Unit-1

Basics of computer
Computer:-
A computer is a programmable electronic device that accepts raw data as input
and processes it with a set of instructions (a program) to produce the result as
output. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations. The term
"computer" is derived from the Latin word "computare" which means to
calculate.

The Analytical Engine was the first computer which was invented by Charles
Babbage in 1837. It used punch cards as read-only memory. Charles Babbage is
also known as the father of the computer.

The basic parts without which a computer cannot work are as follows:

o Processor: It executes instructions from software and hardware.

o Memory: It is the primary memory for data transfer between the CPU
and storage.
o Motherboard: It is the part that connects all other parts or components of
a computer.
o Storage Device: It permanently stores the data, e.g., hard drive.
o Input Device: It allows you to communicate with the computer or to
input data, e.g., a keyboard.
o Output Device: It enables you to see the output, e.g., monitor.

Block Diagram of Computer:-

Block diagram of a computer gives you the pictorial representation of a

computer that how it works inside. Or you can say that, in computer's block
diagram, we will see how computer works from feeding the data to getting the
result.

Here is the block diagram of a computer system:

Input
All the data received by the computer goes through the input unit. The input
unit comprises different devices. Like a mouse, keyboard, scanner, etc. In other
words, each of these devices acts as a mediator between the users and the
computer.
The data that is to be processed is put through the input unit. The computer
accepts the raw data in binary form. It then processes the data, and produces the
desired output.

The 3 major functions of the input unit are-

 Take the data to be processed by the user.

 Convert the given data into machine-readable form.
 And then, transmit the converted data into the main memory of the
computer. The sole purpose is to connect the user and the computer. In
addition, this creates easy communication between them.

CPU – Central Processing Unit

Central Processing Unit or the CPU, is the brain of the computer. It works the
same way a human brain works. As the brain controls all human activities, the
CPU too controls all tasks.

Moreover, the CPU conducts all the arithmetical and logical operations in the
computer.
Now the CPU comprises of two units, namely – ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
and CU (Control Unit). Both of these units work in sync. The CPU processes
the data as a whole.

Let us see what particular tasks are assigned to both units.

ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit

The Arithmetic Logic Unit is made of two terms, arithmetic and logic. There are
two major functions that this unit performs.

1. Data inserted through the input unit into the primary memory. Performs
the basic arithmetical operation on it. Like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. It performs all sorts of calculations required
on the data. Then sends back data to the storage.
2. The unit is also responsible for performing logical operations like, AND,
OR, Equal to, Less than, etc. In addition to this it conducts merging,
sorting, and selection of the given data.

CU – Control Unit

The control unit as the name suggests is the controller of all the activities/tasks
and operations. All this is performed inside the computer.

The memory unit sends a set of instructions to the control unit. Then the control
unit in turn converts those instructions. After that these instructions are
converted to control signals.

These control signals help in prioritizing and scheduling the activities. Thus, the
control unit coordinates the tasks inside the computer in sync with the input and
output units.

Memory Unit

All the data that has to be processed or has been processed is stored in the
memory unit. The memory unit acts as a hub of all the data. It transmits it to the
required part of the computer whenever necessary.

The memory unit works in sync with the CPU. This helps in faster accessing
and processing of the data. Thus, making tasks easier and faster.

There are two types of computer memory-

 1. Primary memory – This type of memory cannot store a vast amount of
data. Therefore, it is only used to store recent data. The data stored in this
is temporary. It can get erased once the power is switched off. Therefore,
is also called temporary memory or the main memory.

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is an example of primary

memory. This memory is directly accessible by the CPU. It is used for
reading and writing purposes. For data to be processed, it has to be first
transferred to the RAM and then to the CPU.

2. Secondary memory – As explained above, the primary memory stores

temporary data. Thus it cannot be accessed in the future. For permanent
storage purposes, secondary memory is used. It is also called the
permanent memory or the auxiliary memory. The hard disk is an example
of secondary memory. Even in a power failure data does not get erased
easily.

Output
There is nothing to be amazed by what the output unit is used for. All the
information sent to the computer once processed is received by the user through
the output unit. Devices like printers, monitors, projector, etc. all come under
the output unit.
The output unit displays the data either in the form of a soft copy or hard copy.
The printer is for the hard copy. The monitor is for the display. The output unit
accepts the data in binary form from the computer. It then converts it into a
readable form for the user.

