MODULE-1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY:

Introduction. Structure and functions of a cell. Stem cells and their application. Biomolecules:
Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special
biomolecules: Properties and functions of enzymes, vitamins and hormones.

CELL: THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

A living organism conducts self-sustaining biological processes. A cell is the smallest and most basic
form of life. Robert Hooke, one of the first scientists to use a light microscope, discovered the cell in
1665. In all life forms, including bacteria, plants, animals, and humans, the cell was defined as the most
basic structural and functional unit of life.
The cell theory incorporates three principles:
 Cells are the most basic building units of life.
 All living things are composed of cells.
 New cells are made from preexisting cells, which divide into two
Some organisms are composed of a single cell and are called unicellular organisms while others, like us,
composed of many cells, are called multicellular organisms.
Unicellular (single-celled) organisms can function independently, but the cells of multicellular
organisms are dependent upon each other and are organized into five different levels in order to
coordinate their specific functions and carry out all of life’s biological processes.
 Cells. Cells are the basic structural and functional unit of all life. Examples include red blood
cells and nerve cells.
 Tissues. Tissues are groups of cells that share a common structure and function and work
together. There are four types of
o human tissues: connective, which connects tissues;
o epithelial, which lines and protects organs;
o muscle, which contracts for movement and support; and
o Nerve, which responds and reacts to signals in the environment.
 Organs. Organs are a group of tissues arranged in a specific manner to support a common
physiological function. Examples include the brain, liver, and heart.
 Organ systems. Organ systems are two or more organs that support a specific physiological
function. Examples include the digestive system and central nervous system. There are eleven
organ systems in the human body.
 Organism. An organism is a complete living system capable of conducting all of life’s biological
processes.

CELL STRUCTURE: The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions
essential to carry out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm,
nucleus, and cell organelles.
 Cell Membrane: The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other
organelles, such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma
membrane. The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. By
 structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular
component from damage and leakage.
 Cell Wall: The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane
and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells. The cell
wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin. It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane. It
provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.
 Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell
membrane. Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm. The cell
organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in
this cytoplasm.
 Nucleus: The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA. It serves as the cell’s
command center, sending signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die. The nucleus is
surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the cell. Chromatin
is the material that makes up chromosomes, consisting of DNA wrapped around proteins called
histones. Nuclear Pores are complex structures that control the passage of ions, molecules, and
RNA between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Nucleolus is located within the nucleus; the
nucleolus is a densely packed region where ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis occurs. It's vital
for the production of ribosomes, which are essential for protein synthesis in the cell.
 Cell Organelles: Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific
functions to carry out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal
functions, are as follows:
 Endoplasmic reticulum: The Endoplasmic Reticulum is the membranous structure containing
cisternae which are attached to the tubules filled with some fluid. Endoplasmic Reticulum is
the cell transport system i.e., they help to transport various proteins and enzymes in the cell
or outside the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of
lipids, steroids and proteins.
 Golgi Bodies: Golgi complex is a membrane-bound organelle form of flattened stacked
pouches known as cisternae present in both plant and animal cells. Golgi bodies are called
the cell’s post office, The Golgi apparatus packages molecules processed by the endoplasmic
reticulum to be transported out of the cell.
 Ribosome: Ribosomes are single membrane-bound organelles that are mainly attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are the protein synthesizers of the cell, organelles that
process the cell’s genetic instructions to create proteins. These organelles can float freely in
the cytoplasm or be connected to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 Mitochondria: They are complex organelles that convert energy from food into a form that
the cell can use. It is a double membrane structure present in all eukaryotic cells. The
mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP
– the cell’s energy currency. They have their own genetic material, separate from the DNA in
the nucleus, and can make copies of themselves.
  Lysosomes: Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell, rid
the cell of toxic substances, and recycle worn-out cell components and help in cell renewal.
Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
 Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the
pigment called chlorophyll.
 Vacuoles: Vacuoles are the cell organelles with a single membrane. In plant cells, vacuoles
have the maximum area of cells. Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the
cell.
 Centrioles are paired barrel-shaped organelles located in the cytoplasm of animal cells near
the nuclear envelope. They play a critical role in cell division, specifically in the process of
mitosis and meiosis, and in the organization of the microtubules in the cell's cytoskeleton.

FUNCTIONS OF CELL:
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism. Important
functions of cell are as follows:
 Provides Support and Structure: All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the
structural basis of all the organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main
components that function to provide support and structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is
made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is made of cells that
provide structural support to the plants.
 Facilitate Growth Mitosis: In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter
cells. Thus, the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.
 Allows Transport of Substances: Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out
various chemical processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical
processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport. Small molecules such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell membrane along the concentration
gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules diffuse across the cell
membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the
substances.
  Energy Production: Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is
produced by the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in
animals.
 Aids in Reproduction: A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and
meiosis. Mitosis is termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form
daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.
 Photosynthesis (in Plant Cells): Chloroplasts convert sunlight into energy in the form of
glucose.
 Protein Synthesis: Ribosomes synthesize proteins using genetic information.

