Journal of Materials & Environmental Sustainability Research (2024), 4(2): 16-27

p-ISSN: 2811-1338; e-ISSN: 2811-132X

DOI: https://doi.org/10.55455/jmesr.2024.004
Original Research Paper

Water Quality Assessment of Outdoor Public Swimming Pools in Ovia North

East, Edo State, Nigeria
Ikhuoriah, Suleman Ovuehora* and Onajite, Ikegu Egharhevwab
a Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, University of Benin, P. M. B. 1154, Benin City, Nigeria
b Edwin Clark University, Kiagbodo, Delta State, Nigeria
*Corresponding author: Ikhuoriah, O. Suleman (suleman.ikhuoriah@uniben.edu)

Received: July 24, 2024; Received in revised form: July 27, 2024; Accepted: July 29, 2024; Published: July 30, 2024
© 2024 Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability Research, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria

Abstract
Poor water quality management practices of public swimming pools have raised concerns about the health safety
of these recreational facilities. This study evaluated the physicochemical properties and bacteriological quality of
four (4) outdoor swimming pools in Ovia North East, Local Council of Edo State, Nigeria. Results of
physicochemical analysis showed that water temperature (25.75 - 26.38°C), pH (3.78 - 6.1), electrical conductivity
(37.5 - 72.5 mg/L), total dissolved solids (14.58 - 38.43mg/L), turbidity (0.75 - 4NTU), dissolve oxygen (6.03 -
7.43mg/L), residual chlorine (0.03 - 0.13mg/L), alkalinity( 7 - 26.5mg/L), hardness (6 - 36mg/L), were within the
World Health Organisation and Environmental Protection Agency stipulated maximum permissible limit for
recreational waters except for pH and residual chlorine levels. The presence of pathogenic microorganisms in all
the studied pools – total bacteria count (1 – 3 cfu/100mL), total coliform count (1 – 5 cfu/100 mL) and E. coli count
(1 – 2 cfu/100 mL) predisposes the users of these facilities to microbial infection. The findings demonstrated that
the swimming pools did not meet the required standards, particularly in terms of pH levels, residual chlorine,
and microbial parameters. There is a need for ongoing monitoring of swimming pool water quality, improving
bathers' hygienic practices, raising awareness about the associated risks, and providing training for governmental
inspectors

Keywords: Pool water quality, Physicochemical analysis, Bacteriological contamination, Recreational water
safety, Heavy metals detection, Public health standards

DOI: 10.55455/jmesr.2024.004

1. Introduction

Water is essential to life and serves multiple functions, including recreation, food production processes,
transportation, and cooling of irrigation systems (Saberianpour et al., 2015; Egun and Oboh, 2023). Water is
undeniably crucial for human needs, including recreation and food. A pool is a contained body of water primarily
designed for aquatic and swimming activities. Thus, it is a limited-sized water body held within a structure,
which could be large artificial basins, large paved holes, or concrete tanks (Saberianpour et al., 2015; Onifade et
al., 2019).
The global use of public swimming pools for recreation, rehabilitation, and sports is increasing (Al-Khatib and
Salah, 2003). To maintain cleanliness, swimming service providers use various chlorine-based disinfectants, such
as sodium hypochlorite, dichlor, or trichlor (Sule and Oyeyiola, 2010). It is crucial to maintain the pool's pH
between 7.2 and 7.6 when using these chemicals (Sule and Oyeyiola, 2010). Physicochemical factors like pH
significantly impact disinfection efficacy, prevent damage to pool infrastructure, and ensure user comfort (Sule
and Oyeyiola, 2010). For instance, an alkaline pH reduces the effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant.

Published by Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability Research (CEESR), University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria | 16
J Mater Environ Sust Res (2024), 4(2): 16-27