The concept of hardware and software :-

Hardware:-
The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer.
Computer hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can
use to control computer’s operation, input and output. Examples of hardware
are CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.
Hardware Components
Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together.
Some parts are essential and others are added advantages. Computer hardware is
made up of CPU and peripherals as shown in image below.

Software:-
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a
program. Software instructions are programmed in a computer language,
translated into machine language, and executed by computer. Software can be
categorized into two types −
 System software
 Application software
System Software
System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It provides
a platform to run an application. It provides and supports user functionality.
Examples of system software include operating systems such as Windows,
Linux, Unix, etc.

Application Software
An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one or more
tasks. Examples of application software include Microsoft Word, Excel,
PowerPoint, Oracle, etc.

Differences between Software and Hardware are sorted out below −

Sr.No. Software Hardware

1 It is a collection of programs to It includes physical components of

bring computer hardware system computer system.
into operation.

2 It includes numbers, alphabets, It consists of electronic components

alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, like ICs, diodes, registers, crystals,
keywords, etc. boards, insulators, etc.

3 Software products evolve by Hardware design is based on

adding new features to existing architectural decisions to make it
programs to support hardware. work over a range of environmental
conditions and time.
4 It will vary as per computer and its It is mostly constructed for all types
built-in functions and of computer systems.
programming language.

5 It is designed and developed by The hardware can understand only

experienced programmers in high- low-level language or machine
level language. language.

6 The hardware works only on binary

codes 1’s and 0’s.

It is represented in any high-level

language such as BASIC, COBOL,
C, C++, JAVA, etc.

7 The software is categorized as The hardware consists of input

operating system, utilities, devices, output devices, memory,
language processor, application etc.
software, etc.

Booting:-
When a user presses the power button on their computer, it initiates the process
known as "booting," which loads and starts the operating system. Booting can
also be thought of as a series of actions where the ROM of the computer is
accessed in order to load the startup instructions. After that, the operating
system is loaded from the disc that is now being used to boot the computer.

Types of booting:-

1. Cold Booting
To do a cold boot on a computer that is already operational, select the Shut
Down option. In order to complete the cold booting procedure, the computer
must first be powered down and then restarted. If the computer locks up, you
will need to do a cold reboot because a reset (also known as a "warm boot")
may not be sufficient.
During a cold boot, the computer is powered off and its random-access memory
(RAM) is flushed clean of any confidential data and registers that were created
by the operating system and applications while they were in use.
2. Hot/Warm Booting
When a computer is hanging and not working properly, you can restart it so
that it can function normally again. Warm boot does not turn off and does not
erase data when powered on. It makes a big difference when paired with a cold
boot. Before putting the system to use, it performs a self-diagnosis, also known
as a POST, and loads all necessary drivers.
Difference between Cold and Hot/Warm Booting
The following table highlights the differences between Cold Booting and Warm
Booting −

Basis of Cold Booting Hot/Warm Booting

Comparison

Process Status The computer restarts in The computer restarts without

a state in which it has no interfering with the applications.
power.

Result resets the hardware as resets the power supply and all of its
well as clearing all components.
RAM.

The failure of the cold In most cases, the cold boot

Reason to boot to follow the warm procedure is followed by a warm
Stick Around boot results in its boot to restart all of the apps once
termination. they have stopped functioning.

Unplugging the Simultaneously pressing the Delete,

Steps computer and turning off Control, and Alt keys.
the power supply.
 Basis of Cold Booting Hot/Warm Booting
Comparison

Performed On a regular basis. Not very normal.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) functions and components:-

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as
internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random
Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary
memory are two types of memories in the computer. Functions of the memory
unit are −
 It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to
an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry
out any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs
the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results
from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex operations are done by
making repetitive use of the above operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing,
selecting, matching, and merging of data.
Memory unit and its Types:-
A storage unit is a part of the computer system which is employed to store the
information and instructions to be processed. A storage device is an integral
part of the computer hardware which stores information/data to process the
result of any computational work. Without a storage device, a computer would
not be able to run or even boot up. Or in other words, we can say that a storage
device is hardware that is used for storing, porting, or extracting data files. It
can also store information/data both temporarily and permanently. Computer
storage is of two types:
 Primary Storage Devices: It is also known as internal memory and main
memory. This is a section of the CPU that holds program instructions, input
data, and intermediate results. It is generally smaller in size. RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are examples
of primary storage.
 Secondary Storage Devices: Secondary storage is a memory that is stored
external to the computer. It is mainly used for the permanent and long-term
storage of programs and data. Hard Disk, CD, DVD, Pen/Flash drive, SSD,
etc, are examples of secondary storage.