STEM CELLS AND THEIR APPLICATION:

Stem cells are unspecialized, unique cells having the ability of self-renewal through cell division
for long period. These stem cells have the potential to develop into specialized cells such as blood cells,
muscle cells, neurons, myocytes, bone cells, hepatocytes etc.
Stem cells can replicate indefinitely so they are serving as internal repair system for body to
replace dead or damaged cells. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain
a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red
blood cell, or a brain cell.

They possess two main characteristics:

1. Self-renewal: Stem cells are immortal, unlimited in number and are capable of
replicating/proliferating for a long period. They have potential to divide and produce more stem
cells i.e., maintain long term self-renewal.
2. Differentiation: Stem cells have the ability to give rise to specialized cells through the process of
differentiation. Several internal signals (include genes coding for cell structure and function) and
external signals (include physical contact with neighboring cells, certain chemicals secreted by
other cells) trigger each step of differentiation process. For example, stem cells can be
differentiated into cartilage cells (chondrocytes) upon the presence of transforming growth
factor-beta (TGF-β).
Types of Stem Cells based on their source:
1. Embryonic Stem Cells: Derived from embryos, these cells have the potential to become any cell
type in the body.
2. Adult or Somatic Stem Cells: They are tissue-specific, undifferentiated cells found in various
tissues; they specialize in generating cells specific to their tissue of origin, including brain, bone
 marrow, peripheral blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscle, skin, teeth, heart, gut, liver, ovarian
epithelium, and testes. Their main role is to play in tissue repair and tissue maintenance.
Classification of stem cells: The stem cells can be classified into several types based on their potency or
plasticity. Potency or plasticity can be defined as the ability of the stem cell from one tissue to generate
the specialized cell type(s) of another tissue.
 Unipotent stem cells can form only one type of specialized cell type. For example, brain stem
cells differentiate into only brain cells.
 Multipotent stem cells can form multiple types of cells. For example, mesenchymal stem cells
derived from bone marrow can differentiate into osteoblasts, adipocytes, chondrocytes,
myocytes, and neuron-like cells.
 Pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into almost all types of cell lineages. For example, cells
(ICM) from blastocyst can differentiate into three germ cell layers (ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm) but do not contribute for trophoblast.
 Totipotent stem cells can differentiate into all cell types including cells of the trophoectoderm
lineage. For example, fertilized egg and early cleavage stage of blastomeres.
Applications:
Stem cell technology has a broad range of applications;
 Tissue Engineering: Stem cells combined with biomaterials can engineer tissues and organs for
transplantation. This approach holds promise for creating replacement tissues and organs,
addressing the shortage of donor organs, and reducing the risk of rejection.
 Regenerative medicine is the process of creating functional tissues to repair or replace tissue or
organ function lost due to damage, or congenital defects. This field holds the promise of
regenerating damaged tissues and organs in the body by stimulating previously irreparable
organs to heal themselves. Regenerative medicine also empowers scientists to grow tissues and
organs in the laboratory and safely implant them when the body cannot heal itself.
 Drug Development and Testing: Stem cells serve as a valuable model for testing new drugs,
predicting their effects on human cells.
 Understanding Disease Mechanisms: Studying stem cells provides insights into the development
and progression of diseases.
 Stem Cell Research in curing diseases: Stem cell research can potentially help treating a range of
medical problems.
o Parkinson's disease: A degenerative disorder of the central nervous system due to the lack
of a brain chemical called dopamine. To cure this disease, the patients are injected with
stem cells to multiply nerve cells that release dopamine.
o Diabetes (Type 1): Autologous (originating from your own body) stem cell therapy
becomes a promising tool to treat diabetes. It reduces hyperglycemia and its associated
complications. A study showed patients receiving injections with adult stem cells were
able to go as long as four years without having to rely on insulin shots.
o Polio: Poliomyelitis is a viral disease that can affect nerves and can lead to partial or full
paralysis. Signals from brain are no longer sent to muscles in the leg. Stem cells are
injected to encourage new spinal neurons to grow and help new muscle to grow.
  Gene Therapy: Gene therapy is the insertion of genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat
a disease. The hereditary diseases in which a defective gene (nucleotide mutation, for example,
sickle cell anemia) is replaced with a functional one. A "corrected" gene is inserted into the
genome to replace an "abnormal," disease-causing gene. Stem cells can serve as vectors for
delivering therapeutic genes to target tissues, offering potential treatments for genetic disorders
and other diseases.

BIOMOLECULES: PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES, NUCLEIC

ACIDS, PROTEINS, LIPIDS.