Additionally, high pool temperatures can promote fungal contamination (Al-Khatib and Salah, 2003; Onifade et
al., 2019). Residents of Edo State usually visit popular recreational facilities such as hotel swimming pools for
leisure and relaxation (Saberianpour et al., 2015; Onifade et al., 2019). However, pools are generally susceptible
to contamination through various means: the discharge of pathogenic microorganisms from infected swimmers
through skin secretions, urine, vomit, nasal discharge, saliva and mucus; accidental release of faeces; airborne
contaminants; water from unclean origins; and bird droppings (Sule and Oyeyiola, 2010). These contaminants
can introduce viruses, parasites, fungi, and bacteria, into the water, some of which may be pathogenic (CDC, 2009;
Sohrabi et al., 2016; Onifade et al., 2019).
Swimming pools have been linked to outbreaks of waterborne infections (Dufour et al., 2006; Schets et al., 2011;
Onifade et al., 2019). Pathogens in the water can cause digestive system infections, eye and ear infections, upper
respiratory tract infections, systemic infections, and skin diseases in swimmers, particularly in those with
compromised immune systems (Papadopoulou et al., 2008). Often, the danger of illness or infection is associated
with faecal contamination from excreta discharged by swimmers and birds (Papadopoulou et al., 2008; Onifade
et al., 2019). To protect public health World Health Organisation, regions such as United State of America, Europe,
Australia, Asia and several countries including, Europe, Malaysia, Iran, Jordan, Palestine, South Africa, Kenya
and Egypt have developed swimming pool water quality guidelines. However, it is interesting to note that
Nigeria does not have water quality guideline for public swimming pool. Numerous authors have investigated
the water quality of swimming pools in various cities across Nigeria (Opafola et al., 2022; Verla et al., 2021;
Onifade et al., 2019; Esinulo and Ogbuagu, 2016; Indabawa et al., 2015) and in regions around the globe, including
Egypt (Abd El-Salam 2012), Ethiopia (Yedeme et al., 2017; Natnael et al., 2024), Ghana (Saba and Tekpor, 2015),
Iran (Hoseinzadeh et al., 2013), Portugal (Felgueiras et al., 2020; Gabriel et al., 2019), France (Tsamba et al., 2020).
Various sanitation methods have been implemented to ensure the cleanliness of pools. These include filtration to
remove pollutants, disinfection to eliminate infectious microorganisms, promoting cleanliness among swimmers
to minimize the introduction of contaminants, and regular water analysis to monitor chlorine and pH levels (Bello
et al., 2012; Onifade et al., 2019). Despite the health and well-being benefits provided by recreational water use,
adverse health effects can occur if the water is polluted or unsafe. For many swimming pools in Ovia Local
Government, Benin City, there is limited data on the quality of public pools in hotels and government facilities.
The present study aims to evaluate the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of outdoor public swimming
pools in designated public hotels and sport complex in Ovia North East Local Council, Benin City, Nigeria.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Description of study site

This study was conducted at the outdoor swimming in Ovia-North East Local Government Area, Benin City,
(Figure 1). It is one of the eighteen local government areas that make up Edo State. Ovia-North East Local
Government is part of Ovia Federal Constituency. The local government which is situated in the South-South
region of the country is geographically located at 6°20′00” N latitude and 5°37’20” E longitude, with an
estimated area of 1,204 km2 and a total population of approximately 1,782,000 as of 2021 (Egware et al., 2021).
The local council has several swimming pools, however four swimming pool comprising three hotel swimming
pool and one sport swimming pool was selected for this study. Swimming Pool: 1 It is a private swimming pool
located in a hotel around Akure-Owo Road. The swimming pool is rectangular in shape with a length of 7.0m
and width of 4.5m. It lies between latitude 6.30061 N and longitude 5.63420 E. The swimming pool is mostly used
by customers who patronize the hotels. The bather load of the swimming pool per day is between 12 – 20. The
swimming pool water undergoes treatment once every week. Swimming Pool 2: It is a private swimming pool
located in a hotel around Oluku community, Akure-Owo Road. It is a rectangle shaped swimming pool with a
length of 10.m and with of 6.9m. It lies between latitude 6.45615 N and longitude 5.57986 E. The bather load per
day of the swimming pool is between 15 – 25. The water in the swimming pool is treated once every week.
Swimming Pool 3: It is a public swimming pool located in the University of Benin Sports Complex, Ugbowo
Campus. It is a square shaped pool with the length of 14.1m and with of 11.5m. It lies between latitude 6.39829 N
and longitude 5.61004 E. The bather load per day of the swimming pool is between 55 – 100. Swimming Pool 4:
It is a private swimming pool located in a hotel in Nineteen Street, Off Ugbowo Benin City. This is a rectangle
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J Mater Environ Sust Res (2024), 4(2): 16-27

shaped pool with the length of 9.0m and with of 8.0m. It lies between latitude 6.39829 N and longitude 5.61004 E.
The bather load per day of the swimming pool is between 15 – 20.

