1

Define energy audit. What are its objectives? Describe the

main component of energy reports.
An energy audit is a systematic assessment of an energy-using
system's energy consumption and efficiency. It involves a
detailed examination of how energy is used in a building,
facility, or process, identifying areas of inefficiency and
waste.

Objectives :

● Identify Energy-Saving Opportunities: Find areas

where energy is being wasted and recommend measures
to improve efficiency.

● Reduce Energy Costs: By optimizing energy use,

organizations or homeowners can lower their utility bills.

● Improve System Performance: Ensure that all

equipment and systems are operating at peak efficiency.

● Enhance Environmental Sustainability: Reduce

greenhouse gas emissions by lowering energy
consumption.

● Comply with Regulations: Ensure that energy use meets

legal and regulatory standards.
 2
Main component of Energy reports

1) Executive Summary: Provides an overview of the

findings, including potential savings, cost estimates, and
recommended actions.

2) Energy Consumption Analysis: Detailed assessment of

current energy usage patterns and the sources of energy
consumption.

3) Equipment and System Assessment: Analysis of

equipment (HVAC, lighting, machinery, etc.) and
systems for energy efficiency.

4) Energy-Saving Opportunities: Recommendations for

energy conservation measures (ECMs), such as
upgrading insulation, retrofitting lighting, or optimizing
HVAC systems.

5) Implementation Plan: Step-by-step guide to carrying

out the energy-saving recommendations.

6) Monitoring and Verification Plan: Procedures for

tracking energy savings post-implementation to ensure
goals are met.
 3
Define load management. Explain automatic demand
control method.
Load management is the practice of controlling the electrical
load on a power system to match the available supply. This is
particularly important during peak demand periods or when
there are constraints in the power grid, such as limited
generation capacity or transmission limitations.

Automatic Demand control (ADC)

Automatic Demand Control (ADC) is a method used in
electrical systems to manage and reduce the demand for
electricity, especially during peak load periods. It
automatically regulates the power consumption of electrical
devices by either shedding non-essential loads or shifting
usage to off-peak times, thereby preventing demand from
exceeding a pre-set limit.

Features of ADC :

1. Load Shedding: Automatically turns off or reduces

power to non-critical loads when demand reaches a
threshold.

2. Load Prioritization: Critical systems are prioritized,

ensuring essential equipment continues to function.

3. Peak Shaving: Helps avoid excessive peak demand

charges by maintaining consumption within limits.
Cont….
 4
4. Real-time Monitoring: The system continuously
monitors power consumption and adjusts loads as
necessary.

Applications of ADC

● Commercial Buildings: Many businesses implement

ADC systems to manage lighting, HVAC, and other
energy-intensive operations.

● Industrial Processes: Factories may use ADC to

optimize processes while minimizing energy costs.

● Smart Grids: ADC plays a crucial role in smart grid

technology, where real-time data and automation
improve overall energy management.
 5
What is bus bar? Describe two types of bus bar system
with net diagram.
A busbar is a thick conductor or metallic bar used to provide
electrical power distribution within electrical power systeml.
It serves as a common connection point for multiple electrical
circuits, ensuring efficient and safe power delivery.

Single Bus bar Arrangement

The single bus bar arrangement is very simple and easy. This
type of arrangement consists of a single bus with a
switchboard. The transformers, feeders, and generators are
connected to the bus bar as shown in the figure below. The
circuit breakers control the transformers, generators, and
feeders. During the maintenance, the isolators are used to
isolate the transformers, generators, and feeders from the bus
bar

Cont….
 6
Double Bus double breaker system
In this type, two bus bars with two circuit breakers are used.
So, that it doesn’t require any special types of equipment like
a switch and bus coupler.It gives the highest flexibility and
reliability because there no loss of continuity due to the
faultsEven though the load is transferred from one bus to
another, there would be no change in the supply continuity of
the system.
 7
What is tariff ? Describe the electrical energy survey
instruments in brief.
A tariff is a tax or duty imposed by a government on goods
and services imported from other countries. It is a form of
trade policy used to regulate international trade and protect
domestic industries.

Energy survey instruments :

1. Digital Multimeters (DMM)

Digital multimeters are versatile and widely used
instruments for electrical measurements. They measure
voltage (AC/DC), current (AC/DC), resistance,
capacitance, and continuity. While not primarily used for
energy audits, they are integral in troubleshooting and
diagnosing electrical systems during an energy survey.

2. Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used to measure the voltage
(electric potential difference) between two points in an
electrical circuit. Voltage is a key parameter in
understanding the performance of electrical systems, and
it is crucial in an energy survey to ensure that the system
is operating within its designed voltage range.

Cont…..
 8
3. Ammeter
An ammeter measures the electric current flowing
through a circuit. It’s essential for determining how much
current is being drawn by different electrical devices or
systems, which is a key factor in assessing energy usage.

4. Lux Meter
A lux meter measures the illuminance, or the amount of
light that hits a surface, in units of lux. It is crucial for
energy surveys that focus on lighting, as lighting systems
consume a significant portion of energy in many
facilities.
 9
Describe any 3 - method of improving power factor.

1. Capacitor Banks: [ P.F correction]

Power factor can be improved by connecting the static
capacitor in parallel with the equipment operating at
lagging power factor. The capacitor draws leading
currents from the supply voltage by 90° and compensates
for the lagging reactive components of the load current.
In the case of 3-phase the capacitor can be connected
either in star or delta as shown here.

Advantages:

● They have small losses (less than 0.5%).

● As it has no rotating parts, requires little maintenance
● Higher efficiency (above 99%).
● Low initial cost
● It can be easily installed as they are light in weight.
● It does not require any foundation
 10
2. Synchronous Condensers: [ P.F correction]
A synchronous condenser is a synchronous motor
running without a mechanical load. By adjusting its
excitation, it can produce reactive power, similar to a
capacitor, helping to improve the power factor. It can be
more flexible than fixed capacitors as its reactive power
output can be adjusted.

Advantages:

● By varying the field excitation of the synchronous

condenser, the power factor can be improved to a finer
value.
● The synchronous condenser can withstand overloads for
a short duration.
 11
3. Phase Advancers [P.F correction]
This method is mainly used with induction motors. A
phase advancer is connected to the rotor circuit of an
induction motor to provide excitation current. This
reduces the reactive power drawn from the supply,
improving the power factor. It is particularly useful in
large motors where power factor correction is critical.