Biomolecules are complex organic compounds, also called biological molecule, are any of
numerous substances that are produced by cells and living organisms. They consist mainly of the carbon
and hydrogen along with oxygen and nitrogen and to a smaller extent of phosphorus and Sulphur. They
are classified as macromolecules, big (macro-) molecules made through the joining of smaller subunits,
they are polymers made of hundreds to thousands of smaller molecules called monomers (except lipids).
Living systems are made up of various complex biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acids, lipids, etc. Biomolecules have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of
functions.

CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats, carbohydrates are one of
three main nutrients found in foods and drinks and they are among the most abundant biomolecules
on Earth.
 Carbohydrates are mainly found in plant foods. They also occur in dairy products in the form of a
milk sugar called lactose. Foods high in carbohydrates include bread, pasta, beans, potatoes, rice,
and cereals.
 Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose is the main source of energy for your
body's cells, tissues, and organs, used to support bodily functions and physical activity. Glucose can
be used immediately or stored in the liver and muscles for later use.
 Carbohydrates is an organic compound consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms, with the
empirical formula Cx(H2O)y. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in
carbohydrate molecules. They are considered as hydrates of carbon from where the name
carbohydrate is derived.
 Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behavior on hydrolysis. They have been broadly
divided into following three groups—monosaccharides, di/oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
o Monosaccharides or simple sugars: (mono means one; saccharide means sugar) A
carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or
ketone is called a monosaccharide. Monosaccharides may exist as a linear chain or as ring-
shaped molecules; in aqueous solutions, they are usually found in the ring form. About 20
monosaccharides are known to occur in nature. Some common examples are glucose, fructose,
galactose, ribose, etc. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same chemical
 formula (C6H12O6), they differ structurally and chemically (and are known as isomers) because
of differing arrangements of atoms in the carbon chain.
o Oligosaccharides: Carbohydrates that yield two to ten monosaccharide units, on hydrolysis, are
called oligosaccharides. They are further classified as disaccharides, trisaccharide, tetra
saccharides, etc., depending upon the number of monosaccharides; they provide on hydrolysis.
Amongst these the most common are disaccharides. Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two
monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction (a reaction in which the removal of a water
molecule occurs). During this process, the hydroxyl group (–OH) of one monosaccharide
combines with a hydrogen atom of another monosaccharide, releasing a molecule of water (H 2O)
and forming a covalent bond between atoms in the two sugar molecules. The two
monosaccharide units obtained on hydrolysis of a disaccharide may be same or different. For
example, one molecule of sucrose or table sugar on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and
one molecule of fructose whereas maltose or malt sugar gives two molecules of only glucose
while Lactose consists of the monomers of glucose and galactose.
o Polysaccharides: Carbohydrates which yield a large number of monosaccharide units on
hydrolysis or a long chain of monosaccharides linked by covalent bonds is known as a
polysaccharide (poly- = “many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain
different types of monosaccharides. Polysaccharides may be very large molecules. Some
common examples are starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc. Polysaccharides are not sweet in
taste; hence they are also called non-sugars.
Starch is the stored form of sugars in plants and is made up of amylose and amylopectin
(both polymers of glucose). Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and the excess glucose is
stored as starch in different plant parts, including roots and seeds. The starch that is consumed by
animals is broken down into smaller molecules, such as glucose.
Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates, and is made up of
monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched
molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever glucose levels decrease, glycogen is
broken down to release glucose.
Cellulose is one of the most abundant natural biopolymers. The cell walls of plants are
mostly made of cellulose, which provides structural support to the cell. Wood and paper are
mostly cellulosic in nature. Cellulose is made up of unbranched chains of glucose monomers
linked by 1-4 glycosidic bonds.
Every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over and packed tightly in relation to its
neighbors, and these results in long, straight, non-helical chains of cellulose. These chains cluster
together to form parallel bundles that are held together by hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl
groups. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high tensile strength, which are important to plant
cells. Cellulose passing through our digestive system is called dietary fiber. While the glucose-
glucose bonds in cellulose cannot be broken down by human digestive enzymes, herbivores such
as cows, buffalos, and horses are able to digest grass that is rich in cellulose and use it as a food
source. In these animals, certain species of bacteria reside in the rumen (part of the digestive
system of herbivores) and secrete the enzyme cellulase. The appendix also contains bacteria that
break down cellulose, giving it an important role in the digestive systems of ruminants.
 Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose monomers that can be used as an energy source
by the animal.

