CH-18

CHEMICAL COORDINATIO
Introduction
 Evolution of complex multicellular organisms led to the need for coordinating cellular
activities.
 Cell-to-cell communication is vital for controlling movement, growth, reproduction, and
maintaining homeostasis.
 Various mechanisms, including neurotransmitters, pheromones, and hormones, have
evolved for intercellular communication.

Neurotransmitters and Pheromones

Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers between neurons.
Pheromones: Chemicals secreted to stimulate reactions from organisms of the same species.
Hormones:
 Hormones are secreted by specialized tissues (glands) and transported in the bloodstream.
 They affect only certain target cells equipped with receptors.

Chemical Nature of Hormones

Peptide and Protein Hormones

Composed of amino acid chains.
Peptide hormones (e.g., ADH) have short chains; protein hormones (e.g., GH) have long
chains.
Amino Acid Derivative Hormones
 Derived from specific amino acids.
 Include catecholamines, thyroid hormones, and melatonin.
Steroid Hormones
 Derived from cholesterol.
 Include testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, and cortisol.
Path of Chemical Messengers
 Hormones travel through the bloodstream to reach target cells.
 Specificity is determined by receptors on target cells.

Mode of Hormone Action

Protein Hormones (Hydrophilic)
 Insoluble in lipids.
 Bind to surface receptors, triggering rapid responses via second messenger systems.
 Can induce various cellular reactions.

Steroid Hormones (Lipophilic)

 Lipid-soluble, able to diffuse into cell membranes.
 Bind to receptors inside the cell, altering gene activity.
 Effects may take minutes to days to manifest as they influence gene transcription and
protein synthesis.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
 System of ductless glands is called Endocrine System.
 Ductless glands are those glands which do not possess ducts and pour their secretions
(Hormones) directly into the blood stream which reach at their target organs through
blood circulation.
 Regulates body functions via hormones secreted into the bloodstream.
EXOCRINE AND ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Feature Exocrine Glands Endocrine Glands

Secretion Secrete substances Secrete hormones directly into the
into ducts or onto bloodstream, which then travel to target
body surfaces (e.g., organs/tissues
sweat, saliva,
digestive enzymes)
Secretory Typically produce Produce hormones (chemical
Products non-hormonal messengers) that regulate various
substances physiological processes
Ducts Present; glands have Absent; secretions are released directly
ducts to transport into the bloodstream
secretions to target
locations
Target Localized effects on Effects are widespread throughout the
Location nearby tissues or body, reaching distant target
surfaces organs/tissues
Examples Sweat glands, Pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal
salivary glands, glands, pancreas, gonads (testes and
sebaceous glands, ovaries)
digestive glands

The Hypothalamus:
The hypothalamus is a small but crucial region
of the brain located just above the brainstem
and below the thalamus. Despite its relatively
small size, it plays a central role in the
regulation of numerous physiological processes
through its control over the endocrine system
and the autonomic nervous system
Anatomy:
1. Location: The hypothalamus is situated at
the base of the brain, forming part of the
 limbic system, which is involved in emotions, behavior, and memory.
2. Structure: It consists of several nuclei or clusters of neurons, each with specific
functions.
3. Connections: The hypothalamus has extensive connections with other brain regions,
including the pituitary gland, limbic system, brainstem, and spinal cord, allowing it to
integrate information from various sources and regulate physiological responses
accordingly.