Advantages:

● The lagging KVAR drawn by the induction motor can be

considerably reduced by supplying leading ampere-turns
at slip frequency.
● The phase advancer is conveniently employed where the
use of synchronous condense is not suitable

Disadvantages:

● They are not economical for motors below 150 kW

 12
Discuss about the right technique of demand control.

1) Load Shedding:

● Manual Load Shedding: This involves manually

disconnecting specific loads to reduce demand. This
can be done using switches or circuit breakers.

● Automatic Load Shedding: This uses automated

systems to detect when demand exceeds supply and
automatically disconnect loads. These systems can
be based on time-of-use pricing, load priority, or
other factors

2) Demand Response Programs:

● Time-of-Use Pricing: This encourages customers to

shift their energy consumption to off-peak hours by
charging higher rates during peak demand periods.

● Critical Peak Pricing: This offers customers

incentives to reduce their energy consumption
during short-term peak demand events.

● Load Curtailment Programs: These programs

allow utilities to remotely control specific loads to
reduce demand during peak periods.
Cont….
 13
3) Use of Smart Meters and Monitoring Systems

● Smart meters and real-time monitoring systems

allow organizations to track their energy usage
closely and make real-time adjustments to reduce
consumption during high-demand periods.

Benefits: Minimizes manual intervention and

ensures consistent demand reduction, leading to
long-term savings.

4) Automated Demand Control Systems

● Automated systems adjust energy consumption

based on pre-set rules or signals from the grid. For
instance, during peak hours, these systems can
reduce lighting, HVAC, or production line
operations automatically.

Benefits: Minimizes manual intervention and

ensures consistent demand reduction, leading to
long-term savings.
 14
Explain about the factor affecting the electric motor
efficiency.

1) Design and Construction

Material Quality: High-quality materials,
especially for the stator and rotor, can reduce losses.
For instance, using low-loss magnetic steel
laminations reduces core losses.

Winding Design: The configuration and number of

windings affect resistance and current flow.
Improper winding increases losses due to heat (I²R
losses).

2) Operating Conditions
Load Conditions: Motors are typically most
efficient at or near their rated load. Under-loading or
overloading reduces efficiency because losses do
not scale linearly with load.

Voltage Supply: Voltage that is too high or too low

can cause increased losses. Proper voltage
regulation ensures optimal performance.

Power Factor: Motors with poor power factors

consume more reactive power, leading to
inefficiency. Power factor correction can improve
overall system efficiency.
Cont….
 15
3) Size and Scale
Motor Sizing: Motors that are too large for the
application tend to operate below their optimal
efficiency. Motors should be selected based on the
load they will handle to maximize efficiency

4) Environmental Conditions
Ambient Temperature: Higher ambient
temperatures reduce the cooling efficiency and lead
to increased thermal losses. Motors designed for
specific environmental conditions, such as those
operating in hot or dusty environments, need special
cooling systems.
 16
Transformer losses
Transformer losses refer to the energy lost in a transformer
during its operation. There are two main types of losses:

i) Core Losses (or Iron Losses): These occur in the

transformer's core and are mainly due to two factors:

Hysteresis Loss: It is Caused by the continuous

magnetization and demagnetization of the core
material.

Eddy Current Loss: An Induced currents within

the core material that cause resistive losses in form
of heat by circulating current.

ii) Copper Losses (or Winding Losses): These losses are due
to the resistance of the transformer windings. They are
calculated using the formula 𝐼2𝑅, where 𝐼 is the current
flowing through the windings and 𝑅 is the resistance of the
windings.
 17
Double bus system
A double bus system is a type of electrical power distribution
configuration used in substations and large power systems. It
features two separate busbars, allowing for improved
reliability and flexibility in operation and maintenance.The
double bus system consists of two parallel busbars connected
to the incoming and outgoing feeders. Each busbar can carry
the full load, and each feeder can be connected to either
busbar.
 18
Mercury vapour lamp
Mercury vapor lamps are a type of electric discharge lamp
that uses a mixture of mercury vapor and inert gases to
produce light. They are commonly used for street lighting,
industrial lighting, and commercial applications due to their
high efficiency and long lifespan.

When an electric current is passed through the lamp, the

mercury vapor ionizes and emits ultraviolet radiation. This
ultraviolet radiation then strikes the phosphor coating on the
inside of the lamp, causing it to emit visible light. Mercury
vapor lamps are known for their bluish-green color and their
ability to produce a high level of illumination.
 19
Electric drive
Electric drives are systems that utilize electric motors to
convert electrical energy into mechanical energy for motion.
This technology is increasingly prevalent in various
applications, from electric vehicles to industrial machinery.
The core components of an electric drive typically include an
electric motor, a power electronic controller, and a power
source (such as a battery or grid connection). The controller
manages the flow of electricity to the motor, regulating its
speed, torque, and direction. Electric drives offer several
advantages over traditional mechanical drives, including
higher efficiency, reduced emissions, and greater
controllability.
 20
Energy losses in conductor
When electric current flows through a conductor, some of the
electrical energy is converted into other forms, primarily heat.
This phenomenon is known as resistive heating or Joule
heating. It occurs due to the resistance of the conductor.

Factors Affecting Energy Loss:

1) Resistance: The higher the resistance of the conductor,

the greater the energy loss. Resistance is influenced by:
Material , Length , Cross sectional area and temperature

2) Current: The higher the current flowing through the

conductor, the greater the energy loss. This is due to the
relationship between power (P), current (I), and
resistance (R): P = I2R
 21
Define energy audit? Discuss briefly the steps involved in
energy audit.
Energy audit is a systematic assessment of an organization's
energy consumption to identify opportunities for energy
conservation and efficiency improvements. It involves a
detailed analysis of energy usage patterns, identifying areas of
inefficiency, and recommending strategies to reduce energy
consumption and costs.

Steps involved in energy audit :

1) Data Collection:
● Gather baseline data: Collect information on
energy consumption, usage patterns, and equipment
inventory.

● Review existing records: Examine energy bills,

maintenance logs, and building plans.

2) Site Assessment:
● Visual inspection: Conduct a physical walkthrough
of the facility to identify potential energy-saving
opportunities.