FUNCTIONS:
o They serve as primary energy sources.
o Energy Storage: the excess glucose in the body is stored as glycogen (the majority of which is
stored in the muscles and liver). A molecule of glycogen may contain in excess of fifty thousand
single glucose units and is highly branched, allowing for the rapid dissemination of glucose
when it is needed to make cellular energy.
o Building Macromolecules: Although most absorbed glucose is used to make energy, some
glucose is converted to ribose and deoxyribose, which are essential building blocks of important
macromolecules, such as RNA, DNA, and ATP.
o Sparing Protein: In a situation where there is not enough glucose to meet the body’s needs,
glucose is synthesized from amino acids. Because there is no storage molecule of amino acids,
this process requires the destruction of proteins, primarily from muscle tissue. The presence of
adequate glucose basically spares the breakdown of proteins from being used to make glucose
needed by the body.
o Lipid Metabolism: Glucose additionally has a “fat-sparing” effect. This is because an increase in
blood glucose stimulates release of the hormone insulin, which tells cells to use glucose (instead
of lipids) to make energy. But in the absence of glucose, body breaks down fat, which produces a
compound called ketones. The ketones, or ketone bodies, become your body and brain's main
source of energy. Ketone bodies are acidic and high elevations in the blood can cause it to
become too acidic leading to ketosis.
o Serve as structural component, e.g. glycosaminoglycans in humans, cellulose in plants and chitin
in insects
o Non-digestable carbohydrates like cellulose, serve as dietary fibers
o Blood Sugar Regulation: Carbohydrates play a role in regulating blood sugar levels, ensuring a
steady energy supply.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer i.e., the repeating units are known
as the nucleotides and hence sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as polynucleotides.
 Each nucleotide is made up of three parts:
o a nitrogen-containing ring structure called a nitrogenous base,
o a five-carbon sugar, and
o At least one phosphate group. The sugar molecule has a central position in the nucleotide, with
the base attached to one of its carbons and the phosphate group (or groups) attached to another.

 The nitrogenous bases of nucleotides are organic (carbon-based) molecules made up of nitrogen-
containing ring structures. Each nucleotide in nucleic acids contains one of five possible nitrogenous
bases:
o Adenine (A), guanine (G) cytosine (C), uracil (U) and thymine (T).
o Adenine and guanine are purines, meaning that their structures contain two fused carbon-
nitrogen rings. Cytosine, uracil and thymine, in contrast, are and have a single carbon-nitrogen
ring. Pyrimidines
 Nucleic acids exhibit specific base pairing rules, where adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) in DNA
or uracil (U) in RNA via 2 hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G) via 3 hydrogen
bonds. This complementary base pairing ensures the accurate replication and transmission of genetic
information during cellular processes.

Hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in stabilizing the structure of nucleic acids. Within the double
helix of DNA, hydrogen bonds form between complementary base pairs, contributing to the
structural integrity and specificity of the molecule.

 The pentose sugar is ribose if the polynucleotide is RNA and the five-carbon sugar in DNA is called
deoxyribose.
 Nucleotides may have a single phosphate group, or a chain of up to three phosphate groups, attached
to the 5’ carbon of the sugar.

 Glycosidic bonds are made between the first carbon atom in a 5-carbon sugar and the ninth nitrogen
atom in a nitrogenous base.
 Nucleotides are joined together by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and 3' carbon atoms of the
pentose sugar, Ester bonds are made between the fifth carbon atom in a 5-carbon sugar and the
phosphate group.
 Nucleic acids are acidic molecules due to the presence of phosphate groups in their structure. The
negatively charged phosphate groups confer an overall negative charge to the nucleic acid molecule.
The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA): James Watson and Francis Crick -gave a double strand helix structure
for DNA

 DNA has a double-helical structure. It is composed of two anti-parallel strands, or polymers, of

nucleotides, one strand running 5' to 3' direction and the other from 3' to 5' direction that are
complementary to each other.
 The sugars and phosphates lie on the outside of the helix, forming the backbone of the DNA; the
nitrogenous bases are stacked in the interior, like the steps of a staircase.

 The strands are bonded to each other at their bases with hydrogen bonds, and the strands coil
about each other along their length, hence the “double helix” description, which means a double
spiral. The hydrogen bonds are formed between specific pairs of bases. Adenine forms hydrogen
bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds with guanine.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): Ribonucleic acid (RNA), unlike DNA, is usually single-stranded. RNA
nucleotides may also bear adenine, guanine and cytosine bases, but instead of thymine they have another
pyrimidine base called uracil (U). The pentose sugar is ribose if the polynucleotide is RNA. There are
three types of RNA molecules, each having a specific function:

 Messenger RNA (m-RNA): it is a ribonucleic acid that carries the genetic information for protein
synthesis from DNA to the cytoplasm.
 Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA): the RNA that is always associated with the ribosomes in the
cytoplasm.
 transfer RNA (t-RNA): a type of RNA that transports amino acids to the site of protein synthesis

RNA plays an important role in protein synthesis and regulates the expression of the information
stored in DNA to make these proteins. It is also how genetic information is carried in certain viruses.

