse
for food thus eaten quickly. When the animal has time, so to speak, he lies down
or stands quietly and completes the process of mastication of his food by
chewing the cud. This peculiar act is performed as follows: After being softened
and moistened by warmth, the food passes from the rumen or paunch into the
second division—the reticulum, honey comb or second stomach. In this small
globe-like compartment the food is moistened and compressed into pellets—the
cud. By a peculiar reverse action of the oesophagus or gullet these pellets are
taken back into the mouth for further mastication or chewing. When re-
mastication is completed it is again swallowed, but this time it passes directly
into the omasum, many-plies or third stomach, and thence to the fourth or true
stomach.

PROCESS OF DIGESTION AFTER RUMINATION.—Following rumination which, strictly

speaking, is the first step in the digesting process, the food passes into the third
stomach. The fine parts pass right along to the fourth stomach while the coarser
parts are drawn between the folds of the membrane in this division and worked
about until it is fine and ready to pass into the fourth stomach, where it becomes
fully digested by the action of acids and gastric juices which are secreted in this
part. It then passes into the small bowels, and is acted upon by the bile from the
liver and the pancreatic juice from the pancreas. These juices are emptied into
the first part of the small bowels through little ducts or tubes, which lead from
the glands down to the bowels, just on the same principle as that of the horse.
After this, throughout the rest of the bowels, the nourishment of the food is taken
into the system by means of little glands which are situated in the coating of the
bowels. The nourishment when once in the blood goes to supply the different
parts of the body, while the part containing no nourishment or undigested passes
off through the back bowels in the form of feces.

TEETH.
Teeth are objects situated in the upper and lower jaws. They are made of the
same tissues as bone but contain 101⁄2 per cent. more of earthy salts. This fact
accounts for their extreme hardness. Unlike bone they can stand exposure to air
and friction without becoming diseased. Teeth are used to masticate or chew the
food, and because of the constant change in their formation and appearance they
serve as a guide in telling the age of the horse.
There are three hard structures that enter into the formation of the teeth—
Dentine or Ivory, Enamel, and Cementum, or Crusta Petrosa.
The Dentine, or ivory, is situated in the upper part around the pulp or nerve
cavity. It is of yellowish color and largely supplied with nerves which pass
through it from the pulp cavity.
The Enamel is the hardest substance of the tooth, and covers the outside of all
the exposed part. This substance is characterized by its whiteness and, unlike the
dentine, contains no blood vessels or nerves. If part of the enamel is broken off it
is never replaced, and the tooth below the broken part generally becomes
decayed.
The Cementum, or crusta petrosa, is found in the fang or root and the parts
situated below the gum. It is the softest part of the tooth.
Teeth may be simple or compound. Simple as in the dog, where the entire
exposed surface is covered by a solid cap of enamel, which alone is in wear;
compound or complex, as in the horse, where various tissues are in wear. A tooth
consists of the following anatomical parts: The body, or crown, that part above
the gum; the table, the part that comes into wear on the top; the neck, the part to
which the gums are attached; and the fangs or roots, the parts situated down in
the bone.
There are three kinds of teeth found in the horse, the incisors, the canine and the
molars.
The Incisors, or front teeth, situated in the front part of the mouth just inside the
lips, are twelve in number, six above and six below.
The Canine, or bridle teeth, are often absent in the mare. They are four in
number, two in the upper and two in the lower jaw, one on each side about two
inches back from the incisor teeth. They are from a quarter to three-quarters of
an inch above the gum, are round and pointed and of no particular use. They
resemble the eye teeth of other animals.
The Molars, or back teeth, are twenty-four in number, six on each side in the
upper and six on each side in the lower jaw. With these the food is ground and
masticated.
Wolf Teeth are two small, round, pointed temporary teeth which vary in size in
different animals, situated one on each side in front of the molars or back teeth in
the upper jaw.

TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT TEETH.—The horse has two sets of teeth. The milk
are temporary and are those that the colt sheds; while those that come in and
remain without being shed are called the permanent teeth. The cutting of the
teeth of the foal varies, but at or within nine days after birth he has four front
teeth, two in the center above and two below, and in the back part of the mouth
twelve molars. At from seven to nine weeks four more incisors or front teeth
appear, one at each side of the two center teeth in each jaw. At nine months he
gets the last of his milk or temporary teeth, these being the corner teeth, two in
the upper side and two in the lower side of the jaw. At this time he has his full
set of milk temporary teeth, consisting of twelve molars or grinders and twelve
incisors or front teeth, six above and six below, making twenty-four in all. As the
colt advances in age he sheds all these teeth. He then commences to get
permanent teeth. When the age of one year is reached, four permanent molars
appear, two in each jaw, one on each side, behind the three temporary teeth. At
two years of age he gets four more back molars, one on each side of each jaw.
When the age of two years and nine months is reached the two middle teeth of
the temporary incisors, or front teeth of each jaw fall out, and are replaced by
two permanent incisors in each jaw; thus at the age of three years these four
permanent incisors are up and in wear. At this age, the first eight molars, two on
each side of each jaw, are shed and replaced by eight permanent molars. At four
years of age he sheds four more front or incisor teeth next to those shed at three
years, and these are replaced by four more permanent incisors or front teeth. At
this age, too, he sheds the four remaining temporary molars, or grinders, which
are replaced by four more permanent molars. He also gets four more permanent
molars at the back of the mouth. Thus at the age of four years the colt has a full
set of permanent molars, consisting of six on each side of each jaw, making
twenty-four in all. At five years of age he sheds the four remaining temporary
incisors or front teeth, which are replaced by four permanent incisors, known as
the corner teeth. It is important to become familiar with the time at which the
colt sheds his different teeth, for sometimes the caps or shells of the teeth do not
fall off when they should. These should be watched, for they greatly interfere
with feeding and should be removed with forceps. At five years of age the
canine or bridle teeth make their appearance; thus at the age of five years the colt
has all his teeth or what is known as a full mouth.
The following table shows the various changes taking place in the mouth of the
horse from the time of birth up to the age of five years:
Hence the horse has—
 —Incisors— Canine —Molars—
Age Temporary Permanent Temporary Permanent
At or soon after birth 4 0 0 12 0
9 weeks 8 0 0 12 0
1 year 12 0 0 12 4
2 years 12 0 0 12 8
3 years 8 4 0 4 16
4 years 4 8 0 0 24
5 years 0 12 4 0 24=40

The table given below indicates the various changes which occur in the
mouths of ruminants, and more particularly in the mouth of the ox:
RUMINANTS
—Incisors— —Molars—
Age Temporary Permanent Age Temporary Permanent
At or soon after birth 4 0 12 0
2 weeks 6 0 1 year 12 4
3 weeks 8 0 2 years 8 12
2 years 6 2 3 years 4 16
3 years 4 4
4 years 2 6 4 and 5 years 0 24=32
5 years 0 8

A table giving the number and variety of teeth as they occur in the
domestic animals and in man may be serviceable as one of handy
reference, and is herewith appended:
Incisors Molars Canine Bicuspid Total
4 6 2 4
Man — — — — = 32
4 6 2 4
6 12 2 0
Horse — — — — = 40
6 12 2 0
0 12 0 0
Ox — — — — = 32
8 12 0 0
6 12 2 0
Dog — — — — = 42
6 14 2 0
6 14 2 0
Pig — — — — = 44
6 14 2 0
6 8 2 0
Cat — — — — = 30
6 6 2 0
 The dental formula of the ox is the same as that of all ruminants.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF THE HORSE.

ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.—By the action of these organs certain chemical and
physical changes take place in the blood, the chief of these consisting of
absorption of oxygen from, and giving off carbonic acid to the atmospheric air,
the former change being necessary for the elaboration of the fluid, the latter for
the elimination of a substance which, if retained, would prove injurious. The
organs of respiration are invariably adapted to the wants of the animal and the
medium in which it lives. Thus insects breathe by air-tubes, opening on the
surface of the body; in the oyster breathing is performed by fringes; in fishes by
gills; in the mammalia by means of elastic air-receptacles, called lungs, which
are enclosed in special cavities, and communicate with the atmosphere by means
of an air-tube.
In the horse, who breathes only through his nose, the organs of respiration are
the nostrils, nasal-chambers, larynx, trachea, and in the thoracic cavity, the
bronchi, bronchial tubes, and the lungs.