Functions:
1. Endocrine Regulation:
Control of the Pituitary Gland: The hypothalamus exerts control over the anterior
pituitary gland by releasing regulatory hormones into the hypophyseal portal system,
which directly influences the secretion of pituitary hormones.
Hormone Production: It synthesizes and releases several important hormones, including
CRH, GnRH, GHRH, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which regulate the
secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin: The hypothalamus also produces ADH
(vasopressin) and oxytocin, which are transported and stored in the posterior pituitary
gland before being released into the bloodstream. ADH regulates water balance and blood
pressure, while oxytocin plays roles in childbirth, lactation, and social bonding.
Autonomic Nervous System Regulation:
The hypothalamus controls various autonomic functions such as heart rate, blood
pressure, body temperature, and gastrointestinal motility through its connections with the
brainstem autonomic centers.
It integrates inputs from the internal and external environments to regulate physiological
responses and maintain homeostasis.
Temperature Regulation:
The hypothalamus acts as the body's thermostat, monitoring core body temperature and
orchestrating responses to maintain thermal balance.
It initiates responses such as sweating, shivering, and adjustments in peripheral blood
flow to regulate body temperature in response to environmental changes or internal
disturbances.
Regulation of Feeding and Satiety:
Certain nuclei within the hypothalamus involved in regulating hunger, satiety, and energy
balance.
The hypothalamus integrates signals from circulating hormones (e.g., leptin, ghrelin) and
neural inputs to modulate feeding behavior and energy expenditure.
Circadian Rhythms:
The hypothalamus serves as the body's internal clock, coordinating circadian rhythms in
alignment with environmental light-dark cycles.
It regulates the sleep-wake cycle, hormone secretion, body temperature, and other
physiological processes to optimize function according to the time of day.
Some of the releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus,
along with their target organs and effects:

Hormone Type Target Organs Effect

Gonadotropin- Releasing Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of
releasing hormone LH and FSH
(GnRH)
Corticotropin- Releasing Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of
releasing hormone ACTH
(CRH)
Thyrotropin-releasing Releasing Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of
hormone (TRH) TSH and prolactin
Growth hormone- Releasing Anterior pituitary Stimulates release of
releasing hormone growth hormone (GH)
(GHRH)
Somatostatin Inhibiting Anterior pituitary, Inhibits release of
(Growth hormone- Pancreas growth hormone (GH)
inhibiting hormone, and insulin
GHIH)
Dopamine (Prolactin- Inhibiting Anterior pituitary Inhibits release of
inhibiting hormone, prolactin
PIH)
Melanin- Neuropeptide Various, including Regulation of sleep-
concentrating hypothalamus, wake cycle, appetite,
hormone (MCH) pituitary, brainstem energy expenditure
Orexin (Hypocretin) Neuropeptide Various, including Regulation of sleep-
hypothalamus, wake cycle, arousal,
brainstem appetite
Vasopressin Neuropeptide Kidneys, blood Water retention,
(Antidiuretic vessels vasoconstriction
hormone, ADH)
Oxytocin Neuropeptide Uterus, mammary Uterine contractions
glands during childbirth, milk
ejection reflex

PITUITARY GLAND

The pituitary gland is a small pea-sized

gland located at the base of the brain,
just below the hypothalamus, within a
bony structure called the Sella turcica.
It is divided into two main parts: the
anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) and
the posterior pituitary
(neurohypophysis), each of which
secretes different hormones that regulate
various bodily functions.
1. Anterior Pituitary Hormones:
 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): Stimulates the adrenal glands to produce
cortisol, a stress hormone, and aldosterone, which regulates blood pressure and electrolyte
balance.
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid
hormones, which regulate metabolism, growth, and energy expenditure.
 Growth hormone (GH): Stimulates growth, cell reproduction, and regeneration in
humans and other animals.
 Prolactin (PRL): Stimulates milk production in lactating women and plays a role in
reproductive health in both men and women.
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): In females, stimulates the growth of ovarian
follicles and the production of estrogen. In males, stimulates sperm production.
 Luteinizing hormone (LH): In females, triggers ovulation and stimulates the production
of progesterone. In males, stimulates the production of testosterone.
2. Posterior Pituitary Hormones:
 Oxytocin: Stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during
breastfeeding. It also plays a role in social bonding and emotional regulation.
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or Vasopressin: Regulates water balance by increasing
water reabsorption in the kidneys, thus reducing urine output. It also constricts blood
vessels, raising blood pressure when needed.