● Equipment evaluation: Assess the condition and

efficiency of energy-consuming equipment.
Cont…..
 22
3) Energy Consumption Analysis:
● Identify energy-intensive areas: Determine where
the majority of energy is used.

● Analyze consumption patterns: Look for trends

and anomalies in energy usage.

4) Energy-Saving Opportunities:
● Identify potential improvements: Suggest
measures to reduce energy consumption, such as
upgrading equipment, improving insulation, or
optimizing lighting.

● Evaluate cost-effectiveness: Assess the financial

benefits and payback periods of proposed measures.

5) Implementation
● Execute improvements: Carry out the
recommended energy-saving measures.

● Monitor progress: Track energy consumption and

evaluate the effectiveness of the changes.

6) Verification
● Compare results: Compare pre- and post-audit
energy consumption data.

● Evaluate savings: Calculate the actual energy and

cost savings achieved.
 23
What is electrical energy survey? What are the losses of
transformer
An electrical energy survey is a comprehensive assessment of
an electrical system to determine its energy consumption,
efficiency, and potential for improvement. It involves
analyzing the electrical components, usage patterns, and
losses within the system.

Transformer losses :
1) Iron Losses
Iron losses occur within the magnetic core of the
transformer. They are independent of the load and are
caused by the alternating magnetic flux.

● Hysteresis Loss: This occurs due to the energy

required to magnetize and demagnetize the core
material repeatedly.

● Eddy Current Loss: These are circular currents

induced in the core material due to the changing
magnetic field. To minimize eddy current losses, the
core is typically laminated.

2) Copper Losses
Copper losses, also known as ohmic losses, occur in the
windings of the transformer due to the resistance of the
copper wire. These losses vary with the load on the
transformer, as the current flowing through the windings
increases with the load. Cont…
 24
3) Additional Losses:

● Stray Losses: These are due to leakage fluxes,

which induce currents in other parts of the
transformer (like the tank and structural
components).

● Dielectric Losses: These occur in the insulating

materials and oil due to the alternating voltage.
 25
Define high efficiency motors. Differentiate between high
intensity discharge lamp and Mercury vapour lamp
High efficiency motors are electric motors that are designed to
consume less energy while producing the same amount of
power. They are more efficient than standard motors due to
advancements in technology and design

S.N HID lamp Mercury vapour lamp

1 It Produces light by It light by passing an
passing an electric current electric current through
through a gas or vapor mercury vapor
2 It has higher light output It also has high light output
compared to incandescent than incandescent lamps,
lamps but shorter than HID lamps
3 It May contain hazardous It also Contains mercury,
materials (e.g., mercury) which can be harmful if
released
4 Longer lifespan compared Longer lifespan compared
to incandescent lamps, but to incandescent lamps, but
shorter than LED lamp shorter than HID lamps
5 It is used in Street It is used in Residential
lighting, commercial lighting, commercial
lighting, industrial lighting, industrial lighting
lighting, sports lighting
6 For example Metal halide, Common example is
sodium vapor, xenon lamp mercury vapour lamp
etc.
 26
Ballast :
A ballast is an essential component in electrical lighting
systems, particularly in fluorescent and HID (high-intensity
discharge) lamps. Its primary function is to regulate the
current flowing through the lamp and provide the necessary
voltage to initiate the lighting process. Fluorescent lamps, for
example, require a high voltage to start but then need a lower,
controlled current to operate efficiently. Without a ballast, the
lamp would draw excessive current, potentially causing
damage or failure. Ballasts come in various types, including
magnetic and electronic, with electronic ballasts being more
energy-efficient and offering features like reduced flickering
and noise.
 27
What is demand site management? Explain the
importance of load curve in demand side management.
Demand Side Management (DSM) is a set of strategies aimed
at reducing electricity consumption by customers, rather than
increasing supply capacity. It involves influencing consumer
behavior and optimizing energy usage patterns to match
supply.

Importance of Load curve in demand side management :

1) Identifying Peak Load Periods: Load curves clearly

show when electricity demand is highest. This
information is essential for implementing DSM strategies
that target peak load reduction.

2) Understanding Consumption Patterns: Load curves

help to understand the factors that influence electricity
consumption, such as seasonal variations, daily cycles,
and economic conditions. This knowledge is valuable for
designing effective DSM programs.

3) Evaluating DSM Program Effectiveness: Load curves

can be used to measure the impact of DSM programs on
reducing peak load and overall electricity consumption.
By comparing load curves before and after implementing
DSM strategies, it is possible to assess their
effectiveness.
Cont……
 28
4) Forecasting Future Demand: Load curves can be used
to forecast future electricity demand, which is essential
for planning and investing in the power grid. By
analyzing historical load data and identifying trends,
utilities can anticipate future consumption patterns and
make informed decisions about capacity expansion and
DSM programs.
 29
Derive the most economical power expression.

Consider a consumer taking a peak load of P kW at a power

factor of cosϕ1 and it is charged at a rate of Rs x per kVA of
maximum demand per year.

Assume that the consumer improves the power factor to cosϕ2

with the help of a power factor correction device. Considerthe
expenditure made on the power factor improvement device is
Rs y per kVAR per annum.

Therefore, the maximum kVA demand at original power

factor is,

And the maximum kVA demand at improved power factor is

given by,

Cont….
 30
Then, the saving in maximum demand charges per annum is,

Also, the reactive power at original power factor is,

And the reactive power at improved power factor is,

The leading kVAR drawn by the power factor improvement

device is given by

Thus, the cost of power factor improvement device per annum

is,

Cont…..
 31
Therefore, from equations (1) & (2), the net saving per
annum is,

Now, the net saving per annum will be maximum if

Therefore, the most economical power factor is given by,

Cont…
 32
From Equation (3), it is clear that the most economical power
factor is independent of the original power factor.

••••••••
 33
Explain energy conservation opportunities in lightning
system.

1) Efficient Lighting Technologies:

● LED Lighting: These lights are significantly more

energy-efficient than traditional incandescent or
fluorescent bulbs, lasting longer and consuming less
power.

● High-Efficiency Fluorescent Lamps: These lamps,

while not as efficient as LEDs, are still a more
energy-efficient option compared to incandescent
bulbs.