NOSTRILS.—The nostrils are two openings, one on each side of the nose. They are
held open by the aid of cartilage and muscles. About one and one-half inches up
the nostril on the under side is a small opening about the size of a grain of shot.
Through this opening the duct or tube which carries the tears down from the eyes
empties into the nose. The nostril is lined with a thin, delicate skin which
changes into mucous membrane as it passes up into the chambers of the head.

NASAL CHAMBERS.—These give passage to the air from the nostril into the larynx.
There are two of these chambers, divided in the center by a thin partition or
cartilage called the septum nasi. These communicate with the sinuses of the
head. The horse cannot breathe through the mouth on account of the formation
of the throat, and this compels him to always breathe through the nostrils. This is
a point which should be remembered.
LARYNX.—This is a cavity made of cartilage. It gives passage to the air and also
the organ of voice. It is situated in the floor of the gullet. This cavity has an
opening on its upper side, guarded by a valve, which is always opened except
when the animal is swallowing food or water. When the food is being swallowed
it passes over the valve which closes the opening while the food passes over it.
This is important, for if the valve does not close properly, thus allowing either
food or water to drop into the windpipe, the animal will have a fit of coughing.
This is sometimes referred to as “the food going down the wrong way.” On the
outside of this cavity of cartilage are found several small muscles which help to
hold it in its place. It is lined inside by a continuation of the same membrane as
that of the chambers of the head. The vocal cords which come into play when the
animal is whinnying are found along the inside of this cavity. These cords are not
nearly so well marked as in the human being, and if they or the cartilage of the
larynx become affected it generally gives rise to the disease called wind-broken
or roaring.

TRACHEA (Windpipe).—This is a tube which conveys the air down from the
larynx to the bronchial tubes in the lungs. It is made up of forty or fifty rings of
cartilage which are united to each other by strong elastic ligaments. They give to
the windpipe its flexibility, that is, the power to bend in any direction almost like
a piece of elastic. From the larynx the windpipe enters the chest where it
terminates into two small tubes, one going to the right lung and one to the left.
These are called the bronchial tubes.

BRONCHIAL TUBES AND AIR CELLS.—These are made up of the same material as
that of the windpipe, but are only about half the size. After passing into the
substance of the lungs they break up into small tubes which pass all through the
lungs and terminates into what is known as the air-cells. These small tubes and
air cells are lined inside by a very thin mucous membrane, a continuation of the
membrane lining the other organs already mentioned. Just inside this thin
mucous membrane is found the capillary network of the lungs, and while the
blood is slowly passing through this network of vessels it gives off to the air in
the air cells carbonic acid gas and takes in the oxygen from the pure air while it
is in the lungs.

LUNGS.—Lungs are the most important organs of respiration. They are spongy,
yellowish organs, two in number, one situated on the right side, and the other on
the left. The right lung is the largest because of the left one having a hollow in its
side for the heart. The lungs are separated by a partition known as the
mediastinum, by the heart which is in the folds of this partition, and also the
large blood vessels and oesophagus. They are made up of light elastic tissue and
are full of air cells and tubes. While the animal is alive they are very large and
fill up nearly the whole chest cavity, but after death they collapse and are not
nearly so large. Between the lungs and the ribs is found a serous membrane
called the pleura or the lining membrane of the chest. It is made up of two folds,
one being attached around the outer surface of the lungs, while the other is
attached to the ends of the ribs at the side and at the back to the large curtain
which separates the lungs from the bowels. The little glands situated in this
membrane secrete an oily fluid which serves to lubricate these parts while the
lungs are working in the chest so as not to cause friction. When this membrane
becomes inflamed from a chill or injury it sets up the disease called pleurisy.

RESPIRATION.—The number of respirations per minute varies with the different

classes of animals; as a rule, the larger the animal the slower the respiration.
The horse 8 to 10
Cattle 12 to 15
Sheep and goats 12 to 20
The dog 15 to 20
Swine 10 to 15
The rate of breathing is increased from the process of digestion immediately
after eating, or may increase from exercise.

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OF THE OX.

The nostrils are narrow and capable of little dilation compared to those of the
horse. The nasal chambers differ chiefly in there being an additional turbinated
bone. The nasal chambers communicate with the mouth, therefore cattle can
breathe through the mouth to a certain extent. The larynx is simpler in
construction, the true vocal cords being only slightly developed. The trachea or
windpipe presents no important variation. We may note the presence of a third
bronchus, which passes to the right lung to supply a lobe which is wanting in the
horse.
The Thoracic Cavity is relatively smaller in the ruminants, and the pleurae
present a very important deviation from the arrangement found in the solipede—
viz., the back or posterior mediastinum is imperforate and strong, completely
separating one pleural sac from the other. This arrangement exists in all the
domesticated mammals but the solipede. The left lung is divided into two lobes,
the right into four, the front one recurving over and almost covering the front of
the heart. The interlobular or cellular tissue is exceedingly thick, the separation
between the lobules being distinctly visible. This arrangement explains perfectly
the special nature of pneumonic lesions in the large ruminants.

URINARY SYSTEM OF THE HORSE.

The organs of this system secrete the urine from the blood, and excrete or expel
it from the body. These organs are chiefly the kidneys, ureters, bladder and
urethra. The urine, which is a watery fluid, is secreted by the kidneys, and
carried off by their ducts, the ureters, to a special reservoir, the bladder, where it
accumulates and from which it is finally expelled at intervals through the
urethra.
The kidneys are two compound tubular glands, one on the right side and one on
the left side, and are situated just below the small of the back (sublumbar
region), the right one being the fartherest ahead. In shape they are long and
narrow and resemble the liver in color. In cutting one of the kidneys open, it is
found to be full of glands and tubes, which secrete the urine from the blood
while it is passing through the kidneys. These tubes pass to the center of the
kidneys, where they empty the urine into what is called the pelvis. The glands
are largely supplied with blood vessels and nerves. The use of the kidneys are to
secrete the urine from the blood, which contains a large amount of what is
known as ureaic acid, and if not taken out of the blood by these glands, acts as a
poison to the system.
The Ureters are tubes which carry the urine down from the pelvis of the kidney
to the bladder. They are two in number, one situated on the right side of the
pelvic cavity and the other on the left side, close to the walls—they enter on each
side at the upper surface of the bladder. They are only about one-sixteenth of an
inch in diameter.
The Bladder is situated in the pelvic cavity. When it is full it sometimes stretches
out into the abdominal cavity. It consists of a body and neck. The body is the
large part, and is placed in front; the neck being at the back part of the bladder.
This is where the urine passes out of the bladder. The bladder is made up of three
coats, somewhat similar to that of the bowels. The serous coat is a continuation
of the serous coat found in the abdominal cavity lining the bowels. The inside is
lined with mucous membrane which is thrown into folds when the bladder is
empty. Another coat is found between the two membranes above mentioned,
called the muscular coat, the action of which is to contract the bladder when the
animal wants to urinate. The bladder is held in by ligaments. The rectum lies
above the bladder, which in the horse rests on the floor of the pelvic cavity. Its
position in the mare differs from that of the horse. Instead of the rectum or back
bowel being immediately above it, as in the horse, the womb is just above the
bladder or between it and the rectum. The bladder acts as a reservoir in which to
store the urine until it is full; it then presses on the walls and nerves, giving a
peculiar sensation to these parts, causing the walls to contract, forcing the urine
into a tube which carries it from the body. This is called the urethra. The neck of
the bladder is simply an opening at the back part, and is guarded by a valve
which prevents the urine from dripping out except when the animal is passing its
urine or water.
The Urethra is the tube which carries the urine from the bladder out of the body.
It is situated much differently in the mare than in the horse. In the mare it is very
short, passing from the neck of the bladder along below the womb and vagina,
which is the passage from the outside into the neck of the womb. It opens up into
the underside of this passage about four inches in from the outside. This opening
is guarded by a small, thin valve, and can be felt by passing the finger along the
under side of the passage which leads into the womb. In the horse this tube is a
great deal longer than in the mare. It commences at the bladder, passes along
below the rectum or back bowel to just below the anus. Here this tube bends
downward and forward and passes into the penis, continuing down to the end
where it terminates. Its purpose is to carry the urine from the bladder out of the
body and to perform certain actions in connection with the genital organs. Its
lining is a continuation of the membrane of the bladder.