Figure 1. Map Showing Study Area and Swimming Pool location

2.2 Sample Collection

A total of 16 water samples were purposively collected four times from four public swimming pools in the local
government in the dry season months of January and February, 2024. Samples were gathered from four locations
in each pool using sterile 250mL bottles and then combined. This was done each morning after high-traffic days
(typically weekends) from a water depth of approximately 1 foot. The samples were subsequently transported to
the laboratory in an ice box. On-site measurements were taken for temperature, pH, electrical conductivity and
total dissolved solids.

2.3 In-situ measurements

On-site measurements were taken for temperature, pH, electrical conductivity and total dissolved solids.

2.3.1 Temperature

The temperature was determined using a mercury-in-glass thermometer. To take the temperature reading, the
thermometer was inserted in the swimming pool water sample for five minutes to allow for a stable value to be
obtained.

2.3.2 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH)

The pH was measured using a Hanna pocket-size pH meter (HANNA instruments HI9107). This was done by
calibrating the pH meter and then take off the protective cap and switch on the pH meter. Submerge it in the
swimming pool water sample up to the maximum immersion depth. Stir gently and wait for the display to
stabilize. The reading is then recorded in the field note.

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2.3.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC)/ Total dissolved Solids (TDS) mg/L

For the determination of EC and TDS the HANNA device (HI96301) was switched on and immersed in the water
sample up to the maximum immersion level without touch the bottom of the beaker. Stir gently and wait until
the display stabilizes. Then the value on the display is read and recorded. This value multiply by 10 to give you
the EC, this can be converted into TDS by calculation.
EC can be converted to TDS using the equation:
TDS = (0.548 x EC) + (2.2 x 10-6 x EC2)
where TDS = Total Dissolved Solids (mg/L) EC = Electrical conductivity (μS/cm)

2.4 Ex-situ measurements

2.4.1 Dissolve Oxygen (DO) mg/L

The brown precipitate was dissolved using 2ml of H2SO4, with a measuring cylinder, 100ml of the sample was
measured, poured into a conical flask. Then 1ml of starch solution indicator was added which changed the sample
colour to dark blue. The burette was filled with sodium thiosulphate (Na 2S2O3), the initial titre value was noted
then the sample was titrated until a colourless endpoint is achieved. The final titre value was recorded.

2.4.2 Turbidity (NTU)

Switch on the meter and rinse the cells with distilled H2O. Measure 10ml of De-ionized water and pour into a cell.
Measure 10ml of sample and pour into the other cell. Program the meter to an SOP of 95, then press enter. Uncover
the meter to expose the cell holder, clean the cells using a wiper to erase finger prints and dry off spills. Insert the
cell containing 10ml de-ionized water into the cell holder and cover before pressing zero for blanking. Do same
to the 10ml sample in the other cell, but this time press read. Record the readings displayed. Rinse the cells before
reusing.
The device was switched on and the cells were rinsed properly with distilled H2O. With a measuring cylinder,
10ml of de-ionized H2O was measured and poured into a cell. Then 10ml of the sample was measured and poured
into another cell. The device was programmed to SOP 95 and then the enter button was pressed. The meter was
then uncovered to expose the cell holder and the cells were wiped using a wiper to erase finger prints and dry
off any spills. The cell containing 10ml deionized H2O was inserted and covered, then the zero button was pressed
for blanking. The display screen read zero and this was repeated for the 10ml sample, but this time the read
button was pressed and the reading displayed was recorded.

2.4.3 Free Residual Chlorine (mg/L)

A measuring cylinder was used to measure 50ml of the sample and was poured into a conical flask. One millilitre
(1ml) of K2CrO7 indicator was added. The burette was filled with silver nitrate, and the initial titre value was
noted before titrating to an orange endpoint. The final titre reading was recorded.