FUNCTIONS
 Genetic Information Storage: Nucleic acids, particularly DNA, store and carry genetic
information that dictates the hereditary characteristics of living organisms. DNA contains the
instructions necessary for the development, growth, functioning, and reproduction of organisms.
 Protein Synthesis: Nucleic acids, through the process of transcription and translation, play a
crucial role in the synthesis of proteins, the building blocks of cells.
 Cellular Regulation: They participate in the regulation of various cellular processes, controlling
gene expression and influencing the overall functioning of cells.
 Hereditary Transmission: Nucleic acids are responsible for transmitting hereditary traits from
parents to offspring, ensuring the continuity of genetic information.
 Gene Expression Regulation: Nucleic acids participate in the regulation of gene expression,
controlling when and how genes are turned on or off.
 Enzymatic Activities: Some nucleic acids, like ribozymes, exhibit enzymatic activities,
participating in biochemical reactions within cells.
 Synthesis of Biomolecules: They are involved in the synthesis of various biomolecules,
contributing to the overall structure and function of living organisms.
 Immune Response: Nucleic acids, both DNA and RNA, can trigger immune responses when
recognized as foreign molecules by the immune system.
 Energy Transfer: Nucleic acids, particularly adenosine triphosphate (ATP), function as carriers
of chemical energy within cells.
PROTEINS:
 Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of
amino acid.

 Proteins are polypeptides, which are made up of many amino acids linked together as a linear
chain.
 The structure of an amino acid contains an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a R group which
is usually carbon based and gives the amino acid its specific properties.
 The words peptide and protein actually refer to the same structure; however, peptide is generally
used for shorter chains of amino acids and protein for longer chains.
 The amino acids in a polymer are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and
amino groups of adjacent amino acid residues.
 Protein is found throughout the body—in muscle, bone, skin, hair, and virtually every other body
part or tissue. It makes up the enzymes that power many chemical reactions and the hemoglobin
that carries oxygen in your blood, providing structure to cells and organisms, and transporting
molecules from one location to another.
 Proteins can vary in solubility, with some being soluble in water (hydrophilic) and others in
lipids (hydrophobic).
 Proteins can undergo denaturation due to factors like heat, pH changes, or chemicals, resulting in
loss of structure and function.
 Proteins exhibit specificity in their interactions, with each type designed for a particular function
or molecular interaction.
 There are 20 common amino acids. Amino acids share a common structure except for one
chemical group (R, side chain) attached to the central carbon atom. The 20 different R groups
give the amino acids their individual characteristics.
 There are 20 common amino acids. Essential amino acids (9) cannot be synthesized by the body
and must be obtained through the diet, while non-essential amino acids (11) can be synthesized
by the body.
 The process of synthesizing a protein from an mRNA template is known as translation.
FUNCTIONS:

1. Transport: Proteins function as carriers and transporters, facilitating the movement of molecules
across biological membranes and within the circulatory system.
Example: Transport proteins, such as hemoglobin, transport gases like oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the blood.
2. Structural Support: Proteins provide structural support to cells, tissues, and organs in living
organisms. Structural proteins such as collagen, elastin, and keratin contribute to the mechanical
strength, elasticity, and integrity of various biological structures, including bones, skin, hair, and
connective tissues.
3. Enzymatic Activity: Proteins serve as enzymes, catalyzing biochemical reactions within cells and
organisms.
Example: Catalase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide into water
and oxygen.
4. Digestive enzyme: Break down nutrients in food into small pieces that can be readily absorbed.
Example: Lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of lipids during digestion.
5. Immune Response (Defense): Proteins are essential components of the immune system,
participating in the recognition, response, and defense against pathogens and foreign substances.
Eg: Antibodies
6. Hormonal Regulation: Proteins serve as hormones and hormone receptors, regulating numerous
physiological processes and maintaining homeostasis in the body. Hormones, such as insulin,
glucagon, and growth hormone.
7. Muscle Contraction: Proteins play a central role in muscle contraction, enabling movement and
locomotion in animals.
Eg; actin and myosin.
8. Sensory Response: Example: Rhodopsin is a light-sensitive protein involved in vision.
9. Blood Clotting: Example: Fibrinogen is a protein involved in the blood clotting cascade.
10. Storage: Provide food for the early development of the embryo or the seedling.
Eg: Legume storage proteins, egg white (Albumin).
LIPIDS
 Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains.
 Lipids are organic compounds formed mainly from alcohol and fatty acids combined together by
ester linkage.