URINARY ORGANS OF THE OX.

The chief difference in these organs occurs in the kidneys, which in the ox are
larger, and in place of being smooth, like those of the horse, are rough,
resembling a bunch of grapes. The bladder and the urinary organs resemble those
of the horse.

GENERATIVE SYSTEM OF THE HORSE.

Animals possess the faculty of reproducing or propagating their species, and this
function may be non-sexual or sexual, the former being confined to certain
lowly-organized classes of animals.
In all the higher animals the generation of a new being is dependent upon two
individuals, a male and a female, the female furnishing a germ, or ovum, the
male a fecundating fluid, or sperm, which animates the germ and renders it fit
for development.
Both the ovum of the female and the sperm of the male are secretions of glands,
which are termed the genital glands, male and female; and in either sex the
generative system may be said to consist of these glands, with certain accessory
organs. The act of coition brings the two secretions into contact.
We have two systems of genital organs to consider—the male and the female.

MALE.—The genital organs of the horse are as follows: The scrotum or bag, the
testicles, the spermatic cord, the vesiculae seminales or pouches which hold the
semen or sperm, the urethra, the penis and the sheath.
The Scrotum is a sac or bag which contains the testicles. It is situated between
the hind legs, and is covered on the outside by a very fine, soft skin. Passing up
in the center under the sheath the scrotum is a well marked line in the skin called
median raphe. This can be plainly seen when the horse is on his back. It
continues up, gradually getting fainter until it reaches the anus. Under the skin
are layers of white fascia or tissue which can be seen by cutting through the
scrotum. There is a partition in the scrotum separating the two testicles. The size
of the scrotum is affected very much by the weather. In cold weather its fibres
contract, causing it to get very much smaller, while in warm weather the fibres
relax, causing it to become very much larger. The scrotum contains, supports and
protects the testicles.
The Testicles are the glands which secrete the semen or sperm. They are two in
number, one situated on the left side and the other on the right. They are oval in
shape, and are attached above to the spermatic cord. Before the animal is born
the testicles are situated in the abdominal cavity and attached to the serous
membrane which has already been spoken of in connection with that cavity. At
or about the time of birth, there takes place what is known as the descent of the
testicles into the scrotum. In their downward course they pass through a slit or
small opening at the back part of the muscles of the abdomen, where they are
attached to the under part of the hip bone. These slits or openings are known as
the inguinal rings. They can be felt in the horse by pressing the fingers well up
into the groins. The descent of the testicles is an important point to remember. If
the testicle does not descend into the scrotum the horse is known as a ridgling. In
this case the testicle is not found in the scrotum. At the front part of the testicle
there is a small ridge called the globus major and at the back of it is another
smaller ridge called the globus minor. Passing between these two ridges is
another well marked ridge called the epididymis. These can be easily seen by
examining the testicle after the animal is altered or castrated. The substance of
the testicle is made up of small glands and fine tubes.
These tubes, as they pass towards the back of the testicle, form into larger tubes
and finally unite to form one called the vas deferens.
The Spermatic Cords, or the cords of the testicles, are attached above to the
inguinal rings or openings mentioned before. They are about five or six inches
long and have the testicles attached to them below. In each cord is found a small
muscle which goes by the name of the spermatic muscle, the rest of the cord
being made up of the spermatic artery, veins and nerves. Running up at the back
of these cords is found a tube called the vas deferens. Around the spermatic
cords and testicles is a serous membrane, one layer being attached to the testicle
and cord, while the other is closely attached around the inside of the scrotum. In
this membrane are small glands which secrete an oily fluid to lubricate the parts,
preventing friction when they are jolted about in the scrotum. This fluid flies out
as soon as the scrotum is cut. This is important, because sometimes from a slight
injury the glands will secrete a large amount of this fluid, thus causing the
scrotum to look large and swollen. This disease is known as hydrocele or water
in the scrotum.

VAS DEFERENS.—These tubes are two in number and are situated just behind the
spermatic cords. They are about an eighth of an inch in diameter and quite hard.
They carry the semen up the back part of the spermatic cord through the inguinal
rings, before mentioned. They pass backward and upwards, one on each side, to
the upper part of the bladder, where they empty into two small pouches or sacs,
called the vesiculae seminales. These store up the semen as it is secreted by the
testicles, and when full present the appearance of a pear.

VESICULAE SEMINALES.—These sacs or pouches are situated at the upper side,

over the neck of the bladder, one on each side. They have the vas deferens
emptying into them at the front end, while at the back end of each is a small
opening that leads out into another small tube which passes backward and
empties into the urethra, mentioned before as carrying the urine out from the
bladder. These sacs or pouches store up the semen or sperm of the horse. During
sexual intercourse, these pouches contract and force the semen through the little
tubes mentioned out into the urethra, leading down through the penis.
The Penis is the main organ of sexual intercourse. Its substance is formed of
what is known as erectile tissue, which under certain circumstances becomes
enormously distended with blood. Passing up the under side there is, what has
already been mentioned, the urethra, or the tube, which carries the urine out of
the body, and also in the act of intercourse carries the semen. This is used for
two purposes, as we have already mentioned.
The Sheath is a loose process of skin which passes downward from the scrotum,
generally from about five to six inches, according to the size of the animal. It is
attached to each side, leaving a hole or opening in the center through which the
penis passes. The outside of the sheath is covered by a thin, delicate skin similar
to that of the scrotum. It is lined inside by a membrane containing many small
glands, which secrete a thick, dark fluid to lubricate this passage. Sometimes this
fluid collects in here and has the appearance of tar. This is important, for when it
collects to a large extent the sheath should be washed.
The Semen or sperm of the horse is a light fluid, which, when examined under a
microscope is found to contain small objects called spermatozoa. These move
about, and when in the womb meet the ovum of the female, which is secreted by
a gland called the ovary. When these two small objects unite, they form the
foetus, or what may be called the animal in its first stage of development.

FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS.