2) Intelligent Controls:
These sensors can automatically turn lights on and off
based on occupancy, reducing energy consumption in
areas that are unoccupied.

● Occupancy Sensors: Similar to motion sensors,

these devices can detect human presence and adjust
lighting accordingly.

● Dimmers: Dimmers allow you to adjust the light

intensity, reducing energy consumption when full
brightness is not needed.
Cont…..
 34
● Timers: Set timers to turn lights on and off at
specific times, ensuring they are only used when
necessary.

● Daylight Sensors: These sensors can adjust

artificial lighting to complement natural light,
reducing the need for artificial illumination during
daylight hour
 35
What are the effects of low power factor?

1) Increased Power Losses: Low power factor causes

higher current flow for the same amount of power. This
results in more power losses (I²R losses) in conductors
and distribution systems.

2) Reduced Efficiency: Equipment and electrical systems

operate less efficiently at low power factors, leading to
energy wastage and higher operational costs.

3) Overloading of Equipment: Electrical equipment, such

as transformers, cables, and generators, need to handle
higher currents at low power factors. This can cause
them to overheat or become overloaded, reducing their
lifespan or causing malfunctions.

4) Higher Demand Charges: Many utilities impose

penalties or higher demand charges on consumers with
low power factor, as it increases the burden on the power
grid.
 36

Single bus bar

A single bus bar arrangement is one of the simplest and most
economical configurations used in electrical power
substations or switchyards. It consists of a single set of bus
bars, which serve as the main pathway for distributing
electrical power to various circuits (e.g., transformers, feeders,
and generators).

All incoming and outgoing circuits, including feeders and

transformers, are connected to a single bus bar. The bus bar is
essentially a conductor (or a set of conductors) that allows for
the distribution of electrical power.
 37

Load factor and Diversity factor

Load Factor :
The load factor is the ratio of the average load over a specified
period to the peak load occurring in that period. It provides
insight into how consistently electrical power is being used
relative to its maximum possible demand.

Average Load
Load Factor = --------------------------
Peak Load

Diversity Factor:
The diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual
maximum demands of various loads to the maximum demand
of the entire system. It reflects the fact that not all loads reach
their peak at the same time.

Sum of Individual Maximum Demands

Diversity Factor =
------------------------------------------------
Maximum Demand of the System
 38

Automatic demand control

Automatic demand control (ADC) in electrical engineering
refers to the use of systems and devices that automatically
monitor and regulate the electrical demand of a facility to
optimize energy usage, reduce peak loads, and manage the
costs associated with electricity consumption. This approach
helps balance the electrical demand by adjusting or turning off
non-critical loads during periods of high demand or when
demand charges are high.ADC is often integrated into larger
Energy Management Systems (EMS), and with advancements
in smart grid technology, more sophisticated algorithms and
real-time data analysis have improved its efficiency.
 39

Write down the steps involved in audit technique to

develop energy audit report

Preparation and Planning:

Scope Definition: Clearly define the scope of the audit,

including the specific areas or systems to be evaluated.

Data Collection: Gather relevant data such as energy

bills, equipment specifications, and building plans.

Team Formation: Assemble a team of experts with

knowledge in energy efficiency, engineering, and
auditing.

Site Inspection and Data Gathering:

Walk-Through Assessment: Conduct a physical

inspection of the facility to identify potential
energy-saving opportunities.

Instrumentation: Install necessary instruments to

measure energy consumption, temperature, humidity, and
other relevant parameters.

Data Logging: Collect data over a specified period to

understand usage patterns
 40
Cont….

Data Analysis and Benchmarking:

Energy Consumption Analysis: Analyze energy

consumption data to identify trends, anomalies, and areas
of high energy usage.

Benchmarking: Compare the facility's energy

performance to industry standards or similar facilities.

Energy Modeling: Use software tools to simulate energy

consumption and evaluate the impact of proposed
energy-saving measures.

Identification of Energy-Saving Opportunities:

Equipment Assessment: Evaluate the efficiency of

equipment such as HVAC systems, lighting fixtures, and
motors.

Process Optimization: Identify opportunities to

optimize processes and reduce energy consumption.

Behavioral Changes: Assess the potential for energy

savings through behavioral changes, such as reducing
unnecessary lighting or adjusting thermostat settings.
 41
Explain how energy audit and energy conservation are
related to each other
Energy audit and energy conservation are closely intertwined
concepts, both essential for reducing energy consumption and
costs.

Energy Audit : [ The Diagnostic Tool ]

● Assessment: An energy audit is a comprehensive

evaluation of a building or facility's energy use patterns.
It identifies areas of inefficiency and potential for
improvement.

Energy Conservation : [ The Implementation Phase ]

● Action Plans: Based on the findings of the energy audit,

energy conservation measures are implemented to reduce
energy consumption.

How They Work Together

i) Identification: The energy audit identifies the specific

areas where energy is being wasted.

ii) Prioritization: Based on the audit's findings, energy

conservation measures are prioritized to address the most
significant inefficiencies.
Cont……
 42
iii) Implementation: The identified measures are
implemented to reduce energy consumption and improve
overall energy efficiency.

iv) Monitoring: Ongoing monitoring and evaluation ensure

that the implemented measures are effective and that any new
opportunities for energy conservation are identified.

In essence, an energy audit provides the roadmap for energy

conservation. It helps to pinpoint the areas where
improvements can be made, allowing for targeted and
effective energy-saving strategies.
 43
What are the cause of low power factor? Explain the
method of power factor correction.

Causes of low Power Factor :

1. Inductive Loads: Many electrical devices, such as

motors, transformers, and fluorescent lights, are
inherently inductive. These loads consume reactive
power, which doesn't do any useful work but still
contributes to the overall current draw.

2. Non-Linear Loads: Electronic devices like computers,

televisions, and variable frequency drives can draw
current in a non-linear fashion, creating harmonics that
can distort the voltage waveform and contribute to low
power factor.

3. Underloaded Equipment: When equipment is

underutilized, it can operate at a lower efficiency, leading
to increased reactive power consumption.

4. Poor Power System Design: Inadequate system design

or maintenance can result in unbalanced loads or
excessive reactive power generation.
 44
Power factor correction method :

1) Capacitor Banks
Improving power factor means reducing the phase
difference between voltage and current. Since the
majority of loads are of inductive nature, they require
some amount of reactive power for them to function.A
capacitor or bank of capacitors installed parallel to the
load provides this reactive power. They act as a source of
local reactive power, and thus less reactive power flows
through the line.