2.4.4 Heavy Metals (mg/L)

The heavy metals analyzed for were chromium, cadmium, copper, Iron, lead and zinc. The water sample was
filtered through a Whatman No. 42 filter paper and was then made up to 50ml using distilled water. The digestion
of the water sample was done using aluminium block digester 110. 100ml of the sample was measured and 4ml
perchloric acid, 20ml concentrated nitric acid and 2ml concentrated tetraoxosulphate VI acid was added. The
solution was digested and was heated until white fumes evolved and a clear solution was obtained. The sample
was then allowed to cool before it was transferred to 100ml volumetric before flask and made up to point by
adding distilled water. The sample was thoroughly mixed before it was allowed to stand overnight (in place of
centrifuge) to separate insoluble materials. It was then filtered through 0.45µ millipore type filter (Bashir et al.,
2023).
The metals of interest were read using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (ASS) Solar 969 Unicam Series
Model. Each metal has a hollow cathode lamp for its determination. The instrument was set to the wavelength

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specific to each metal to be analyzed. Distilled de-ionized water aspiration between each reading was conducted.
The reading of the absorbance was obtained by observing the steady galvanometer reading for like 1-2minutes.
The concentration of the metals was calculated using the standard calibration plot (Beauchemin and berman,
1989).

2.5 Bacteriological Qualities in Swimming Pool Water

2.5.1 Determination of Total Heterotrophic Bacterial Count

The enumeration of total heterotrophic bacterial count followed the method described by Oluwatoyin and
Adebayo (2014) and was performed using both the serial dilution and pour plate techniques. Serial 10-fold
dilutions were made in sterile water, and 1 mL of each dilution was aseptically placed in sterile petri dishes in
triplicate. Twenty milliliters of molten plate count agar (Oxoid), cooled to 45°C, were then added to each plate
and thoroughly mixed. After solidification, the plates were incubated at 22°C and 37°C for 24-72 hours. The
bacterial colonies were counted and reported as colony-forming units per milliliter.

2.5.2 Determination of Total Coliform Count

This was measured using the Most Probable Number (MPN) method as outlined by APHA (1998). Ten millilitres
(10 mL) of MacConkey broth were dispensed into each of 15 bottles using a sterile syringe. Inverted Durham
tubes were placed in each bottle, which were then sealed and autoclaved at 121°C for 15 minutes. After
autoclaving, the bottles were transferred to a sterile environment. Ten millilitres of the water sample were
inoculated into the first five bottles, 1 mL into the second five bottles, and 0.1 mL into the last five bottles. The
bottles were incubated and observed after 48 hours. The number of positive bottles, indicated by color change
and gas production, was recorded, and the bacterial load was determined using the Most Probable Number (MPN)
table.

2.5.3 Determination of Faecal Coliform Count

The Most Probable Number (MPN) technique was also employed to identify faecal coliforms in the samples as
reported by APHA (1998). Serial dilutions ranging from 10-1 to 10-2 were prepared by adding 1 mL of the sample
to 9 mL of sterile distilled water. One millilitre aliquot from each dilution were then inoculated into 5 mL of
MacConkey Broth and incubated at 44°C for 18-24 hours. Tubes that exhibited a colour change from purple to
yellow and gas accumulation in the Durham tubes after 24 hours were identified as positive for faecal coliforms.
Counts per 100 mL were determined using MPN tables.

2.6 Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel© 2019 software. Variation plots illustrated the mean levels of the water
quality parameters for the sampled pools. One-Way ANOVA assessed the homogeneity of mean variance of the
parameters across different sampling locations, with post-hoc mean separation performed using the Duncan
Multiple Range Test (DMRT) at P<0.05. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was employed to examine potential
relationships between the parameters.

3. Results

3.1 Physicochemical Analysis of Swimming Pools

The results in Table 1 present the physicochemical analysis of various parameters conducted on outdoor
swimming pool water samples gathered from the selected hotels and Sport Complex in Benin City. The water
samples from the pool were transparent and devoid of colour. The various variables analyzed for each hotel
exhibited different levels of values. On average, it was observed that the pH values exceeded the guidelines set
by WHO and EPA. The distribution of various physicochemical parameters studied on the swimming pool water

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samples are presented in Figures 2(A–I). The distributions allow for easy comparison of the results obtained from
the different pools in Ovia North East Local Government, Benin City.
The mean temperature recorded for the investigated four swimming pools ranged between 25.75°C and 26.38°C.
The highest mean temperature (26.38°C) was recorded in Sp 4 and the lowest (25.75°C) in Sp 2. There was no
significant difference in the variation of temperature across the swimming pools. The mean temperature values
recorded in this study were within the stipulated Standard limit by World Health Organisation (WHO) 2006. The
pH levels varied significantly across all the swimming pools examined, where none of swimming pools evaluated
had the recommended WHO standard pH values. Swimming pool (Sp) 1 recorded the highest mean pH value of
6.1, while the least pH value of 3.1 was recorded in Sp 2.