The female genital organs, or the organs of the mare, are very much different
from those of the horse. They are known as follows: The ovaries, the fallopian
tubes, or tubes which carry the ovum from the ovaries to the uterus or womb, the
uterus or womb, the vagina, and the vulva.
The Ovaries in the mare correspond to the testicles in the horse. Each is about
the size of a pigeon’s egg, and resembles it much in shape. They are held in
place by ligaments, and at the back part are provided with tubes leading from
them called the fallopian tubes. The ovaries secrete the ovum or germ. This is a
very minute body, which, when examined under the microscope, is found to be
only 1-150 of an inch in diameter.
The Fallopian Tubes are two canals, one on each side. They pass backward and
upward, and enter the front part of the uterus or womb. These small tubes are
simply used to carry the germ or ovum up from the ovaries and empty into the
uterus or womb.
The Uterus or Womb is a muscular sac situated in the pelvic cavity, bounded
above by the rectum, below by the bladder, and on either side by the walls of the
pelvic cavity. It is divided into what is known as a body and a neck. The body of
the womb is very small, being only about four to six inches in length and a
couple of inches in diameter when the animal is not pregnant. Near the front end,
at the upper side there are openings by which the ovum enters. When the animal
becomes pregnant, the body of the womb becomes enlarged and passes forward
and to the left side of the abdominal cavity. It continues to enlarge as the time of
pregnancy passes on, until the foetus, or young, has attained its full size. After
the mare has had her young, the womb begins to get smaller until it attains its
natural size again. The womb is very largely supplied with blood vessels and
nerves. This is especially so when the animal is pregnant, as it takes a large
amount of blood to nourish the foetus, or the young animal, before birth. It is
made up of three coats. The inner is called mucous membrane, and in the mare,
while pregnant, is covered with numerous processes about the size of peas to
which the placenta or after-birth of the foal is attached. The muscular coat is next
to that of the mucous coat, and lies between the outer and inner coats of the
womb. It is made up of muscular fibres, and is strong and thick in the womb,
much thicker than it is in the bowels or other organs, already mentioned. This
coat supports and protects the foetus, or young, while being carried in the womb,
and at the time of parturition, or what is commonly known as foaling, this coat
also comes in use. It contracts the womb very forcibly on the foal, while the
neck of the womb lies open, thus helping to force the foal out of the womb. This
is important as the contraction of this coat produces what is known as labor
pains. Lying outside, and covering around the womb, is a serous coat, a
continuation of the serous coat of the bowels. The womb is held in place by
strong ligaments attached to the sides, and from there to the hip bones. These are
called broad ligaments. At the back part of the womb is the neck. It consists of
an opening, formed by a projection about the size of an egg. This has a hard,
gritty feeling when the animal is not in season. The neck at this time is closed.
The neck of the womb is under control of the muscle around it, and this muscle
is under control of the nerves of the womb. When a mare comes in season this
muscle is relaxed to a certain extent, thus allowing the neck to open wide enough
for the passage of a couple of fingers. By working around it with the fingers at
this period it can be forced wide enough to admit a man’s hand. If the mare is put
to the horse at this time and becomes pregnant or with foal, the muscles in the
neck of the womb contract, firmly closing it. It remains closed until the time of
foaling. When, at the time of foaling, the labor pains come on, the muscle in the
neck dilates, allowing the neck of the womb to open large enough for the foal to
pass out. The neck of the womb can be felt easily by oiling the hand and passing
it into the passage of the womb. It will be noticed, too, that the neck spoken of
projects into the passage.

THE VAGINA AND THE VULVA.—These two organs together make up the passage
which leads into the womb from the outside. In the young mare they are
separated by a thin curtain, or partition, made up of mucous membrane. This
curtain is found about four inches from the outside, and is known as the hymen.
It is destroyed, or should be, when the mare is first put to the horse, although it is
broken down other ways, and in some cases it will disappear of its own accord.
The part of the passage in front of the hymen is called the vagina. This passage,
in structures, resembles the womb, but is not so strong. There are numerous
glands situated along the inner lining which secretes a fluid to lubricate it. The
principle use of this organ is to guide the penis during sexual intercourse, and at
the time of foaling serves as a passage for the foal. That part of the passage
behind the hymen is known as the vulva. It is about four inches long and about
two or three inches high, varying according to the size of the mare. In front, it is
separated from the vagina by the hymen membrane. It resembles the vagina in
structure and is also provided with little glands in its inner membrane to secrete
fluid to lubricate the passage. At the back part of the vulva or around the outside
is what is known as the lips of the vulva, one on each side of the opening. The
outside of the lips is covered by a very fine skin. Just below the skin, they
consist of erectile tissue, which is the same kind of tissue as that of the penis of
the horse. This tissue is found more abundantly in the lips of the vulva of the
young mare than in those of an old mare. The opening between these lips is
situated just below the anus, or the opening where the back bowel ends. At the
back part of the vulva, on the under side, is an opening, or hole, about large
enough for the passage of a man’s finger. Through this hole the tube leading
from the bladder enters into the passage and allows the urine to pass into the
vulva, through which it runs out of the body. The clitoris is situated on the upper
side of this passage, just inside the lips. It can be seen in the mare when she
works the vulva after passing urine. Just below the clitoris are found two or three
small glands which secrete the fluid that passes away when the mare is horsing.
Mammary Glands, or what is known as the mare’s udder or bag, are two in
number, situated between the thighs. In the young mare they are very small, but
after the mare is pregnant a few months these glands enlarge, until at foaling
time they attain their largest size. They are covered outside by a thin, smooth
skin. The substance of them consists of small glands and tubes retain or hold
milk until it is drawn away from the bag either by milking or by the young
animals sucking. During the time of suckling the young, the glands are largely
supplied with blood, from which the milk is secreted. On the under side of each
gland is found the teat, or that part taken hold of by the young when sucking.
The end of the teat is pierced by several small holes, through which the milk
passes.

GENITAL ORGANS OF THE BULL.

The testicles are ovoid in shape and well developed, its long axis being nearly
vertical; the membrane which separate the two testicles is very strong.
The spermatic cord and artery are small compared with those of the horse.
The penis is long and pointed, and has an S-shaped curve in it just below the
pelvic bones; this curve can be felt by feeling just behind the bag.
The sheath is long and runs further forward on the belly. It has a tuft of hair on
the point of it. During the time the bull is serving the S-shaped part of the penis
is straightened out by the action of the protracter muscles, and drawn back into
the S-shaped curve by retractor muscles.
The urethra is completely enveloped by the fibrous sheath.

GENITAL ORGANS OF THE COW.

The ovaries of the cow are comparatively smaller than those of the mare, but
resemble them in structure.
The uterus or womb of the cow somewhat resembles that of the mare, but the
inner membrane is different, being covered with sixty or eighty mushroom-like
bodies about the size of a pigeon’s egg, more flattened out. These bodies receive
the name of cotyledons; to these the placenta or afterbirth is attached—a very
important point with which every person interested should be familiar. These
may be felt by examining a cow soon after calving. The passage from the womb
of the cow is shorter than that of the mare, but is formed on the same principles.
The mammary glands constitute an organ termed the udder, which is composed
of two symmetrical halves, placed one against the other. Each half is again
divided into two distinct glands, each with its own teat, so that the udder consists
of four mammae and four teats; behind this there may be two small rudimentary
teats. In the center of each quarter, just at the base of the teat, is a large cavity,
the general receptacle of all the milk ducts. From this cavity, which is sometimes
large enough to contain a quart, proceeds down the center of the teat one defined
canal from which the milk is drawn.
In the small ruminants as the sheep and goat there are two mammae and two
teats, constructed like those of the cow.
 CHAPTER V.

ANGIOLOGY.
Blood-Vascular System of the Horse.
Under this heading we describe the organs of circulation, by the action of which
certain fluids are propelled through the body. It is customary to divide this
branch of the subject into two sections, considering respectively the blood-
vascular and lymphatic systems.

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM.—This involves the consideration of the blood, a fluid

which supplies nutriment to the tissues and receives effete material from them;
the heart, a muscular organ which, by its contraction, initiates the motion of the
blood; the arteries, a series of tubes which convey the blood from the heart to all
parts of the body; the veins, tubes which return that fluid to the heart; and the
capillaries, minute tubes joining the small arteries and veins.

BLOOD.—Blood is a fluid tissue, which nourishes all living structures, being the
medium by which nutritive material is conveyed to, and effete or waste material
conveyed away from the solid tissues. It is an opaque, thickish, clammy liquid,
with a peculiar odor, sickly saline taste, and alkaline reaction. Its color varies in
different parts of the same animal, that in the arteries being bright red or scarlet,
while the blood in the veins is of a dark purplish hue.
When examined microscopically, the blood is found to consist of minute
corpuscles, and a clear, transparent, yellow fluid, the liquor sanguinis, or plasma,
in which the corpuscles float. The corpuscles are of two kinds, the red and the
white or colorless; the former, by far more numerous, vary in proportion. Red
corpuscles vary in shape, but in all mammals (animals that suckle their young)
are more or less flat, the families excepted where they are oval, as in birds,
reptiles, and fish, which are also nucleated. Their average diameter in the horse,
ox or sheep is about 1/4000th part of an inch, their average thickness being about
one-fourth of this. Each surface is depressed towards its center, hence the
corpuscle is appropriately described as a bi-concaved disc.
The white corpuscles are larger than the red, round in shape, and nucleated.
The liquor sanguinis is pale and clear, and consists of water, fibrin, albumen,
fatty compounds, extracts, odoriferous and saline matters. The serum is a thin,
transparent liquid, of a pale-straw or yellow color, consisting of the liquor
sanguinis deprived of fibrin. It contains nearly 90 per cent of water, is always
slightly alkaline, and coagulates when heated, owing to the large quantity of
albumen it contains. Fibrin is a white, stringy elastic substance, which, when the
blood is in circulation, is in solution, and cannot be distinguished from the other
constituents of the plasma.