2) Synchronous Condensers
Synchronous condensers are 3 phase synchronous motors
with no load attached to their shaft.The synchronous
motor has the characteristics of operating under any
power factor leading, lagging, or unity depending upon
the excitation. For inductive loads, a synchronous
condenser is connected towards the load side and is
overexcited.

3) Phase Advancers
This is an AC exciter mainly used to improve the PF of
an induction motor.Mounted on the motor’s shaft and
connected to its rotor circuit, phase advancers enhance
the power factor by supplying the necessary ampere turns
for the required magnetic flux at a specific slip
frequency.
 45
Define demand charge. Explain the methods of demand
control for proper load management.
A demand charge is a component of an electricity bill that is
based on the highest rate of power consumption during a
specified period, typically a month or a billing cycle.

1) Load Shedding and Curtailment:

Rotating blackouts: A planned interruption of

power supply to specific areas or customers on a
rotating basis.

Demand response programs: Incentives offered to

customers to reduce their electricity consumption
during peak demand periods.

2) Time-of-Use Tariffs:

Tiered rates: Charging different rates for electricity

consumption during peak and off-peak hours.

Real-time pricing: Adjusting rates based on current

market conditions and demand.

3) Efficient Equipment and Appliances:

Energy-efficient motors and lighting: Reducing

power consumption for specific tasks.
Cont….
 46
Smart appliances: Optimizing energy usage based
on demand and user preferences.

4) Demand Side Management (DSM):

● Comprehensive approach: Combining various

demand control methods to achieve optimal load
management.

● Customer engagement: Educating and motivating

customers to participate in demand reduction
programs.

By implementing these strategies, businesses and

households can effectively manage their electricity
consumption, reduce demand charges, and contribute to a
more sustainable and efficient power grid.
 47
What are the energy saving opportunities in electrical
motor system.

1) Use Energy-Efficient Motors: Invest in motors with

higher efficiency ratings (e.g., Premium Efficiency or
Super Premium Efficiency). These motors are designed
to minimize energy losses.

2) Right-Size Motors: Ensure that motors are appropriately

sized for the load they are driving. Oversized motors can
operate inefficiently, while undersized motors can lead to
overheating and premature failure.

3) Optimize Motor Loading: Match motor loads to their

rated capacity. Avoid overloading motors, as this can
lead to increased energy consumption and reduced motor
life.

4) Regular Maintenance: Conduct routine maintenance on

motors, including cleaning, lubrication, and insulation
testing. Proper maintenance helps to ensure optimal
performance and efficiency.

5) Power Factor Correction: Improve the power factor of

the electrical system to reduce reactive power
consumption. This can be achieved using capacitors or
automatic power factor correction equipment.
Cont….
 48
6) Implement Variable Speed Drives (VSDs): VSDs
allow motors to operate at varying speeds, enabling
energy savings in applications where constant speed is
not required.

Explain how the lightning maintenance and retrofitting

conserves the electrical energy.
Lightning maintenance and retrofitting refers to the process of
improving the efficiency and effectiveness of lighting
systems. By implementing these strategies, we can
significantly reduce energy consumption and lower electricity
bills.

1) Energy-Efficient Fixtures:

● LED Technology: Replacing older lighting fixtures

with LED lights can result in substantial energy
savings. LEDs are significantly more efficient than
traditional incandescent or fluorescent bulbs.

● Sensor-Controlled Lighting: Installing motion

sensors or occupancy sensors ensures that lights are
only turned on when needed, reducing unnecessary
energy consumption.
Cont…..
 49
2) Regular Maintenance:

● Cleanliness: Keeping light fixtures clean and free

from dust and dirt improves their efficiency. Dirty
fixtures can reduce light output, forcing the system
to work harder to achieve the desired illumination.

● Ballast Replacement: In fluorescent lighting

systems, replacing worn-out ballasts can improve
energy efficiency and prolong the life of the bulbs.

3) Daylight Harvesting:

Natural Light Integration: Incorporating daylight

harvesting systems can reduce the need for artificial
lighting during the day. This involves designing
buildings to maximize natural light and using
automated shading systems to control the amount of
sunlight entering the space.
 50
Suppose you are the technical person of a manufacturing
plant. Explain your role for energy saving / conversation
opportunities in the plant.
As a technical person in a manufacturing plant, your role in
energy saving is crucial. Here are 8 key areas of focus:

● Identify Energy Consumption Hotspots: Use energy

monitoring systems to pinpoint areas of the plant that
consume the most energy. This will help you prioritize
your efforts.

● Implement Energy-Efficient Equipment: Explore and

recommend the replacement of outdated or inefficient
machinery with more energy-efficient models.

● Optimize Production Processes: Analyze existing

processes to identify opportunities for energy reduction.
This might involve streamlining operations, reducing idle
time, or adjusting production schedules.

● Improve Building Efficiency: Ensure that the plant's

building envelope (walls, roof, windows) is
well-insulated to minimize heat loss or gain.

● Optimize Lighting Systems: Upgrade to

energy-efficient lighting fixtures and implement lighting
controls to reduce energy consumption.
Cont…..
 51
● Encourage Energy Awareness: Educate plant personnel
about energy conservation practices and promote a
culture of energy efficiency.

● Monitor and Analyze Energy Consumption:

Continuously track energy usage to identify trends,
measure the effectiveness of energy-saving initiatives,
and make necessary adjustments.

● Explore Renewable Energy Options: Investigate the

feasibility of incorporating renewable energy sources,
such as solar or wind power, into the plant's energy mix.

High efficiency motor

High efficiency motors are designed to convert electrical
energy into mechanical energy with minimal losses. These
motors are engineered with advanced technologies and
materials to reduce energy consumption and improve overall
performance. By incorporating features such as optimized
magnetic circuits, high-quality insulation, and efficient
cooling systems, high efficiency motors can significantly
reduce operating costs and environmental impact. They are
widely used in various industries, including manufacturing,
HVAC systems, and transportation, where energy efficiency is
a critical concern.
 52
Load factor.
Load factor is a crucial concept in electrical power systems. It
measures the average load on a system over a period
compared to the maximum load during that period. A high
load factor indicates efficient utilization of the system's
capacity, while a low load factor suggests underutilization.