 Lipids are characterized by their hydrophobic nature, meaning they are insoluble in water, but
soluble in organic solvents (ether, chloroform, benzene, and acetone).
  In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are found in oil, butter,
whole milk, cheese, fried foods and also in some red meats.
 Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes. They
have a high-energy value (25% of body needs) and they provide more energy per gram than
carbohydrates and proteins but carbohydrates are the preferable source of energy. Triglycerides,
the primary storage form of lipids, accumulate in adipose tissue and can be mobilized and
oxidized to generate ATP, providing a long-term reservoir of energy for cellular metabolism and
physical activity.
 Lipids are a broad group of naturally occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols,
fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides,
phospholipids, oils, some hormones, and others, each with distinct chemical compositions and
functions in biological systems.
 Some lipids exhibit amphipathic properties, containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic
regions within the same molecule, enabling them to form structures like lipid bilayers in aqueous
environments. Phospholipids, for example, have hydrophilic phosphate heads and hydrophobic
fatty acid tails, allowing them to form lipid bilayers in aqueous environments such as cell
membranes.
 Lipids exhibit structural diversity, encompassing a wide range of molecules with distinct
chemical compositions and functions.
 Insulation: Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and protect vital organs
from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage. Adipose tissue, composed primarily of
fat cells, serves as an insulating layer beneath the skin, providing thermal insulation and
cushioning for organs.
 Lubrication: Certain lipids, such as waxes and oils, possess lubricating properties that reduce
friction and facilitate movement in biological systems. Lipid-based lubricants coat surfaces,
preventing them from drying out and reducing wear and tear caused by friction between tissues,
such as in joints or between skin surfaces.

Types of Lipids: These are broadly classified as simple lipids, complex lipids and derived lipids
 Simple Lipids: Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
Eg: Fats and oils (triglycerides), Waxes
 Complex Lipids: Esters of fatty acids containing alcohol, fatty acid and an additional group.
o Phospholipids: These are lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and alcohol,
phosphate group.
eg, in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the
alcohol is sphingosine.
o Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine and
carbohydrate.
o Lipoproteins: These are complexes of lipids and proteins that transport lipids through the
blood (e.g., low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL)).

 Derived Lipids: Derived lipids are substances derived from simple and complex lipids through
hydrolysis. They include a variety of molecules with diverse functions in the body. Examples of
 derived lipids include: Fatty Acids, Steroids (Cholesterol), Eicosanoids, Vitamins: Fat-soluble
vitamins such as A, D, E, and K are derived lipids.

FUNCTIONS
Lipids play numerous critical roles in biological systems, reflecting their diverse structures and
properties. Here are the main functions of lipids:
o Energy Storage: These are the primary form of stored energy in animals. They are highly
efficient energy stores because they contain more than twice the energy per gram compared to
carbohydrates and proteins. Stored in adipose tissue, triglycerides can be metabolized to release
energy when needed.
o Structural Components: Lipids contribute to the structural integrity of cell membranes, forming a
lipid bilayer that encloses and protects the contents of cells. Phospholipids and cholesterol are
key components of cell membranes.
o Insulation and Protection: Lipids act as insulators, helping to maintain body temperature and
protect vital organs from temperature fluctuations and mechanical damage.
Eg: Adipose tissue
o Signaling Molecules: Lipids play a crucial role in hormone synthesis and regulation, serving as
precursors for steroid hormones such as estrogen, testosterone, and cortisol. These hormones
regulate various physiological processes, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress
responses.
o Vitamins and Nutrient Absorption: Lipids are necessary for the absorption and transport of fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). These vitamins play vital roles in vision, bone health,
antioxidant protection, and blood clotting.
o Water Repellence: Waxes provide a hydrophobic barrier on the surface of plants and animals,
preventing water loss and protecting against environmental damage. For example, cutin and
suberin in plants and cerumen (earwax) in animals.
o Cellular Processes: Lipoproteins, complexes of lipids and proteins transport lipids through the
blood to various tissues.
o Energy Metabolism: Ketogenesis: In the absence of sufficient carbohydrates, fatty acids can be
converted into ketone bodies in the liver, which serve as an alternative energy source for the
brain and other tissues.

ENZYMES

Enzymes are another important biomolecule, which are proteins that help speed up metabolism, or
the chemical reactions in our bodies or act as catalysts in biological reactions without being consumed in
the process. They build some substances and break others down. All living things have enzymes. Our
bodies naturally produce enzymes. An enzyme will interact with only one type of substance or group of
substances, called the substrate, to catalyze a certain kind of reaction.