Neurohypophysis Adenohypophysis
Small posterior lobe Large anterior lobe
Stores hormones Releases hormones
Oxytocin Growth hormone (GH)
Anti-Diuretic hormone (ADH) Thyroid Stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Melanocyte stimulating hormone

(MSH)

Prolactin (PRL)
 THYROID GLAND
The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped
gland located in the front of the neck, just below
the Adam's apple.
 It produces hormones that regulate various
functions in the body, including metabolism,
energy production, growth, and development.
 The two main hormones produced by the
thyroid gland are thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3).
 These hormones play crucial roles in
controlling the rate at which the body uses
energy, regulating body temperature, and
influencing heart rate and the function of
other organs.
 Thyroid function is regulated by the pituitary
gland, which secretes thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH). TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and release T4 and T3.
 Feedback mechanisms ensure that the levels of thyroid hormones remain within a narrow
range to maintain proper metabolic function.
Disorders of the thyroid gland can lead to either overproduction or
underproduction of thyroid hormones. Common thyroid disorders include:
1. Hypothyroidism: This occurs when the thyroid
gland doesn't produce enough thyroid hormones.
Symptoms may include fatigue, weight gain, and
sensitivity to cold, constipation, and dry skin.
2. Hyperthyroidism: This occurs when the thyroid
gland produces an excess of thyroid hormones.
Symptoms may include weight loss, rapid heart
rate, anxiety, tremors, heat intolerance, and
difficulty sleeping.
3. Goiter: A goiter is an enlargement of the thyroid
gland, often caused by iodine deficiency or other
thyroid disorders.
4. Thyroid nodules: These are lumps that can develop
within the thyroid gland. While most thyroid
nodules are benign (non-cancerous), some may be cancerous or cause hormonal
imbalances.

ORGAN HORMONE EFFECT

energy utilization
Thyroid gland
T3 & T4 oxygen consumption
(Follicular cells)
growth & development

Thyroid gland
Calcitonin  Calcium ion concentration in body fluids
(C cells)
Calcitonin is a hormone produced by the parafollicular cells (also known as C cells)
of the thyroid gland. Its primary role is in the regulation of calcium and phosphate levels in
the body
Some key functions and roles of calcitonin:
1. Calcium Regulation: Calcitonin works to lower blood calcium levels by inhibiting
the activity of osteoclasts, which are cells responsible for breaking down bone tissue.
By reducing osteoclast activity, calcitonin helps to decrease the release of calcium
from bones into the bloodstream.
2. Phosphate Regulation: While calcitonin primarily influences calcium levels, it also
plays a role in phosphate regulation to some extent. However, its effect on phosphate
levels is less significant compared to its effect on calcium.
3. Bone Health: Calcitonin helps to maintain bone health and density by promoting
calcium deposition in bones. It counteracts the action of parathyroid hormone (PTH),
which increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclast activity. The balance
between calcitonin and PTH is crucial for maintaining optimal bone density and
strength.
4. Kidney Function: Calcitonin also affects renal function by promoting the excretion
of calcium and phosphate through the urine. This helps to regulate calcium and
phosphate levels in the body.
5. Calcitonin as a Therapeutic Agent: Synthetic calcitonin or calcitonin analogs are
sometimes used therapeutically to treat conditions such as osteoporosis, where bone
resorption exceeds bone formation. By inhibiting osteoclast activity, calcitonin
therapy can help slow down bone loss and reduce the risk of fractures.
 THE PARATHYROID GLANDS
 The parathyroid glands are four small endocrine glands located in the neck,
usually situated behind the thyroid gland.
 Despite their name, the parathyroid glands are distinct from the thyroid gland
and serve a different function.
 The primary role of the parathyroid glands is to regulate calcium levels in the
blood.
 They do this by secreting parathyroid hormone (PTH), which helps to increase
blood calcium levels when they are too low. PTH achieves this by stimulating the
release of calcium from bones, increasing calcium absorption from the intestines,
and promoting calcium reabsorption by the kidneys while simultaneously
promoting phosphate excretion.
 It performs activation of vitamin D needed for absorption of Calcium.
 Maintaining proper calcium levels in the blood is crucial for various physiological
functions, including muscle contraction, nerve function, blood clotting, and bone
health. Imbalances in calcium levels can lead to
health problems such as osteoporosis, kidney
stones, muscle weakness, and cardiac arrhythmias.
Disorders of the parathyroid glands can lead to
abnormal calcium levels. Hyperparathyroidism,
characterized by excessive secretion of PTH, can
result in elevated blood calcium levels
(hypercalcemia), whereas hypoparathyroidism,
marked by insufficient PTH secretion, can lead to
low blood calcium levels (hypocalcemia).
Surgical removal of the parathyroid glands (Para thyroidectomy) is
sometimes necessary to treat conditions like hyperparathyroidism, especially if it
leads to complications such as kidney stones or bone loss. However, care must be
taken during surgery to preserve adequate parathyroid tissue to prevent
hypoparathyroidism and its associated complications.