High load factor indicates that the system is being used

efficiently, while a low load factor suggests that the system is
underutilized. This is important for electricity generation and
distribution, as it helps determine the optimal capacity of
power plants and the pricing structure for electricity.

Load management
Load management is a strategy employed to control the
demand for electricity, often by shifting peak loads to off-peak
hours or by reducing the overall load. This can be achieved
through various methods, such as time-of-use pricing, demand
response programs, and energy-efficient technologies.

Nepal, with its growing population and increasing demand for

electricity, can benefit significantly from implementing
effective load management strategies. This can help address
the challenges of grid stability, power shortages, and rising
electricity costs.
 53
Use of daylight of energy conservation
Daylight use is a simple but effective energy conservation
technique. By maximizing natural light and minimizing
artificial lighting during daylight hours, significant energy
savings can be realized. This involves proper design and
orientation of buildings, as well as the use of light-colored
materials and efficient window glazing. By effectively
utilizing daylight, building owners and occupants can reduce
their energy consumption, improve indoor comfort, and
contribute to a more sustainable future.

Optimum conductor size

The optimum conductor size for electrical transmission lines
is determined by several factors, including the desired current
capacity, voltage level, and economic considerations. A
conductor that is too small can result in excessive voltage
drops and energy losses, while one that is too large can be
unnecessarily costly. The optimal size is selected based on
engineering calculations and economic analysis to balance
performance and cost.
 54
Define energy audit? Differentiate between preliminary
and detailed energy audit.
An energy audit is a systematic inspection and analysis of
energy flows within a building or facility. Its primary goal is
to identify areas of energy inefficiency and recommend
strategies to reduce energy consumption and costs. This can
involve assessing heating, cooling, lighting, ventilation, and
other energy-using systems.

Differentiate between Preliminary and Detailed energy

audit :

Page Number : 56 ✓
 55

S.N preliminary Energy Detailed Energy Audit

Audit
1 It provides a general Conducts a thorough examination
overview of energy of energy-using systems and
consumption and identifies processes, including detailed
potential areas for measurements and analysis.
improvement.

2 It is limited to a visual Involves in-depth instrumentation

inspection and basic data and testing to gather precise data
collection. on energy consumption and losses.

3 It is relatively low cost due to It is Higher cost due to the extensive

limited scope. nature of the analysis and
instrumentation.

4 It Can be completed Requires more time for data

relatively quickly. collection, analysis, and report
preparation.

6 It Provides general It Offers detailed recommendations,

suggestions for energy-saving including specific equipment
measures. upgrades, process modifications,
and behavioral changes.

7 It Often used as a It Serves as the basis for

preliminary step to assess the implementing comprehensive
potential for energy savings energy efficiency programs and
before investing in a more making informed investment
detailed audit. decisions.
 56

Find the most economical size of conductor using kelvin's

law.
The Kelvin's law states that the most economical sizeof a
conductor is that for which annual interest anddepreciation on
the capital cost of the conductor isequal to the annual cost of
energy loss.“

Let, area of cross-section of conductor = a

● annual interest and depreciation on capital cost of the
conductor = C1
● annual running charges = C2

● Now, annual interest and depreciation cost is directly

proportional to the area of conductor. i.e.,C1 = K1a

● And, annual running charges are inversely proportional

to the area of conductor. C2 = K2 / a

Where, K1 and K2 are constants.

Now, Total annual cost = C = C1 + C2

C = K1 a + K2 / a

For C to be minimum, the differentiation of C w.r.t a must be

zero. i.e. dC / da = 0.
Cont…..
 57

Therefore,

Hence, the Kelvin’s law can also be stated as the most

economical area of conductor is that for which the variable
part of annual charges on capital cost is equal to the annual
cost of energy wasted in the conductor

••••••|
 58

What are the major procedure for electricity conservation

program.

1) Energy Audits and Assessments:

● Identify energy-intensive areas: Conduct thorough

audits to pinpoint areas with high electricity
consumption.

● Analyze usage patterns: Examine historical data to

understand usage trends and identify peak demand
periods.

● Identify inefficiencies: Look for equipment that is

underperforming or operating inefficiently.

2) Energy-Efficient Upgrades:

● Replace inefficient equipment: Upgrade outdated

equipment with more energy-efficient models.

● Implement energy-saving technologies: Invest in

technologies like LED lighting, solar panels, or
smart thermostats.
 59
● Improve insulation and sealing: Reduce heat loss
or gain by improving insulation in buildings and
sealing air leaks.
Cont….
3) Demand-Side Management (DSM) Programs:

● Peak shaving: Encourage consumers to reduce

electricity usage during peak demand periods.

● Time-of-use rates: Implement pricing structures

that charge more during peak hours and less during
off-peak hours.

● Load shifting: Encourage consumers to shift their

energy usage to off-peak hours.

4) Policy and Regulatory Support:

● Energy efficiency standards: Implement energy

efficiency standards for appliances and buildings.

● Renewable energy mandates: Set targets for the

adoption of renewable energy sources.

● Carbon pricing: Implement carbon pricing

mechanisms to encourage low-carbon energy use.
 60

State the energy conservation technique in transformer

1) Load Sharing: Distributing the load across numerous

transformers rather than overloading a single transformer
improves their efficiency and reduces wasteful energy
loss.

2) Parallel Operation: Connecting transformers in parallel

allows them to uniformly distribute the load, resulting in
efficient operation and less energy waste.

3) Isolating Techniques: Using isolation methods, such as

isolation transformers, reduces energy loss due to
leakage currents while increasing overall efficiency.

4) Replacement with Energy-Efficient Transformers:

Upgrading to newer, more energy-efficient transformer
models can result in significant long-term energy
savings, particularly if older transformers are inefficient.

5) Periodic Maintenance: Regular transformer

maintenance, such as cleaning, inspection, and testing,
ensures that they perform at top efficiency, decreasing
energy waste and extending their lifespan.
 61
6) High-quality materials: Use transformer cores made
from high-quality materials with low hysteresis and eddy
current losses, such as grain-oriented silicon steel.
Define load curve. List out the information obtained from
load curve.
A load curve is a graphical representation of the electrical
load (power consumption) over a specific period. It typically
plots time on the x-axis and load (in kilowatts or megawatts)
on the y-axis. This visual representation is essential for
understanding the demand patterns and variations in electrical
power consumption within a system.