Examples of Enzymes
 Amylase: Breaks down starch into sugars.
 Lipase: Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
 Protease: Breaks down proteins into amino acids.
PROPERTIES:
 Enzymes are complex macromolecules with high molecular weight.
 Catalytic: Enzymes are catalysts that accelerate biochemical reactions; they perform the critical
task of lowering a reaction's activation energy—that is, the amount of energy that must be put in
for the reaction to begin.
 Enzymes do not start a reaction. However, they help in accelerating it.
 Most enzymes are proteins, with exceptions example ribozymes that is a nucleic acid.
 They catalyze biochemical reactions in a cell. They help in the breakdown of large molecules into
smaller molecules or bring together two smaller molecules to form a larger molecule. Enzymes
work by binding to reactant molecules and holding them in such a way that the chemical bond-
breaking and bond-forming processes take place more readily.
 Specificity: Enzymes have a high level of specificity for the substrates they bind and the reactions
they catalyze, making them highly efficient at performing specific tasks.
 Enzymes catalyze all aspects of cell metabolism. This includes the digestion of food, in which
large nutrient molecules (such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats) are broken down into smaller
molecules; the conservation and transformation of chemical energy; and the construction of
cellular macromolecules from smaller precursors. Many inherited human diseases, such as
albinism and phenylketonuria, result from a deficiency of a particular enzyme.
 Reactivity and Reusability: Enzymes increase the rate of chemical reactions without being
consumed in the process, allowing them to perform multiple cycles of the same reaction.
 Stability: Enzymes are generally stable at a wide range of temperatures and pH values, making
them useful in a variety of industrial processes.
 Efficiency: Enzymes are highly efficient catalysts, often capable of increasing reaction rates by
millions to billions of times compared to uncatalyzed reactions.
 Bound to some enzymes is an additional chemical component called a cofactor, which is a direct
participant in the catalytic event and thus is required for enzymatic activity. A cofactor may be
either a coenzyme—an organic molecule, such as a vitamin—or an inorganic metal ion; some
enzymes require both.

TYPES: The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases, ligases and
isomerases.
(1) Oxidoreductases, which are involved in electron transfer, Oxidoreductases catalyze oxidation-
reduction reactions, involving the transfer of electrons between substrates.
Eg: Dehydrogenases: Remove hydrogen atoms from substrates (e.g., lactate dehydrogenase).
 (2) Transferases, which transfer a chemical group from one substance to another; Transferases
facilitate the transfer of functional groups, such as methyl, acetyl, or phosphate groups, between
substrates.
Eg: Transaminases: Transfer amino groups (e.g., alanine transaminase).
(3) Hydrolases, which cleave the substrate by uptake of a water molecule (hydrolysis);
Eg: Proteases: Break down proteins into peptides or amino acids (e.g., trypsin, pepsin).
(4) Lyases, which form double bonds by adding or removing a chemical group
Eg: Aldolases: Split molecules without water addition (e.g., aldolase).
(5) Isomerases, which transfer a group within a molecule to form an isomer; and
Eg: Mutases: Transfer functional groups within a molecule (e.g., phosphoglucomutase).
(6) Ligases, Ligases, also known as synthetases, catalyze the formation of bonds between molecules,
often using energy from ATP hydrolysis.
Eg: DNA Ligase: Joins DNA strands together (e.g., during DNA replication and repair).

FUNCTIONS

 Digestion: Enzymes facilitate the breakdown of macromolecules into smaller, more readily
absorbable units during the process of digestion. For example, amylases break down starches,
proteases hydrolyze proteins, and lipases split fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
 DNA Replication and Repair: Enzymes are involved in DNA replication and repair processes,
ensuring the faithful transmission of genetic information and maintaining genomic stability.
DNA polymerase: Synthesizes new DNA strands; Nucleases: Remove damaged or incorrect
nucleotides from DNA
 Energy Production: enzymes aid in Cellular Respiration i.e., extracting energy from nutrients and
converting it into ATP, the cell’s energy currency and also in photosynthesis assisting in
converting carbon dioxide and water into glucose using light energy.
 Immune Function: Lysozyme: An enzyme found in saliva, tears, and other secretions, breaks
down bacterial cell walls, providing an antimicrobial defense.Enzymes in Immune Cells: Such as
those in neutrophils and macrophages, help destroy pathogens through oxidative burst and other
mechanisms.
 Transport and Movement, ATPase’s: Transport ions and molecules across cell membranes by
using the energy from ATP hydrolysis.
 Detoxification: Antioxidant Enzymes: Such as superoxide dismutase and catalase, protect cells
from oxidative damage by neutralizing reactive oxygen species.
 Protein Synthesis and Modification: Ribosomes and Associated Enzymes: Facilitate the
translation of mRNA into proteins.
 Regulation of Cellular Processes: Cell Cycle Control: Enzymes regulate the cell cycle, ensuring
proper division and replication of cells. Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are key players in this
process.

VITAMINS:

 Vitamins are organic compounds essential for normal growth, metabolism, and overall health.
  They are essential micronutrients that play diverse roles, required in small quantities and must be
obtained from the diet because the body either cannot synthesize them or produces them in
insufficient amounts.
 They are classified into two categories:
o Fat-Soluble Vitamins:
 Vitamin A (Retinol)
 Vitamin D (Calciferol)
 Vitamin E (Tocopherol)
 Vitamin K (Phylloquinone and Menaquinones)
o Water-Soluble Vitamins:
 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
 B-Complex Vitamins:
 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
 Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)
 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
 Vitamin B7 (Biotin)
 Vitamin B9 (Folate)
 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

PROPERTIES:
 Vital for various biochemical and physiological processes in the body.
 Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed along with fats in the diet and are stored in the body's fatty
tissues, while water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are excreted in urine when consumed
in excess.
 Many vitamins serve as coenzymes or cofactors for enzymes, aiding in metabolic processes.
 Vitamins like C and E have antioxidant properties, protecting cells from oxidative damage.
 Found in a variety of foods; deficiencies can lead to specific diseases or health issues.
 Stability: Can be sensitive to heat, light, and air, which may affect their potency and availability
in food.
 Critical during periods of rapid growth such as infancy, childhood, and pregnancy.
 Contribute to overall health and well-being, supporting immune function, energy levels, and
cognitive function.