PANCREAS
The pancreas is a vital organ in the human
body with both endocrine and exocrine
functions.

Anatomy of the Pancreas:

1. Location: Located in the abdomen, behind

the stomach, the pancreas extends
 horizontally across the abdomen from the duodenum toward the spleen.
2. Structure: It has a triangular shape with three main parts:
 Head: Located on the right side, nestled within the curve of the duodenum.
 Body: Extending across the abdomen behind the stomach.
 Tail: Reaches towards the left side of the abdomen, adjacent to the spleen.
3. Blood Supply: Blood is supplied to the pancreas via the pancreaticoduodenal
arteries, branches of the superior mesenteric artery and the gastroduodenal artery.

Functions of the Pancreas:

1. Exocrine Function:
 The majority of the pancreas (around 95%) consists of exocrine glands called
acini, which produce digestive enzymes.
 These enzymes include amylase, lipase, and proteases which are released into
the duodenum via the pancreatic duct to aid in digestion.
2. Endocrine Function:
 The endocrine function of the pancreas involves the production and secretion
of hormones, primarily insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar
levels.
 This function is carried out by small clusters of cells known as islets of
Langerhans scattered throughout the pancreas.
1. Islets of Langerhans:
These are tiny clusters of cells scattered throughout the pancreas.
They contain several types of cells, including:
Alpha cells: These produce glucagon, a hormone that increases blood sugar levels
by stimulating the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose.
Beta cells: These produce insulin, a hormone that lowers blood sugar levels by
facilitating the uptake of glucose by cells for energy production and storage.
Delta cells: These produce somatostatin, which inhibits the release of both insulin
and glucagon, thus helping to regulate their secretion.
PP cells (Pancreatic polypeptide cells): These cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide,
which plays a role in regulating appetite and food intake.
1. Insulin:
 Insulin is crucial for regulating blood sugar levels.
 It promotes the uptake of glucose by cells, thus lowering blood sugar levels.
 It also facilitates the storage of excess glucose in the liver and muscles in the
form of glycogen.
 2. Glucagon:
 Glucagon works
antagonistically to
insulin.
 It stimulates the liver
to convert stored
glycogen into glucose,
thereby increasing
blood sugar levels.
 It also promotes the
breakdown of fats and
proteins to provide
additional energy
sources when blood sugar is low.

Disorders of the Pancreas:

1. Diabetes Mellitus:
 Diabetes occurs when there is either insufficient insulin production or the
body's cells do not respond properly to insulin.
 Type 1 diabetes is characterized by autoimmune destruction of beta cells,
leading to a lack of insulin production. It is treated by using the insulin
injection.
 Type 2 diabetes results from insulin resistance, where cells fail to respond to
insulin effectively.
 Both types lead to high blood sugar levels (hyperglycemia), which can cause
various complications if left uncontrolled. It can be controlled by reducing
intake of carbohydrate diet.
2. Pancreatitis:
 Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas and can be acute or chronic.
 It can result from various causes including gallstones, alcohol abuse, certain
medications, or autoimmune conditions.
 Symptoms include severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and fever.
3. Pancreatic Cancer:
 Pancreatic cancer is one of the most aggressive forms of cancer.
 It often presents at an advanced stage, making it difficult to treat.
 Symptoms may include jaundice, abdominal pain, weight loss, and digestive
issues.
ADRENAL GLAND
The adrenal glands are small, triangular-shaped glands located on top of each kidney. Despite
their relatively small size, these glands play a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions
and responses to stress. They are composed of two distinct regions: the adrenal cortex and the
adrenal medulla.
1. Adrenal Cortex:
 The outer layer of the adrenal gland is called the adrenal cortex. It synthesizes and
releases steroid hormones, which are essential for numerous physiological processes in the
body.
 Zona Glomerulosa: This outermost layer of the adrenal cortex produces
mineralocorticoids, primarily aldosterone.
Aldosterone helps regulate electrolyte balance,
particularly sodium and potassium, by acting on
the kidneys to increase sodium reabsorption and
potassium excretion.
 By controlling the reabsorption of sodium,
aldosterone indirectly influences blood volume
and blood pressure. When aldosterone levels
rise, more sodium is retained in the bloodstream,
which leads to an increase in water retention due
to osmosis. This increase in blood volume
subsequently raises blood pressure. Conversely,
when aldosterone levels decrease, sodium
excretion increases, leading to a decrease in
blood volume and blood pressure.
 Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
(RAAS): Aldosterone secretion is tightly
regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. When blood pressure drops or
blood sodium levels decrease, specialized cells in the kidneys release an enzyme called
renin. Renin acts on a plasma protein called angiotensinogen, converting it to angiotensin
I. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) further convert’s angiotensin I to angiotensin
II, which stimulates the secretion of aldosterone from the adrenal glands. Aldosterone then
acts on the kidneys to increase sodium reabsorption and water retention, ultimately helping
to raise blood pressure.
 Potassium Homeostasis: In addition to its role in sodium reabsorption, aldosterone also
regulates potassium levels in the body. It promotes the excretion of potassium ions into the
urine, helping to maintain appropriate levels of potassium in the bloodstream. This function
is essential for normal cardiac function, as abnormal potassium levels can affect the heart
rhythm.
 Zona Fasciculata: The middle layer produces glucocorticoids, mainly cortisol. Cortisol
plays a critical role in metabolism, immune response, and stress regulation. It helps regulate
blood sugar levels, suppresses inflammation, and modulates the body's response to stress.
 Zona Reticular is: The innermost layer synthesizes androgens, such as
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and androstenedione. These weak male sex hormones
can be converted into more potent forms like testosterone and estrogen in peripheral tissues.
They contribute to the development of secondary sexual characteristics and libido.
2. Adrenal Medulla:
 The inner region of the adrenal gland is called the adrenal medulla. It is composed of
specialized cells called chromaffin cells that synthesize and release catecholamines,
primarily adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).
 Catecholamines are hormones involved in the body's response to stress, commonly
referred to as the fight-or-flight response. They increase heart rate, dilate air passages in
the lungs, increase blood flow to muscles, and elevate blood sugar levels, preparing the
body to respond to perceived threats.

Functions of the Adrenal Gland:

 Stress Response: The adrenal glands play a crucial role in the body's response to stress by
releasing hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, which prepare the body to respond to
perceived threats.
 Metabolism Regulation: Hormones produced by the adrenal glands, such as cortisol, help
regulate metabolism by influencing glucose metabolism, lipid metabolism, and protein
breakdown.
 Electrolyte Balance: Aldosterone, produced in the adrenal cortex, helps regulate
electrolyte balance by controlling the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium
in the kidneys.
 Immune Function: Cortisol produced by the adrenal glands has immunosuppressive
effects and helps modulate the immune response, playing a role in inflammation and
allergic reactions.
 Sex Hormone Production: The adrenal glands produce small amounts of sex hormones,
which contribute to the development of secondary sexual characteristics and libido.

Disorders of the Adrenal Gland:

 Adrenal Insufficiency: Also known as Addison's disease, it occurs

when the adrenal glands do not produce enough hormones, leading to symptoms such as
fatigue, weight loss, low blood pressure, and electrolyte imbalances.

 Cushing's syndrome: This condition results from prolonged exposure to high

levels of cortisol, either due to excessive production by the adrenal glands or prolonged use
of corticosteroid medications. Symptoms include weight gain, central obesity, muscle
weakness, and thinning of the skin.

 Adrenal Tumors: Tumors can develop in the adrenal glands, which may be benign or
malignant. Depending on the type and location of the tumor, it can lead to hormone
overproduction or impairment of adrenal function.