HEART.—The heart is the principal organ of circulation; it weighs about six and
one-half pounds in the average horse and acts as a force pump to force the blood
through the arteries. It is composed of strong muscular tissue, which acts
involuntarily, and is situated between the lungs, which are divided by what is
known as the mediastinum. This is a division between the lungs made up of two
folds, the heart being between them. The bottom or apex, of the heart is
downward and rests just above the breast-bone; the upper part, or base is
directed upward and to the left side, the left lung having a depression on its inner
surface for the heart to work in. There is a covering or sack around the heart
which helps to protect and support it in its place. It is attached above to the back-
bone, and below to the bones of the breast. This sack is made up of fibrous tissue
and is of a whitish appearance; inner surface is smooth, and supplied with
numerous small glands which secrete an oily substance called serous fluid. This
lubricates the outer surface of the heart and the inner surface of the sack so that
in action it does not irritate the walls or surfaces. The cavity of the heart is
divided into two parts, the right and left sides; each of these parts is again
subdivided. The upper cavity is called auricle and the lower cavity ventricle;
thus there are the right and left ventricle and right and left auricle. The right
auricle communicates with the right ventricle by an opening in the septum or
partition on the right side of the heart. This opening is guarded by a valve to
keep the blood from flowing back into the auricle. The left auricle communicates
with the left ventricle, same as on the right side. The right side of the heart is
sometimes called the venous side and contains only venous or impure blood. The
left side is sometimes called the arterial side. It contains pure blood only. This
side of the heart is very much stronger and thicker than the right side.

THE HEART AND THE CHIEF BLOOD VESSELS OF THE HORSE—

AFTER MEGNIN.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V

BLOOD-VASCULAR SYSTEM OF THE HORSE

1. Heart, right ventricle. 18. Coeliac axis.
2. Heart, left ventricle. 19. Mesenteric arteries.
3. Heart, left auricle. 20. Renal artery (left).
4. Pulmonary artery. 21. Small testicular artery.
5. Pulmonary veins. 22. Posterior vena cava.
6. Anterior aorta. 23. Portal vein.
7. Carotid artery. 23´. Hepatic circulation.
8. Glosso-facial artery. 24. External iliac artery.
9. Left brachial artery. 25. Internal iliac artery.
10. Dorsal artery. 26. Lateral sacral artery.
11. Superior cervical artery. 27. Femoral artery.
12. Vertebral artery. 28. Posterior tibial artery.
12′. Internal thoracic artery. 28′. Anterior tibial artery.
13. Humeral artery. 28″. Femoro-popliteal artery.
14. Radial artery. 29. Metatarsal vessels.
14′. Cubital artery. 30. Venous plexus of the foot.
15. Great metacarpal artery. 31. Internal saphenic vein.
16. Ungual branches. 32. Cephalic vein.
17. Posterior aorta. 33. Jugular vein.

ARTERIES.—Arteries are tubes the purpose of which is to convey the blood from
the heart. For this reason it is apparent that all arteries carry pure arterial blood
with but one exception. The pulmonary artery carries the blood from the right
ventricle to the lungs, and consequently carries impure or venous blood. Each
time the left ventricle contracts it causes a wave, as it were, to pass all through
the arteries. This contraction takes place when in a healthy condition about 36 to
42 times every minute and gives rise to what is known as the pulse. This wave,
or beating, may be detected at any point where the artery is situated so closely to
the surface as to affect the outside of the body sufficient to be felt by placing the
finger on the point; consequently the pulse may be counted at any of these
points. Place your forefinger on the lower edge of your own lower jaw directly
under the corner of your mouth. At this point an artery passes out over the jaw
bone and therefore runs very close to the surface, making it quite possible to feel
the wave caused by the contraction of your own heart, quite distinctly. Near this
point on the jaw of the horse the pulse is most conveniently felt and counted.
The walls of the arteries are composed of elastic tissue and after death are
always lying open. Blood is never found in them after death because they
continue to contract sufficiently long enough to force all the blood through them.

VEINS.—Veins are tubes in construction not so strong as the arteries—the

purpose of which is to convey the blood from all parts of the body to the heart.
The heart wave does not affect the veins, and consequently the pulse cannot be
detected by placing the finger on an exposed portion of one of them. It is also
apparent that all veins carry impure or venous blood with but one exception, viz.,
the pulmonary vein, the purpose of which is to conduct the purified blood from
the lungs to the heart.

CAPILLARIES.—The small arteries terminate in a system of minute vessels—the

capillaries—which are interposed between the termination of the arteries and the
commencement of the veins, forming plexuses (network) which vary much in
arrangement. Their average diameter is about 2/1000ths of an inch, varying in
different construction of the organs, smallest in the brain and mucous membrane
of the intestines, larger in the skin, in glands, and the interior of bones. All
arteries do not terminate in capillaries, an exception being in erectile tissue of the
penis, where arteries end in cells or cavities placed at the origin of the veins. As
the blood passes slowly through these capillaries, the nourishment is absorbed
from it through their very thin walls to supply the tissues of the body. When the
blood passes through this capillary network it again enters into large vessels
called the veins, which carry it on its way back to the heart.
COURSE OF THE BLOOD.—We have seen that the heart is divided into a right or
venous, and a left or arterial portion. The blood is pumped by the heart to all
parts of the body, through the arteries, passing through the capillary system,
where it parts with its nourishment, is collected and returned to the heart by the
veins, is again pumped by the heart to the lungs, where it is purified and returned
to the heart to again commence the circuit as before.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.—The lymphatic or absorbent system is closely connected

with the blood-vascular system, and is made up of very fine minute tubes and
glands. These convey from the tissues of the body a clear fluid known as lymph,
and pours it into the blood of the veins as it is on its way back to the heart. These
glands are found all through the body; for instance, there is a large group inside
the thigh or stifle joint of the horse, and another large group inside the shoulder.
It is important to note these, as they sometimes become inflamed and the leg is
swollen. They are then the seat of the disease called weed in the leg, or
lymphangitis.
 NERVOUS SYSTEM OF A HORSE—AFTER MEGNIN.
1. Brain.
2. Spinal cord.
3. Brachial plexus.
4. Sacrolumbar plexus.
5. Pneumogastric.
6. Sciatic.
7. Sympathetic System.
8. Solar plexus.
 CHAPTER VI.

NEUROLOGY.
This illustration shows where the brain, spinal canal and the principal nerves of
the horse are located.

STUDY OF THE NERVES.—The nervous system is a very important set of organs

controlling the motion of the various members of the body and supplying the
different senses of feeling, seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting. The two
principal organs of the nervous system are the brain and spinal cord.
The brain is the center of the whole nervous system, and is situated in the cranial
cavity, surrounded by three delicate membranes, the outer one being attached to
the inner wall of the bones forming the brain cavity. The brain contains several
important nerves called cranial nerves, which are given off from the brain and
pass down through the various foramen or openings in the head to supply the
different organs situated there. The optic nerve passes down to the eye, giving
the sense of sight. The auditory nerve passes down to the drum of the ear to give
the sense of hearing. The olfactory nerves, which give the sense of smell, are
situated in the mucous membrane lining the nose. The nerves passing down to
the tongue give the sense of taste. Other nerves pass down to the lips, teeth,
mouth and face, giving motion and feeling to the parts mentioned. Others pass
down to the pharynx or gullet, giving it the power of swallowing.
The spinal cord passes from the brain through the openings in the bones of the
back, which gives off numerous small nerves that supply the muscles of the back
with motion and feeling. Nearly opposite the shoulder blade the spinal cord
gives off a large trunk of nerves, portion of which supplies the heart and lungs
with nervous power. This is a point of importance, for if the spinal cord becomes
injured in front of these nerves immediate death is the result. The other portions
of this trunk of nerves supply the shoulder, chest and muscles of the front legs.
Passing backward along the spinal cord is found the sympathetic system of
nerves, which go to supply the bowels, stomach, liver, kidneys, and other organs
situated in the abdominal cavity. Coming backwards along the spinal cord to
about opposite the hip bones, is another set of nerves, one of which goes to
supply the rectum, or back bowels. Others go to the generative and urinary
organs where they assist in performing their functions. Other nerves pass to the
small organs situated in the pelvic cavity; some of these nerves pass down to the
hind legs, supplying them with nervous power. The remainder of the nerves go
to supply the tail.
The difference between the nervous system of a horse and other animals is not
worth mentioning.
 CHAPTER VII.