Storage Devices

Now we will discuss different types of storage devices available in the market.
These storage devices have their own specification and use. Some of the
commonly used storage devices are:
1. Primary storage devices
(i) RAM: It stands for Random Access Memory. It is used to store information
that is used immediately or we can say that it is a temporary memory.
Computers bring the software installed on a hard disk to RAM to process it
and to be used by the user. Once, the computer is turned off, the data is
deleted. With the help of RAM, computers can perform multiple tasks like
loading applications, browsing the web, editing a spreadsheet, experiencing
the newest game, etc. It allows you to modify quickly among these tasks,
remembering where you’re in one task once you switch to a different task. It is
also used to load and run applications, like your spreadsheet program, answer
commands, like all edits you made within the spreadsheet, or toggle between
multiple programs, like once you left the spreadsheet to see the email. Memory
is nearly always being actively employed by your computer. It ranges from
1GB – 32GB/64GB depending upon the specifications. There are different
types of RAM, although they all serve the same purpose, the most common
ones are :
 SRAM: It stands for Static Random Access Memory. It consists of circuits
that retain stored information as long as the power is supply is on. It is also
known as volatile memory. It is used to build Cache memory. The access
time of SRAM is lower and it is much faster as compared to DRAM but in
terms of cost, it is costly as compared to DRAM.
 DRAM: It stands for Dynamic Random Access Memory. It is used to
stores binary bits in the form of electrical charges that are applied to
capacitors. The access time of DRAM is slower as compare to SRAM but it
is cheaper than SRAM and has a high packaging density.

(ii) ROM: It stands for Read-Only Memory. The data written or stored in
these devices are non-volatile, i.e, once the data is stored in the memory
cannot be modified or deleted. The memory from which will only read but
cannot write it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently during manufacture only once. ROM stores instructions that are
used to start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. It is also
used in other electronic items like washers and microwaves. ROM chips can
only store few megabytes (MB) of data, which ranges between 4 and 8 MB per
ROM chip. There are two types of ROM:
 PROM: PROM is Programmable Read-Only Memory. These are ROMs
that can be programmed. A special PROM programmer is employed to
enter the program on the PROM. Once the chip has been programmed,
information on the PROM can’t be altered. PROM is non-volatile, that is
data is not lost when power is switched off.
 EPROM: Another sort of memory is that the Erasable Programmable
Read-Only Memory. It is possible to erase the info which has been
previously stored on an EPROM and write new data onto the chip.

2. Magnetic Storage Devices

(i) Floppy Disk: It is also known as a floppy diskette. It is generally used on a
personal computer to store data externally. A Floppy disk is made up of a
plastic cartridge and secures with a protective case. Nowadays floppy disk is
replaced by new and effective storage devices like USB, etc.
(ii) Hard Disk: It is a storage device (HDD) that stores and retrieves data
using magnetic storage. It is a non-volatile storage device that can be modified
or deleted n number of times without any problem. Most of the computers and
laptops have HDDs as their secondary storage device. It is actually a set of
stacked disks, just like phonograph records. In every hard disk, the data is
recorded electromagnetically in the concentric circles or we can say track
present on the hard disk, and with the help of a head just like a phonograph
arm(but fixed in a position) to read the information present on the track. The
read-write speed of HDDs is not so fast but decent. It ranges from a few GBs
to a few and more TB.
(iii) Magnetic Card: It is a card in which data is stored by modifying or
rearranging the magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic particles present on the
band of the card. It is also known as a swipe card. It is used like a passcode(to
enter into house or hotel room), credit card, identity card, etc.
(iv) Tape Cassette: It is also known as a music cassette. It is a rectangular flat
container in which the data is stored in an analog magnetic tape. It is generally
used to store audio recordings.