 Pheochromocytoma: A rare tumor of the adrenal medulla that leads to excessive

production of adrenaline and noradrenaline, causing symptoms such as hypertension,
palpitations, headaches, and sweating.
TESTES
The male testes (singular: testis) are crucial organs of the male reproductive system. They are
responsible for producing sperm cells (spermatogenesis) and the hormone testosterone, which
is essential for the development of male reproductive tissues and secondary sexual
characteristics.
Hormonal Regulation:
Spermatogenesis:
Spermatogenesis is regulated by
hormones such as follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH) and
testosterone, which are
produced by the pituitary gland
and the testes, respectively.
FSH stimulates the sertoli cells
of testes to facilitate sperm
development.
The Leydig cells, located in
the interstitial tissue of the
testes, produce testosterone in
response to luteinizing
hormone (LH) stimulation
from the pituitary gland.
Testosterone plays a crucial role in the development of male reproductive organs during fetal
development and puberty.
It also regulates secondary sexual characteristics such as facial hair growth, deepening of the
voice, and muscle development.

OVARIES
Ovaries are a pair of reproductive
organs found in the female
reproductive system. They serve
two main functions: the
production of female gametes
(eggs or ova) and the secretion of
hormones, primarily estrogen and
progesterone, which regulate the
menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and
various aspects of female
physiology.

1.
Estrogen: Estrogen is primarily
produced by the developing follicles within the ovaries. It plays a crucial role in the
development of secondary sexual characteristics during puberty, such as breast development,
widening of the hips, and the growth of pubic hair. Estrogen also regulates the menstrual cycle
by promoting the thickening of the endometrium (uterine lining) during the proliferative phase.
Progesterone: Progesterone is produced by the corpus luteum, which forms from the remnants
of the ovarian follicle after ovulation. Its primary function is to prepare the uterus for pregnancy
by maintaining the thickened endometrium during the secretory phase of the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone also helps in the development of the mammary glands in preparation for lactation.
These hormones also have effects on other organs and tissues in the body, influencing bone
density, cardiovascular health, and cognitive function, among other things.
Regulation:
The secretion of estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries is tightly regulated by a complex
interplay of hormones from the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and ovaries themselves.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland.
FSH and LH then act on the ovarian follicles to stimulate their growth and maturation, leading
to the secretion of estrogen. LH surge triggers ovulation and the formation of the corpus
luteum, which secretes progesterone.

OTHER ENDOCRINE TISSUE

Endocrine tissues are tissues in the body that produce hormones, which are chemical
messengers that regulate various bodily functions. Apart from the well-known endocrine
organs like the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ovaries/testes, there
are several other tissues in the body that also produce hormones. Here are some examples:

1. Thymus: The thymus gland, located in the chest region, produces hormones like thymosin,
thymic humaral factor & thymic factor responsible for maturation of T-lymphocytes involved
in the development and function of the immune system.
2. Heart: The heart secretes hormones like atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) and brain
natriuretic peptide (BNP), which regulate blood pressure and fluid balance.
3. Gastrointestinal Tract: Various cells in the stomach and intestines produce hormones
such as gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin, which regulate digestion and appetite.
Secretin:
Secretin is a hormone produced by the S cells of the duodenum (the first part of the small
intestine). It is released in response to the presence of acidic chyme (partially digested food
mixed with stomach acid) entering the duodenum from the stomach. Secretin stimulates
the pancreas to release bicarbonate ions into the duodenum. Bicarbonate ions help
neutralize the acidic chyme, creating a more favorable environment for the action of
digestive enzymes. This process helps to regulate the pH level of the small intestine,
ensuring optimal conditions for enzymatic activity.