AESTHESIOLOGY.
The study of organs of special sense, the ear, eye and organs of special sensation,
skin, hair, foot, etc.

THE EAR.
The apparatus of hearing is composed of three parts the outer, middle, and inner
ear; the two first being accessory for the collection and transmission of sounds,
and the latter the essential organ which receives the impressions thus conveyed.
The inner part, or drum, of the ear, is situated in the hardest bone of the body,
called the petrosal. The nerve which passes into the drum of the ear and gives the
sense of hearing, is called the auditory nerve. From the drum a small opening
passes out into the outer part of the ear; this is the portion which is seen on top of
the head. It is made up of a membrane known as the cartilage, which gives the
ear its stiffness. This cartilage is covered by a fine, delicate skin, covered on the
outside by fine, short hair. Situated on the inner side of the outer ear are
numerous long hairs projecting outward, the use of which is to keep foreign
bodies from dropping into the ear. The ear is moved backward and forward by
small muscles which are attached around it.

THE EYE.
The apparatus of vision comprises the essential organ, the globe of the eye or
eyeball, and its accessory parts or appendages. The eyeball is situated in the
orbital fossa, mentioned in chapter on the bones of the head. It is chiefly made
up of several coats around the outside, and in the center by the humours of the
eye. On the inner side of these coats is a thin membrane called the retina, which
contains the branches of the optic nerve. This receives the reflections of objects
as they pass through the humours of the eye and from which the sensation passes
along the optic nerve to the brain. The oblong opening seen in the middle of the
eye is known as the pupil. If a horse be led from a dark stall into the light and the
pupils of the eyes watched closely, it will be noticed that they get smaller, but on
returning it to the stall the pupils will be noticed to dilate or get larger; thus it is
seen that the pupils do not always remain the same size. The chief use of the
pupil is to gauge the sight. At the back part of the eye are several muscles
attached from around the eye to the bones in the fossa. These muscles move the
eye and assist in holding it to its place. Around the front part are two movable
curtains, one above and the other below, called eyelids, the use of which is to
open and close the eye, and also to protect it from injuries. Around the free
border of the eyelids are what is known as the eyelashes, which keep foreign
substances from falling into the eye. Situated in the inner angle is what is known
as the haw of the eye; this membrane also helps to protect it. In the corner of this
angle is a small duct or opening, through which a fluid called the tears passes
down into the nasal tubes, from whence it is carried down through the bones of
the head and emptied into the under part of the nostril or nose. A small gland is
situated on the upper part of the eye. This gland secretes the tears which
lubricates the eyes. The color of the eye is generally brown, but in some cases it
is white. It is then called a moon eye.

THE SKIN.
The skin is a membrane or external casing of the body. The skin itself consists of
two layers covered with hair, fine or coarse, long or short, according to its
position or purpose which nature intended it to serve. The outer layer is called
the epidermis, the inner the dermis.

THE EPIDERMIS.—The epidermis is the outer layer. It is not supplied with nerves
and blood vessels, its purpose being to protect the inner layer. This layer
undergoes a continual process of being made up and passing away in dandruff.

THE DERMIS.—The dermis or true skin lies under the epidermis. It is well
supplied with nerves and blood vessels, part of the nerves being the nerves of
touch. This fact accounts for its becoming so very sensitive and painful when
through injury of any kind the outer layer is scraped off. It is attached to the
body by a layer of white tissue known as the areolor tissue, this being that which
is cut through when the animal is being skinned. The thickness of the skin varies
in different parts of the body, being thinnest in the under parts. The sweat glands
are situated in the dermis.

THE HAIR.
There are three kinds of hair on the horse—the common, the finest of the three,
covers most of the body; that of the mane and tail, coarse and long; and that
growing on the muzzle or nose and lips, long and usually black, known as tactile
or cat hairs.
On the inside of the front legs, just above the knee, and on the inside of the hind
legs, above the hock, are rough, horny spots. These are called chestnuts.

CROSS SECTION OF THE FOOT OF THE HORSE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII

ANATOMY OF THE FOOT.—This illustration represents the foot of a horse sawed

from above the fetlock down through the center of the foot. It shows the
structure of the foot, the name of each part being given according to number.
1. Lower end of large metacarpal, or cannon bone.
2. Bursa, which secretes the joint oil that lubricates the place where the tendon,
or cord, on the front of the leg passes down over the front of the fetlock joint.
This is important as it sometimes gets injured and becomes enlarged. It is then
called a bursal enlargement, and is of the same nature as a wind gall.
3. Fetlock joint.
4. Os suffraginis, or large pastern bone.
5. Pastern joint. This joint is important; when diseased it is the seat of a high
ringbone.
6. Os coronae or small pastern bone.
7. Coffin joint. This joint is important, for when it is diseased it is known as a
low ringbone.
8. Wall of the hoof.
9. Os pedis, or coffin bone.
10. Sensitive wall, or quick of the foot.
11. Sensitive sole, or quick of the foot.
12. Frog of the foot, or horney frog.
13. Plantar cushion, or fatty frog.
14. Navicular bone. This is also important, for when diseased it is the seat of
navicular, or coffin joint lameness.
15. Back tendons below the fetlock.
16. Sesamoid, or fetlock bones.
17. Skin.
18. Back tendons above the fetlock.

FOOT.—In equine anatomy the word “foot” implies the hoof, together with the
bones and soft structures contained therein. Many of these objects have already
been described, so that our description here will be confined almost to the hoof
and the structures with which it comes into immediate contact internally.
WALL OF THE FOOT.—The wall is that part of the hoof seen when the foot is
resting flat on the ground. It is divided into the toe, the quarters, the heels and
the bars. The toe forms the front, and is the thickest and strongest part of the
wall. The quarters are situated at the side. The walls are not nearly so thick here
as at the toe, but are almost straight up and down. The heels are situated at the
back part of the foot. From the heel is a process of hoof, which looks like a bar,
passing forward between the frog and the sole of the foot; this can be seen
plainly by raising up the foot. There is one of these at each side of the frog. They
act as braces to the heel and the quarters of the wall; these are called the bars.
Covering the outside of the wall is a fine membrane called the periople, which
gives the hoof its polished appearance. This can be seen best when the hoof is
well washed off, as it is after traveling through wet grass. This membrane keeps
the moisture in the hoof and protects it from water. This is a point of importance
in shoeing horses, as it is very injurious to file the wall too much. Around the top
part of the wall, where it unites with the skin, is a groove which contains a white
band, called the coronary substance, or band. This nourishes the wall of the hoof,
or, in other words, it is from this that the wall of the hoof grows. The under part
of the wall, or that which rests on the ground in the unshod animal, is called the
spread of the foot. On the inside of the wall, attaching it to the bone of the foot
called the os pedis, is the part called the quick, or sensitive laminae. It is
important to note this when driving nails in shoeing. The nail should not be
driven into this membrane, nor should it be even pressed upon, for it is very
sensitive. When a nail has been driven so as to injure the membrane it is a
common expression to say, “You have pricked that horse’s foot.”