3. Flash memory Devices

It is a cheaper and portable storage device. It is the most commonly used
device to store data because is more reliable and efficient as compare to other
storage devices. Some of the commonly used flash memory devices are:
(i) Pen Drive: It is also known as a USB flash drive that includes flash
memory with an integrated USB interface. We can directly connect these
devices to our computers and laptops and read/write data into them in a much
faster and efficient way. These devices are very portable. It ranges from 1GB
to 256GB generally.
(ii) SSD: It stands for Solid State Drive, a mass storage device like HDDs. It is
more durable because it does not contain optical disks inside like hard disks. It
needs less power as compared to hard disks, is lightweight, and has 10x faster
read and write speed as compared to hard disks. But, these are costly as well.
While SSDs serve an equivalent function as hard drives, their internal
components are much different. Unlike hard drives, SSDs don’t have any
moving parts and thus they’re called solid-state drives. Instead of storing data
on magnetic platters, SSDs store data using non-volatile storage. Since SSDs
haven’t any moving parts, they do not need to “spin up”. It ranges from
150GB to a few and more TB.
(iii) SD Card: It is known as a Secure Digital Card. It is generally used with
electronic devices like phones, digital cameras, etc. to store larger data. It is
portable and the size of the SD card is also small so that it can easily fit into
electronic devices. It is available in different sizes like 2GB, 4GB, 8GB, etc.
(iv) Memory Card: It is generally used in digital cameras. printers, game
consoles, etc. It is also used to store large amounts of data and is available in
different sizes. To run a memory card on a computer you require a separate
memory card reader.

4. Optical Storage Devices

Optical Storage Devices is also a secondary storage device. It is a removable
storage device. Following are some optical storage devices:
(i) CD: It is known as Compact Disc. It contains tracks and sectors on its
surface to store data. It is made up of polycarbonate plastic and is circular in
shape. CD can store data up to 700MB. It is of two types:
 CD-R: It stands for Compact Disc read-only. In this type of CD, once the
data is written can not be erased. It is read-only.
 CD-RW: It stands for Compact Disc read Write. In this type of CD, you
can easily write or erase data multiple times.
(ii) DVD: It is known as Digital Versatile Disc. DVDs are circular flat optical
discs used to store data. It comes in two different sizes one is 4.7GB single-
layer discs and another one is 8.5GB double-layer discs. DVDs look like CDs
but the storage capacity of DVDs is more than as compared to CDs. It is of
two types:
 DVD-R: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read-only. In this type of DVD,
once the data is written can not be erased. It is read-only. It is generally
used to write movies, etc.
 DVD-RW: It stands for Digital Versatile Disc read Write. In this type of
DVD, you can easily write or erase data multiple times.

Cache Memory and its importance:-

Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is used to speed up and
synchronizing with high-speed CPU. Cache memory is costlier than main
memory or disk memory but economical than CPU registers. Cache memory is
an extremely fast memory type that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU.
It holds frequently requested data and instructions so that they are immediately
available to the CPU when needed.
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main
memory. The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the
data from frequently used main memory locations. There are various different
independent caches in a CPU, which store instructions and data.
UNITS OF MEMORY

Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This
storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory storage units –

S.No. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a
component in an electric circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a
data item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a
unit, which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as
small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information
in the form of computer words.

Characteristics of Computer System

1. Speed

Executing mathematical calculation, a computer works faster and more

accurately than human. Computers have the ability to process so many
millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second. Computer operations are
performed in micro and nano seconds. A computer is a time saving device. It
performs several calculations and tasks in few seconds that we take hours to
solve. The speed of a computer is measure in terms of GigaHertz and
MegaHertz.

2. Diligence

A human cannot work for several hours without resting, yet a computer never
tires. A computer can conduct millions of calculations per second with
complete precision without stopping. A computer can consistently and
accurately do millions of jobs or calculations. There is no weariness or lack
of concentration. Its memory ability also places it ahead of humans.

3. Reliability

A computer is reliable. The output results never differ unless the input varies.
the output is totally depend on the input. when an input is the same the
output will also be the same. A computer produces consistent results for
similar sets of data, if we provide the same set of input at any time we will
get the same result.

4. Automation

The world is quickly moving toward AI (Artificial Intelligence) -based

technology. A computer may conduct tasks automatically after instructions
are programmed. By executing jobs automatically, this computer feature
replaces thousands of workers. Automation in computing is often achieved
by the use of a program, a script, or batch processing.

5. Versatility

Versatility refers to a capacity of computer. Computer perform different types

of tasks with the same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can perform
multiple tasks at the same time this is known as versatility. For example,
while listening to music, we may develop our project using PowerPoint and
Wordpad, or we can design a website.

6. Memory

A computer can store millions of records. these records may be accessed

with complete precision. Computer memory storage capacity is measured in
Bytes, Kilobytes(KB), Megabytes(MB), Gigabytes(GB), and Terabytes(TB). A
computer has built-in memory known as primary memory.
7. Accuracy

When a computer performs a computation or operation, the chances of

errors occurring are low. Errors in a computer are caused by human’s
submitting incorrect data. A computer can do a variety of operations and
calculations fast and accurately