Cholecystokinin (CCK):
CCK is a peptide hormone produced by I cells in the duodenum and jejunum of the small
intestine. It is released in response to the presence of partially digested proteins and fats in
the duodenum. CCK has several important functions:

It stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from the pancreas, including lipase (for fat
digestion) and proteases (for protein digestion), aiding in the breakdown of fats and proteins
in the small intestine.
It causes the gallbladder to contract, leading to the release of bile into the duodenum. Bile,
produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies fats, breaking them down
into smaller droplets that can be more easily digested by lipase.
 CCK also acts as a hunger suppressant by signaling satiety to the brain, reducing appetite
and food intake.
4. Kidneys: The kidneys produce hormones like erythropoietin, which stimulates red blood
cells production, and renin, which regulates blood pressure.
5. Skin: The skin produces hormones like vitamin D, which plays a role in calcium
metabolism and bone health.
6. Adipose Tissue (Fat): Adipose tissue secretes hormones called adipokines, such as leptin,
which regulates appetite and metabolism.
7. Bone: Bone tissue produces osteocalcin, which is involved in bone formation and also plays
a role in glucose metabolism.
8. Prostaglandins: are a group of lipid compounds derived enzymatically from fatty acids.
These hormones are produced in almost all tissues and organs of the body and exert their
effects locally. They are not stored but are synthesized as needed in response to specific
stimuli. Prostaglandins are involved in inflammation, blood clotting, smooth muscle
contraction, regulation of blood pressure, and various reproductive processes.
9. Placenta: an endocrine tissue release various hormones during pregnancy like human
chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) and Progesterone.
10. Brain: Human brain releases Endorphin hormone involved in pain relief.

FEEDBACK MECHANISM

The endocrine system is a complex network of glands that secrete hormones to regulate
various bodily functions. Feedback mechanisms play a crucial role in maintaining
homeostasis within the body, ensuring that hormone levels are balanced and physiological
processes are properly regulated. There are two types of feedback mechanisms in the
endocrine system: negative feedback and positive feedback.
1. Negative Feedback: This is the most common type of feedback mechanism in the
endocrine system. In negative feedback, the output of a system acts to oppose changes to
the input and returns the system to its set point. For example, when blood glucose levels
rise after a meal, the pancreas releases insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin signals cells to
take up glucose from the blood, thereby lowering blood glucose levels. Once blood glucose
levels return to normal, insulin secretion decreases, thus preventing hypoglycemia.
2. Positive Feedback: In contrast to negative feedback, positive feedback amplifies or
reinforces the change that is occurring in the system. While less common in the endocrine
system, positive feedback plays important roles in certain physiological processes. One
example of positive feedback in the endocrine system involves the hormone oxytocin
during childbirth.
Example: Oxytocin Positive Feedback during Childbirth
During childbirth, oxytocin is released by the pituitary gland in response to uterine
contractions. As the baby's head pushes against the cervix, nerve impulses stimulate the
release of oxytocin. Oxytocin then stimulates further uterine contractions, which push the
baby's head against the cervix even more. This creates a cycle of increasing oxytocin release
and stronger contractions, leading to the eventual birth of the baby.
In this example, oxytocin acts as a positive feedback mechanism by
amplifying the initial stimulus (uterine contractions), leading to an intensified response
(stronger contractions) until the desired outcome (delivery of the baby) is achieved. Once
 the baby is delivered, oxytocin levels decrease, and the positive feedback loop is
terminated.

SOME COMMON DISORDERS OF ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

AND TREATMENT
Sometimes, hormone levels can be too high or too low. When this happens, it can have a
number of effects on your health. The signs and symptoms depend on the hormone that’s out
of balance.
Here’s a look at some conditions that can affect the endocrine system and alter your hormone
levels.
Hyperthyroidism
Hyperthyroidism happens when your thyroid gland makes more thyroid hormone than
necessary. This can be caused by a range of things, including autoimmune conditions.
Some common symptoms of hyperthyroidism include:
 fatigue
 nervousness
 weight loss
 diarrhea
 issues tolerating heat
 fast heart rate
 trouble sleeping
Treatment depends on how severe the condition is, as well as its underlying cause. Options
include medications, radioiodine therapy, or surgery.
Graves ‘disease is an autoimmune disorder and a common form of hyperthyroidism. In
people with Graves ‘disease, the immune system attacks the thyroid, which causes it to
produce more thyroid hormone than usual.
Hypothyroidism
Hypothyroidism occurs when your thyroid doesn’t produce enough thyroid hormone. Similar
to hyperthyroidism, it has many potential causes.
Some common symptoms of hypothyroidism include:
 fatigue
 weight gain
 constipation
 issues tolerating the cold
 dry skin and hair
 slow heart rate
 irregular periods
 fertility issues
Treatment for hypothyroidism involves supplementing your thyroid hormone with
medication.
Cushing syndrome
Cushing syndrome happens due to high levels of the hormone cortisol.
Common symptoms of Cushing syndrome include:
 weight gain
 fatty deposits in the face, midsection, or shoulders
 stretch marks, particularly on the arms, thighs, and abdomen
  slow healing of cuts, scrapes, and insect bites
 thin skin that bruises easily
 irregular periods
 decreased sex drive and fertility in males
Treatment depends on the cause of the condition and can include medications, radiation
therapy, or surgery.