SOLE OF THE FOOT.—The sole is a thick plate of horn which helps to form the
under part of the hoof. It is situated between the inner border of the under part of
the wall already mentioned and the front of the frog. The under part of the sole is
concave, or hollowed out. The upper part of the sole is attached to the under
surface of the os pedis bone, or bone of the foot, by a membrane called the
quick, or sensitive sole—this membrane is merely a continuation of the sensitive
laminae. The outer part of the sole is attached to the inner part of the wall. When
pared down a white ring is seen where the sole and the wall unite. At the back
part of the sole there is a notch the shape of the letter V; in this notch the frog is
situated. It is important to remember when shoeing never to let the shoe rest on
any part of the sole; neither is it well to pare off too much of the barky-looking
substance of the sole, as this helps to keep the moisture in the foot. When this is
taken off it allows the moisture to escape and the hoof becomes dry and
contracted.

FROG OF THE FOOT.—The frog is the important spongy horn found in the V-
shaped notch in the back of the sole. It is wide at the back and helps to form the
heel of the foot; the pointed part in front is called the apex of the frog. The under
part of the frog is triangular in shape and has a hollow in it called the cleft of the
frog. There is a hollow at each side of the frog, between it and the bars, called
the commissures of the frog. On the upper part is a membrane, known as the
sensitive frog, which attaches it to the under part of the os pedis, or foot bone.
This membrane is simply a continuation of the sensitive sole spoken of in
connection with the sole. The back part of the frog is the widest part and spreads
out to form the heel.
The study of the foot of the horse is of the greatest practical importance, owing
to the many diseases and injuries to which it is liable. It resolves itself here into
the consideration of the hoof or horny case, and the parts contained within it.
 CHAPTER VIII.

EMBRYOLOGY.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG.—We must here first speak of the ovum or
germ, which is secreted by the ovary of the mare. Every time she comes in
season (which occurs every three weeks during the hot weather) this ovum
passes down the tubes before the womb as before mentioned, where it remains a
few days and then dies if she is not put to the horse; but if, during the time this
ovum is in the womb she is put to the horse and one of the spermatozoa from the
semen of the horse comes in contact with it (the ovum) and a union of these
takes place, then the rest of the semen dies and passes away, and the neck of the
womb contracts gradually until it is perfectly tight. These two little bodies begin
to grow when united and form the foetus, or foal. The foetus may be for
convenience divided into three parts, viz.: the foetus proper, the navel string, and
the placenta. The placenta is the part which is found covering the foal and is
attached to the little pea-like elevations on the inside of the womb. This covering
is found to be full of small blood vessels which finally unite to form two larger
vessels, known as the navel veins. These carry the blood up through the navel
opening of the foal and then to its heart. By the action of the heart it is forced all
through the body of the foal and returned again to the heart. It is then forced
down another artery to the navel opening, along the navel cord, into the placenta
again, where it is distributed through the small blood vessels. When the blood
comes down this cord from the foal it is in its impure state, and while it is
passing through these small vessels in the placenta it comes very close to the
small blood vessels in the womb. The blood is cleansed and nourished from the
blood of its mother by a process similar to that which was spoken of when
describing the lungs. The foetus, or foal, does not grow so fast the first month as
it does later on. At the age of seventeen weeks the first hair appears on the lips
and the tip of the tail. Between the thirty-fifth and the fortieth week the foal
begins to show signs of life, and is completely covered with hair. After this time
it grows very rapidly and may be seen moving around by watching the flank
closely. The mare carries her foal eleven months, but in some cases an aged mare
has been known to carry her foal over twelve months. In rare cases young mares
may lack a few days of eleven months.
The Average Periods of Gestation of Domestic Animals.
Mare 11months Goat 5 months
Ass 12months Sow 31⁄2 months
Cow 9months Bitch 9 weeks
Sheep 5months Cat 8 weeks
Note—A mare having been served by a stallion may occasionally in the course
of four or five weeks, manifest a desire for a second visit from the male; is again
served and conceives both times. This is known as superfoetation. Such a case
has been recorded by a veterinarian; the animal in question, a mare, giving birth
to a horse colt and a mule colt, both dead. The mare had been covered by a jack
and subsequently by a horse.

SIGNS OF PREGNANCY.—The veterinarian is occasionally called upon to give an

opinion as to the pregnancy or non-pregnancy, of an animal and consequently
should familiarize himself with the various indications which tend to prove the
absence, or presence, of this condition. As a rule, when the mare conceives, heat,
or the desire for the male, is no longer observable, and, on being led to the horse,
she not only refuses to receive his caresses, but assumes the offensive, viciously
striking and biting at him until led away. Soon the hair becomes more glossy,
and the mare becomes quieter in disposition. This change is usually well marked
in mares that are of a vicious disposition. The abdomen gradually enlarges as
pregnancy advances, the right side being a little larger than the left. This
enlargement is especially well marked in the cow. In some cases the beating of
the foetal heart may be heard with the assistance of the stethoscope. Such an
examination is, however, very likely to give rise to mistakes. After the eighth
month well-marked symptoms of pregnancy are manifested, the belly at this time
being considerably distended, the back sinking, etc. Before this time it is,
however, impossible to make a positive statement as to the condition of the
animal except by making a very close and thorough examination per rectum. The
rectum should be cleared out by means of an enema (injection) of tepid water;
the hand and arm should be well oiled and passed into the rectum. The region of
the uterus being reached, an examination may be made of its condition. As the
time for parturition approaches, the ligaments relax to a greater or less degree,
and a well-marked depression or sinking in the lumbosacral region may be
observed, the udder or bag enlarges, and milk is secreted. The secretion of milk
sometimes appears long before the time of parturition, and has frequently been
noticed to take place in animals that have never been bred. As a rule the animal
shows slight uneasiness for a day or two before parturition, slight abdominal
pain, etc., being manifested. About this time the vulva becomes larger, and
presents more or less tumefaction. There may also be observed a flow of mucous
taking place from the vulva for a day or two before parturition.
 INDEX
HORSE
Descriptive Anatomy, 5
Dissection, 6

BONES
Osteology
Back Bones, 11
Breast Bone, 12
Cannon Bone, 13
Carpus, 13
Cervical Vertebrae, 11
Classes of Bones, 9
Coccygeal Vertebrae, 12
Coffin Bone, 14
Contents of Bones, 9
Distal Phalanx, 14
Dorsal Vertebrae, 11
Femur, 15
Fibula, 16
Fore-arm Bone (large), 13
Fore-arm Bone (small), 13
Hip Bones, 12
Hock Bones, 16
Humerus, 12
Knee, 13
Loin Bones, 11
Lumbar Vertebrae, 11
Median Phalanx, 14
Metacarpal, 13
Metatarsus, 17
Neck Bones, 11
Os Coronae, 14
Os Metacarpi Magnus, 13
Os Metatarsi Magnum, 17
Os Naviculare, 15
Os Pedis, 14
Os Suffraginis, 14
Ossa Metatarsi Parva, 17
Ossa Metacarpi Parva, 14
Pastern Bone (large), 14
Pastern Bone (small), 14
Patella, 15
Pelvic Bones, 12
Proximal Phalanx, 14
Radius, 13
Ribs, 12
Rump Bones, 12
Sacral Vertebrae, 12
Scapula, 13
Sesamoid Bones, 14
Shoulder Blade, 13
Shoulder Bone, 12
Shuttle Bone, 15
Skeleton, 7
Skull, 10
Splint Bones (fore limb), 14
Splint Bones (hind limb), 17
Sternum, 12
Stifle Bone, 15
Structure of Bones, 8
Tail Bones 12
Tarsus, 16
Thigh Bone, 15
Tibia, 16
Ulna, 13

JOINTS
ARTHROLOGY
Adipose Tissue, 22
Cartilage, 21
Connective Tissue, 21
Elastic Tissue (Yellow), 22
Fat, 22
Ligaments, 22
Synovial Membranes, 23
Synovia, 23

Joints
Carpus, 25
Classes of Joints, 24
Coffin Joint, 26
Elbow Joint, 24
Fetlock Joint, 25
Hip Joint, 26
Hock Joint, 26
Joints of the Front Leg, 24
Joints of the Hind Leg, 26
Knee Joint, 25
Motion in Joints, 24
Pastern Joint, 25
Shoulder Joint, 24
Stifle Joint, 26
Tarsus, 26