Table 1. Physicochemical characterization of the swimming pool water samples

Parameters Sp 1 Sp 2 Sp 3 Sp 4 P value F value Standard

Temperature (°C) 26.13± 0.85 25.75±0.29 25.88± 0.75 26.38± 0.48 0.53 3.49 22-26*

(25-27) (25.5-26) (25.5-27) (26-27)

pH 6.1±1.23 3.78±0.26 5.53±0.38 4.58±1.84 0.02 3.49 7-7.8*

(6- 6.2) (3.4-4) (5-5.9) (3.1-6.9)

EC (mg/L) 72.5±61.31 27.5±9.57 52.5±29.86 35±5.77 0.31 3.49 1000*

(0.1-4.5) (20-40) (10-80) (30-40)

TDS (mg/L) 38.43±1.49 14.58±5.07 27.83±15.83 18.55±3.06 0.31 3.49 500*

(5.3-79.5) (10.6-21.2) (5.3-42.4) (15.9-21.2)

Turb. (NTU) 0.75±1.5 1±1.41 4±4.69 1.25±1.5 0.32 3.49 5*

(0-0.3) (0-3) (0-9) (0-3)

DO (mg/L) 7.05±0.71 6.73±0.57 7.43±1.36 6.03±1.11 0.28 3.49 9 - 10*

(6-7.5) (5.9-7.1) (5.4-8.3) (4.6-7.3)

Residual Chlorine
0.03± 0.05 BDL BDL 0.13±0.19 0.27 3.49 1-3*
(mg/L)
(0-0.1) (0-0.4)

Alkalinity (mg/L) 26.5±20.35 7±2 21.±12.80 15±10.39 0.24 3.49 150*

(6-44) (4-8) (12-40 (6-30)

Hardness (mg/L) 35±29.28 6±0 36±29.39 25.5±39 0.45 3.49 150*

(4-60) (6-6 (20-80) (6-84)

Cd (mg/L) BDL BDL BDL BDL 0.003+

Cr (mg/L) 0.037±0.014 0.032±0.007 0.04±0.013 0.048±0.013 0.36 3.49

(0.024-0.059) (0.027-0.042) (0.032-0.064) (0.032-0.064)

Cu (mg/L) 0.055±0.006 0.062±0.02 0.048±0.008 0.063±0.009 0.22 3.49 0.3+

(0.047-0.59) (0.036-0.073) (0.043-0.059 (0.052-0.074)

Fe (mg/L) 0.17±0.05 0.022±0.05 0.186±0.048 0.19±0.032 0.46 3.49 0.3+

(0.13-0.24) (0.18-0.28) (0.15-0.25) (0.167-0.228)

Pb (mg/L) BDL BDL BDL BDL

Zn (mg/L) 0.21±0.10 0.28±0.09 0.099±0.077 0.25±0.096 0.71 3.49 <0.1+

(0.28-0.36) (0.22-0.42) (0.17-0.36) (0.18-0.39)

+WHO (2006), * WHO and EPA Guideline for swimming pool reported by Indabawa et. al., (2015)

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26.6 9
A 8 B
26.4
7
Temperature (°C)

26.2 6
5

pH
26
4
25.8 3
2
25.6
1
25.4 0
Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard
Swimming pools Swimming pools

600
1200
C D
Electrical conductivity (mg/L)

500

Total dissolved Solids (mg/L)

1000

800 400
600
300
400
200
200
100
0
Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard
0
Swimming pools Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard
Swimming pools

6 12
E F
10
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)

5
Turbidity (NTU)

4 8

3 6

2 4

1 2

0 0
Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard
Swimming pools Swimming pools

Figure 2. (A-F). Distribution of physicochemical parameters across the swimming pools. The highest mean
turbidity was recorded in sp 3 (4NTU) while the least mean turbidity value was recorded in sp1. The highest
turbidity value was recorded in sp 3 (9NTU) and the least was 0NTU recorded in all swimming pools. The least
mean residual chlorine was 0.03mg/L in sp 1 and the highest mean residual chlorine was 0.13mg/L in sp 4.