Information obtained from load curve :

1) Peak Load: The maximum load reached during a

specific period, often used to determine the system's
capacity requirements.

2) Off-Peak Load: The minimum load occurring during a

specific period.

3) Load Factor: The ratio of average load to peak load. It

indicates the efficiency of load utilization and helps in
planning system capacity.

4) Diversity Factor: The ratio of the sum of individual

maximum demands to the maximum demand of the
system. It reflects the extent to which individual loads
 62
can be balanced, reducing the overall system capacity
requirement.
Cont…..
5) Load Duration Curve: A plot of load in descending
order against the duration of time that the load is
exceeded. It helps in determining the optimal capacity
and energy requirements for a system.

6) Hour-by-Hour Load: The load at specific hours of the

day, providing insights into diurnal variations and
patterns of consumption.

7) Daily, Weekly, and Monthly Loads: Analysis of load

patterns over different time periods helps identify
seasonal trends and variations.

8) Demand Factor: The ratio of maximum demand to the

connected load. It indicates the utilization of installed
capacity.
 63

What are the things to be considered before purchasing

any light source? List out energy saving opportunities in
lightning system.

The things to be considered before purchasing any light

source
1) Purpose and Application: Determine whether the light
is for general lighting, task lighting, or accent lighting.
Different areas (e.g., homes, offices, outdoors) have
varying lighting needs.

2) Type of Light Source:

● LED: Energy-efficient, long lifespan, and available
in various color temperatures.
● CFL: Compact fluorescent lamps, more efficient
than incandescent but less so than LEDs.

3) Wattage: Lower wattage means less power

consumption. Choose light sources that deliver the
required brightness (lumens) with the least wattage.

4) Lifespan: Check the rated hours of the light source.

LEDs generally last much longer than other types of
bulbs, reducing replacement frequency and maintenance.

5) Environmental Impact: Evaluate the environmental

footprint, including energy consumption, disposal
 64
requirements (e.g., CFLs contain mercury), and
recyclability.
Energy-Saving Opportunities in Lighting Systems

1) Switch to LED or CFL Bulbs: LEDs are up to 75%

more energy-efficient than incandescent bulbs and last
much longer.

2) Install Motion Sensors and Timers: These devices help

ensure lights are only on when needed, reducing wasted
energy in unoccupied spaces.

3) Use Daylight Harvesting: This involves using natural

light to illuminate spaces and adjusting artificial lighting
based on the available daylight.

4) Utilize Occupancy Sensors: Sensors automatically turn

off lights when rooms are unoccupied, especially useful
in offices, bathrooms, and storage areas.

5) Regular Maintenance: Cleaning light fixtures and

replacing bulbs before they dim can maximize lighting
efficiency and ensure optimal performance.

6) Use of Low Wattage or Task Lighting: For activities

that require focused lighting, task lighting (such as desk
lamps) can save energy compared to lighting the entire
room.
 65
……..
Electricity tariff and its type
Electricity tariff is the rate charged by an electricity supplier
for the consumption of electrical energy. It's a crucial factor
that influences the cost of electricity for both residential and
commercial consumers.

Types of Electricity tariff :

1) Simple Tariff: This is the simplest type of tariff where a
flat rate is charged per unit (kWh) of electricity
consumed.

2) Block Rate Tariff: In this tariff, electricity is divided

into blocks, and each block is charged at a different rate.

3) Time-of-Use Tariff: The rate charged varies based on

the time of day or day of the week. Off-peak hours (e.g.,
overnight) are charged at lower rates, while peak hours
(e.g., during the day) are charged at higher rates.

4) Two-Part Tariff: A fixed charge is levied regardless of

the amount of electricity consumed, and a variable
charge is based on the actual consumption.

5) Maximum Demand Tariff: A charge is levied based on

the maximum demand of the consumer during a specific
period.
 66
6) Power Factor Tariff: A penalty is imposed if the
consumer's power factor falls below a certain threshold.
Double Bus system
The Double Bus system is a type of electrical power system
configuration that provides redundancy and reliability. It
consists of two buses connected by multiple parallel tie lines.
Despite these drawbacks, the Double Bus system is widely
used in critical power systems due to its significant
advantages in terms of reliability, fault isolation, and
flexibility. The choice between a Single Bus or Double Bus
system depends on factors such as the criticality of the
application, the desired level of reliability, and the available
budget.
 67

Loss in electric motor

1) Copper Losses (I²R Losses): These are caused by the

resistance of the motor's windings. As current flows
through the windings, heat is generated due to the
resistance. This heat is dissipated as waste energy.

2) Iron Losses (Core Losses): These occur in the motor's

magnetic core. They can be divided into:

● Eddy Current Losses: Induced currents circulate

within the core material, causing heat dissipation.

● Hysteresis Losses: Energy is lost as the magnetic

domains in the core material are repeatedly
magnetized and demagnetized.

3) Mechanical Losses:

● Friction Losses: Losses due to friction between

moving parts, such as bearings and brushes.

● Windage Losses: Losses due to air resistance as the

rotor rotates.
 68

Load factor and demand factor

i) Load Factor
Definition: The load factor is the ratio of the average
load to the maximum demand over a specified period.

(Average Load)
Load Factor = -----------------------------
(Maximum Demand)

A high load factor indicates efficient utilization of the

power system, as the average load is closer to the
maximum demand. A low load factor suggests that the
power system is underutilized, which can lead to higher
costs.

ii) Demand Factor

Definition: The demand factor is the ratio of the
maximum demand of a group of customers to the sum of
the connected loads of those customers.

(Maximum Demand of Group)

Demand Factor = -----------------------------------------
(Sum of Connected Loads)

A high demand factor means that a large portion of the

connected load is being utilized simultaneously. A low
 69
demand factor indicates that a significant portion of the
connected load is not being used at peak times.
Voltage level and wiring system

Voltage Level
Voltage is the electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. It is measured in volts (V). The
voltage level determines the power capacity and safety
requirements of an electrical system.

Common voltage levels include:

● Low voltage (LV): Typically 120V or 230V, used in

residential and commercial buildings.