MYOLOGY
Abdominal Muscles, 32
Back Muscles, 30
Coccygeal Muscles, 30
Deep Layer of Muscles, 31
Gluteal Muscles, 30
Gullet Muscles, 30
Head Muscles, 30
Hip Muscles, 30
Involuntary Muscles, 35
Leg Muscles (front), 33
Leg Muscles (hind), 34
Muscles, 28
Neck Muscles, 30
Pharynx Muscles, 30
Shoulder Muscles, 32
Superficial Layer of Muscles, 29
Tail Muscles, 30
Voluntary Muscles, 30

SPLANCHNOLOGY
Air Cells, 53
Bladder, 56
Bowels, 41
Breathing, Normal, 55
Bronchial Tubes, 53
Canine Teeth, 49
Cementum (or crusta petrosa), 48
Dentine (or ivory), 48
Digestive Apparatus, 37
Enamel, 48
Fallopian Tubes, 62
Female Genital Organs, 62
Generative, 58
Incisor Teeth, 49
Kidneys, 56
Larynx, 53
Liver, 43
Lungs, 54
Male, 58
Mammary Glands, 65
Molar Teeth, 49
Nasal Chambers, 52
Nostrils, 52
Organs of Respiration, 52
Ovaries, 62
Pancreas, 43
Penis, 61
Permanent Teeth, 49
Rectum, 42
Respiration, 54–55
Respiratory System of the Horse, 52
Salivary Glands, 39
Scrotum, 58
Semen, 61
Sheath, 61
Spleen, 43
Sperm, 61
Spermatic Cords, 60
Stomach, 40
Teeth, 48
Teeth Tables (comparative), 51
Temporary Teeth, 49
Testicles, 59
Ureters, 56
Urethra, 57
Urinary System, 56
Uterus, 62
Vagina, 64
Vas Deferens, 60
Vesiculae Seminales, 60
Vulva, 64
Windpipe or Trachea, 53
Wolf Teeth, 49
Womb, 62

ANGIOLOGY
Arteries, 70
Blood, 67
Blood-vascular System, 67
Capillaries, 71
Circulation, 69
Corpuscles, 67
Course of Blood, 71
Heart, 68
Liquor Sanguinis, 68
Lymphatic System, 72
Veins, 71
NEUROLOGY
Brain, 73
Spinal Cord, 73

AESTHESIOLOGY
Anatomy of the Foot, 78
Dermis, 77
Ear, 75
Epidermis, 77
Eye, 75
Foot Sole, 80
Foot Frog, 80
Foot Wall, 79
Frog of Foot, 80
Hair, 77
Skin, 76
Sole of Foot, 80
Wall of Foot, 79

EMBRYOLOGY
Development of Young, 81
Gestation of Domestic Animals, 82
Pregnancy, 82

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY
Abomasum, 46
Air Cells, 53
Aves, 20
Back Bones, 18
Bowels, 46
Bronchial Tubes, 53
Carnivora, 19
Cervical, 18
Chewing Cud, 46
Coccygeal, 18
Comparative Osteology, 17
Cud Chewing, 46
Digestive System, 44
Dorsal, 18
Fourth Stomach, 46
Genital Organs of the Bull, 65
Genital Organs of the Cow, 66
Gullet, 44
Hip Bones, 19
Honey Comb, 45
Larynx, 53
Liver, 46
Loin Bones, 18
Lumbar, 18
Lungs, 54
Mammary Glands, 66
Many-plies, 45
Neck Bones, 18
Normal Breathing, 55
Nostrils, 55
Oesophagus, 44
Omasum, 45
Omnivora, 19
Paunch, 45
Pelvis Bones, 19
Penis, 65
Process of Digestion, 47
Respirations per Minute of Different Animals, 54
Respiratory System of the Ox, 55
Reticulum, 45
Rumen, 45
Ruminantia, 44
Ruminantia (cud chewing animals), 18
Rumination, 47
Rump Bones, 18
Sacrum, 18
Salivary, 44
Sheath, 65
Skull, 18
Spermatic Cord, 65
Stomach, 45
Tail Bones, 18
Teeth, 44
Teeth, Front, 44
Teeth, Molars, 44
Testicles, 65
Thoracic Cavity (lung cavity), 55
Tongue, 44
Trachea, 53
Urethra, 66
Uterus, 66
Urinary System of the Ox, 58
Vertebrae, 18
Windpipe, 53
Womb, 66
 PRESS OF
SWEENEY, VARNEY & STRAUB
PORTLAND, OREGON

Return to transcriber’s notes

Spelling inconsistencies:
after-birth/afterbirth
anus/annus
areolor/areolar
blood vessels/blood-vessels/bloodvessels
Œsophagus/oesophagus
pully/pulley
sweeney/sweeny
tendinous/tendonous
vertebræ/vertebrae/vertebraes
principle/principal not used strictly in accordance with present day usage
Spelling corrections:
angilogy → angiology
Corpulscles → Corpuscles
cusion → cushion
Dessection → Dissection
discribing → describing
feltock → fetlock
femer → femur
Fermoro-popliteal → Femoro-popliteal
form → from
Forth → Fourth
heapitic → hepatic
lumlosacral → lumbosacral
mammelia → mammalia
Many Plies → Many-plies
mostened → moistened
muscles plays → muscles play
oposite → opposite
pannisulus → panniculus
planter → plantar
prefrom → perform
protracters → protracter
skining → skinning
thench → thence
through → though
vasiculae → vesiculae
Voscular → Vascular
Return to transcriber’s notes
End of Project Gutenberg's Notes on Veterinary Anatomy, by Charles J. Korinek

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NOTES ON VETERINARY ANATOMY ***

***** This file should be named 60949-h.htm or 60949-h.zip *****

This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
http://www.gutenberg.org/6/0/9/4/60949/

Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

http://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
generously made available by The Internet Archive)

Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright
law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works,
so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United
States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part
of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm
concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark,
and may not be used if you charge for the eBooks, unless you receive
specific permission. If you do not charge anything for copies of this
eBook, complying with the rules is very easy. You may use this eBook
for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports,
performances and research. They may be modified and printed and given
away--you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks
not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the
trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project

Gutenberg-tm electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm

electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound
by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the
person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph
1.E.8.

1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See
paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the

Foundation" or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection
of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual
works in the collection are in the public domain in the United
States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the
United States and you are located in the United States, we do not
claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing,
displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as
all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope
that you will support the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting
free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm
works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the
Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with the work. You can easily
comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the
same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg-tm License when
you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are
in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States,
check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this
agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing,
distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any
other Project Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no
representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any
country outside the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear
prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work
on which the phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed,
performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this
eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
United States, you'll have to check the laws of the country where you
are located before using this ebook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is

derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not
contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the
copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in
the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply
either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or
obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works
posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the
beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm

License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including
any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access
to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format
other than "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official
version posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original "Plain
Vanilla ASCII" or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg-tm License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
provided that

* You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed
to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he has
agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid
within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are
legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty
payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in
Section 4, "Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation."

* You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue
all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg-tm
 works.

* You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of
receipt of the work.

* You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project

Gutenberg-tm electronic work or group of works on different terms than
are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing
from both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and The
Project Gutenberg Trademark LLC, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm
trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable

effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project
Gutenberg-tm collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may
contain "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate
or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other
intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or
other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or
cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right

of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a

defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium
with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you
with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in
lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person
or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second
opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If
the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing
without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT
LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of
damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement
violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the
agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or
limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or
unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the
remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the
production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of
the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this
or any Project Gutenberg-tm work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of

electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It
exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations
from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see
Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit

501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by
U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is in Fairbanks, Alaska, with the

mailing address: PO Box 750175, Fairbanks, AK 99775, but its
volunteers and employees are scattered throughout numerous
locations. Its business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt
Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to
date contact information can be found at the Foundation's web site and
official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

For additional contact information:

Dr. Gregory B. Newby

Chief Executive and Director
gbnewby@pglaf.org
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide

spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND
DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular
state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we

have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To
donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works.

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project

Gutenberg-tm concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed

editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.