Addison’s disease
Addison’s disease happens when your adrenal glands don’t produce enough cortisol or
aldosterone. Some symptoms of Addison’s disease include:
 fatigue
 weight loss
 abdominal pain
 low blood sugar
 nausea or vomiting
 diarrhea
 irritability
 a craving for salt or salty foods
 irregular periods
Treatment for Addison’s disease involves taking medications that help replace the hormones
your body isn’t producing enough of.
Diabetes
Diabetes refers to a condition in which your blood sugar levels aren’t regulated within a
certain range.
People with diabetes have too much glucose in their blood (high blood sugar). There are two
types of diabetes: type 1 diabetes and type 2 diabetes.
Some common symptoms of diabetes include:
 fatigue
 increased hunger or thirst
 frequent urge to urinate
 irritability
 frequent infections
Treatment for diabetes can include blood sugar monitoring, insulin therapy,
and medications. Lifestyle changes, such as getting regular exercise and eating a balanced
diet, can also help.
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
This common condition is caused by unbalanced reproductive hormones in people with
ovaries, which can create issues in the ovaries. Living with PCOS can mean that an egg may
not be released every month, or may not develop as it should when it is released.
Some of the common symptoms of PCOS are:
 irregular periods
 fertility issues
 cysts that form on the ovaries
 acne
 hirsutism, which is an unusual amount of hair growth on the face or chin
 thinning hair
  weight gain
 skin tags
Treatment for PCOS focuses on easing the symptoms. Treatments include medications,
like birth control and metformin, and lifestyle changes, such as focusing on nutrition and
trying to reach a moderate weight if your doctor has recommended it.

Hypogonadism
A common condition, especially in older males and occasionally in females, hypogonadism is
caused by a lowered production of the sex hormone testosterone. This can lead to lowered
libido, as well as a variety of other symptoms, such as:
 erectile dysfunction in people with a penis
 reduced energy
 reduced muscle mass
 depressed mood
 increased irritability
Treatment for hypogonadism focuses on improved testosterone levels. Testosterone
replacement therapy and lifestyle changes (such as working toward a moderate weight if your
doctor has recommended it) are two popular methods.
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is an abnormal loss of bone mass and changes in bone tissue. It can be caused
by a variety of issues, but two common causes are lowered estrogen levels in people with
ovaries and lowered testosterone levels in people with testicles. These lowered hormone
levels can be caused by age, as well as other diseases.
Osteoporosis doesn‘t always cause obvious symptoms. But some of the more common
symptoms are bone fractures and injuries related to minor falls, lifting, and even coughing.
Treatment for osteoporosis focuses on slowing or stopping bone loss. Proper nutrition,
exercise, and medications are three of the most common treatments.
Acromegaly
This rare disease is caused when the body makes too much growth hormone, which is mainly
produced in the pituitary gland. Mostly diagnosed in middle-aged adults, it can cause organs,
bones, cartilage, organs, and certain tissues to grow in size.
The common symptoms of acromegaly include:
 swollen nose
 swollen ears
 swollen hands and feet
 joint aches
 a deeper voice than usual
 an increase in sweating and body odor
Treatment for acromegaly includes medications, radiation therapy, and surgery