● Medium voltage (MV): Between 1000V and 33000V,

used for local distribution and industrial applications.

● High voltage (HV): Between 33000V and 230000V,

used for long-distance transmission.

● Extra-high voltage (EHV): Above 230000V, used for

very long-distance transmission
 70

Wiring System
A wiring system is the network of conductors, cables, and
accessories used to connect electrical devices to a power
source. The choice of wiring system depends on the voltage
level, load requirements, and safety standards.

Common wiring systems include:

● Single-phase: Used in residential and small commercial

buildings.

● Three-phase: Used for larger loads, such as industrial

facilities and commercial complexes.

● DC: Used in specific applications, such as electronic

devices and batteries.

● AC: Used in most electrical systems.

 71

Synchronous condenser
A synchronous condenser is a type of synchronous motor that
operates without a mechanical load. Instead of driving a
mechanical device, its primary function is to provide reactive
power to the electrical grid. By varying the field excitation of
the synchronous condenser, it can either absorb reactive
power from the grid (acting as a capacitor) or inject reactive
power into the grid (acting as an inductor). This ability to
control reactive power is crucial for maintaining voltage
stability and improving power factor in electrical systems.
Synchronous condensers are often used in areas with high
loads or where the power factor is poor, as they can help to
reduce transmission losses and improve overall system
efficiency.
 72

Load Curve
A load curve is a graphical representation of the electrical
power demand over a specific period. It plots the amount of
power consumed against time. This curve is essential for
understanding and managing the power supply to a system,
whether it's a home, a city, or a nation.

● X-axis: Time (usually in hours or days).

● Y-axis: Power consumption (measured in watts,

kilowatts, or megawatts).

● Peak load: The highest point on the curve, representing

the maximum power demand during the period.

● Off-peak load: The lowest point on the curve,

representing the minimum power demand.
 73
● Base load: The minimum power demand that must be
met at all times, even during off-peak hours.
Capacitor Bank
A capacitor bank is a collection of capacitors connected in
parallel. This configuration increases the total capacitance of
the system, allowing it to store more electrical energy.
Capacitor banks are commonly used in various applications,
including power factor correction, energy storage, and pulsed
power systems.

In power factor correction, capacitor banks are used to

improve the power quality of electrical systems by reducing
reactive power. By supplying reactive power to the system,
capacitor banks can increase the power factor, leading to more
efficient energy utilization and lower energy costs. In energy
storage applications, capacitor banks can store large amounts
of electrical energy for later use. This is particularly useful in
systems where there are intermittent or fluctuating power
sources, such as renewable energy systems.
 74

Electrical Energy in Nepal :

Nepal's electrical energy landscape relies heavily on
hydropower, with its abundant rivers and streams providing a
significant source of renewable energy. Despite challenges
like seasonal variations and transmission losses, the country
has made strides in expanding its hydroelectric capacity.
However, the demand for electricity continues to outpace
supply, leading to occasional power shortages. To address this,
Nepal is investing in new hydropower projects and exploring
other renewable energy sources like solar and wind power.
Additionally, efforts are underway to improve energy
efficiency and reduce transmission losses to optimize
electricity usage and reduce reliance on imports.

Power Analyzer :
A power analyzer is a specialized electrical testing instrument
used to measure the flow of power (watts) in an electrical
system. It provides detailed information about power
consumption, efficiency, and power quality. This includes
measurements like active power, reactive power, apparent
power, power factor, harmonics, and voltage and current
waveforms. Power analyzers are essential tools for engineers,
technicians, and facility managers to optimize energy usage,
identify inefficiencies, and ensure the reliability of electrical
systems.
 75

LED lamps :
LED lamps are a type of lighting that use light-emitting
diodes (LEDs) to produce light. Unlike traditional
incandescent or fluorescent bulbs, LEDs are much more
energy-efficient, consuming significantly less power to
produce the same amount of light. This energy efficiency
translates to lower electricity bills and a reduced
environmental impact. Additionally, LED lamps have a much
longer lifespan, often lasting several times longer than other
types of bulbs. They are also available in a wide range of
colors and styles, making them versatile for various
applications, from home lighting to commercial use.

LED symbol
 76

Electrical Motor efficiency :

Electrical motor efficiency is a measure of how well a motor
converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. It's
expressed as a percentage. Ideally, 100% efficiency would
mean all the electrical energy input is transformed into
mechanical output. However, in reality, some energy is lost
due to factors like friction, heat, and resistance within the
motor's components.

Higher efficiency motors are more energy-efficient, meaning

they consume less electricity to produce the same amount of
mechanical power. This is beneficial for both environmental
sustainability and cost savings. Improving motor efficiency
through design advancements and manufacturing techniques
is a significant focus in the electrical engineering industry.
 77

List out t Bus Bar Arrangements and explain Two of them.

1) Single Bus-Bar Arrangement

2) Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalized
3) Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement
4) Double Bus Double Breaker Arrangement
5) Sectionalized Double Bus Bar Arrangement.
6) One and a Half Breaker Arrangement
7) Ring Main Arrangement
8) Mesh Arrangement

Single Bus - Bar Arrangement

The arrangement of such type of system is very simple and
easy. The system has only one bus bar along with the switch.
All the substation equipment like the transformer, generator,
the feeder is connected to this bus bar only. The advantages of
single bus bar arrangements are
 78

Advantages of Single Bus - Bar Arrangement

● It has low initial cost.
● It requires less maintenance
● It is simple in operation

Drawbacks of Single Bus-Bars Arrangement

● The only disadvantage of such type of arrangement is
that the complete supply is disturbed on the occurrence
of the fault.
● The arrangement provides the less flexibility and hence
used in the small substation where continuity of supply is
not essential.

Double Bus Double Breaker Arrangement

This type of arrangement requires two bus bar and two circuit
breakers. It does not require any additional equipment like bus
coupler and switch..
 79

Advantages of Double Bus Double Breaker

● This type of arrangement provides the maximum

reliability and flexibility in the supply. Because the fault
and maintenance would not disturb their continuity.

● The continuity of the supply remains same because the

load is transferrable from one bus to another on the
occurrence of the fault.

Disadvantages of double bus Double breaker

● In such type of arrangement two buses and two circuit

breakers are used which increases the cost of the system.

● Their maintenance cost is very high.