FUNCTIONS:
 Vitamin A (Retinol): Vision (component of rhodopsin), immune function, reproduction, and
cellular communication.
 Vitamin D (Calciferol): Calcium and phosphorus homeostasis, bone health, immune function.
 Vitamin E (Tocopherol): Antioxidant protection of cell membranes, immune function, skin
health.
  Vitamin K (Phylloquinone and Menaquinones): Blood clotting (synthesis of clotting factors),
bone metabolism.
 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid): Antioxidant, collagen synthesis, immune support, enhances iron
absorption.
 Vitamin B1 (Thiamine): Functions: Energy metabolism (coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism),
nerve function.
 Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): Functions: Energy production, metabolism of fats, drugs, and steroids,
red blood cell production.
 Vitamin B3 (Niacin): Functions: DNA repair, metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins,
skin health.
 Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid): Functions: Synthesis of coenzyme A (CoA), metabolism of fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates.
 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine): Functions: Amino acid metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, red
blood cell production.
 Vitamin B7 (Biotin): Functions: Fatty acid synthesis, amino acid metabolism, hair and nail
health.
 Vitamin B9 (Folate): Functions: DNA synthesis, repair, and methylation; red blood cell
formation; crucial during pregnancy.
 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin): Functions: Red blood cell formation, neurological function, DNA
synthesis.

HORMONES

“Hormones are chemicals synthesized and produced by the specialized glands to control and regulate the
activity of certain cells and organs. These specialized glands are known as endocrine glands.”

 Essentially function as messengers of the body.

 These chemicals are secreted by special glands known as the endocrine glands.
 Hormones coordinate different functions in the body by carrying messages through your blood to
your organs, skin, muscles and other tissues.
 To regulate various functions, different types of hormones are produced in the body, based on
the Chemical Nature they are divided into 3 types:
o Peptide/Protein Hormones: Made up of amino acids (e.g., insulin, growth hormone).
o Steroid Hormones: Derived from cholesterol (e.g., cortisol, estrogen).
o Amino Acid Derivatives: Modified amino acids (e.g., epinephrine, thyroxine).
 Solubility:
o Water-Soluble Hormones: Peptides and proteins, which cannot pass through the cell
membrane and thus bind to surface receptors (e.g., insulin).
o Lipid-Soluble Hormones: Steroids, which can diffuse through the cell membrane and
bind to intracellular receptors (e.g., cortisol).
 Receptor Specificity: Hormones exert their effects by binding to specific receptors on or in their
target cells. This receptor binding triggers a cascade of biochemical events.
  Regulation: Hormone levels are tightly regulated by feedback mechanisms, often involving the
hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
 Half-Life:Hormones have varying half-lives in the bloodstream, influencing how long their
effects last. Peptide hormones generally have shorter half-lives compared to steroid hormones.

FUNCTIONS: Hormones control many different bodily processes, including: Metabolism, Homeostasis
(constant internal balance), such as blood pressure and blood sugar regulation, fluid (water) and
electrolyte balance and body temperature, Growth and development, Sexual function, Reproduction,
Sleep-wake cycle, Mood.

Some of the important hormones include:

 Insulin: produced by the Pancreas (beta cells) and

Function: Lowers blood glucose levels by promoting glucose uptake into cells and storage as
glycogen.
 Glucagon produced by the Pancreas (alpha cells)
Function: Raises blood glucose levels by promoting glycogen breakdown and glucose release
from the liver.
 Growth Hormone (GH) produced by the Pituitary gland
Function: Stimulates growth of bones and tissues, influences protein synthesis and fat
metabolism.
 Thyroid Hormones (T3 and T4): Thyroid gland
Function: Regulate metabolism, energy generation, and growth and development.
 Adrenaline: Adrenal medulla
Function: Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; prepares body for 'fight-
or-flight' response (Stress response).
 Estrogens: Ovaries
Function: Regulate female reproductive system, menstrual cycle, and secondary sexual
characteristics.
 Testosterone: Testes
Function: Regulates male reproductive system, spermatogenesis, and secondary sexual
characteristics.
 Progesterone: Ovaries
Function: Prepares and maintains the uterus for pregnancy.
 Serotonin: Central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract
Function: Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.
 Dopamine: Central nervous system
Function: Influences mood, motivation, and reward.