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3.5 160
G H
3 140
Residual Chlorine (mg/L)

2.5 120

Alkalinity (mg/L)
100
2
80
1.5
60
1
40
0.5 20
0 0
Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard
Swimming pools Swimming pools

160
I 140
120
Hardness (mg/L)

100
80
60
40
20
0
Sp 1 Sp2 Sp3 Sp4 Standard
Swimming pools

Figure 2. (Cont’d.) (G-I). Distribution of physicochemical parameters across the swimming pools. The highest
mean turbidity was recorded in sp 3 (4NTU) while the least mean turbidity value was recorded in sp1. The highest
turbidity value was recorded in sp 3 (9NTU) and the least was 0NTU recorded in all swimming pools. The least
mean residual chlorine was 0.03mg/L in sp 1 and the highest mean residual chlorine was 0.13mg/L in sp 4.

3.2 Bacteriological Analysis of Swimming Pools

Table 2 presents the results of the bacteriological analysis of swimming pools in Ovia North East Local
Government, Benin City. The bacteriological evaluation of outdoor swimming pool water samples from three
different hotels and the University of Benin sports complex in Benin City, Nigeria, was conducted after swimming,
as shown in Table 2. The Total Bacteria Count (TBC), Total Coliform Count (TCC), and Escherichia coli Count
were measured. Among all the swimming pools (sp), Sp 3 had the highest Total Bacteria Count (TBC) of 3 x 10²
CFU/100mL, followed by Sp 2 and Sp 4, each recording a TBC of 2 x 10². Sp 1 had the lowest TBC of 1 x 10². Total
Coliform Count (TCC) was recorded across all four swimming pools, with Sp 3 having the highest count at 5
CFU/100mL, and Sp 1, Sp 2, and Sp 3 each recording 3 CFU/100mL. Although Faecal Coliform Count (FCC) was
detected in all swimming pools, it was most prevalent in Sp 3, followed by Sp 2, then Sp 1 and Sp 4, respectively.

4. Discussion

It is crucial to ensure that recreational water meets the same standards as drinkable water, as there is a
considerable likelihood that swimmers might accidentally swallow the water. Additionally, it was noted that
some outdoor swimming pools are overseen by staff without proper training, who are merely hired to oversee
the facility's operations with little regard for hygiene or the health of swimmers, thereby neglecting measures to
protect public health. There are varying opinions on how to assess swimming pool water quality. Some
researchers suggest focusing on microbes that indicate good hygiene, such as heterotrophic bacteria and total
coliforms, while others argue that monitoring for faecal pollution is more important, as infection risk is often
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linked to microbes associated with the mouth, skin, and upper respiratory tract of swimmers rather than fecal
contamination (Mossel, 2006; Mood, 2007; Onifade et al., 2019). In the present study, both physicochemical and
bacteriological analyses were evaluated. A key factor in assessing bathing water quality is the density of bathers.
High swimmer density—such as the 1,100 bathers per day observed in the fifth studied pool—can increase the
risk of pathogen contact and disease transmission. The personal hygiene of recreational water users can also
significantly impact water quality (WHO, 2005; Abd El-Salam, 2012).

Table 2. Microbial assessment swimming pool water sample in Benin City, Nigeria

Water Samples Total Bacteria Total Coliform Count E. coli Count

Count (CFU/100mL) (CFU/100mL)
(CFU/100mL)
WHO <1 <1 <1
Limits
1st visit in swimming pool 1 (Sp 1a) 1×101 0×101 0×101
2nd visit in swimming pool 1 (Sp 1b) 0×101 1×101 0×101
3rd visit in swimming pool 1 (Sp 1c) 1×101 3×101 2×101
4th visit in swimming pool 1 (Sp 1d) 1×101 1×101 1×101
1st visit in swimming pool 2 (Sp 2a) 1×101 1×101 1×101
2nd visit in swimming pool 2 (Sp 2b) 1×101 0×101 2×101
3rd visit in swimming pool 2 (Sp 2c) 2×101 3×101 1×101
4th visit in swimming pool 2 (Sp 2d) 1×101 1×101 1 ×101
1st visit in swimming pool 3 (Sp 3a) 3×101 5×101 2×101
2nd visit in swimming pool 3 (Sp 3b) 2×101 2×101 2×101
3rd visit in swimming pool 3 (Sp 3c) 1×101 2×101 1×101
4th visit in swimming pool 3 (Sp 3d) 2×101 2×101 1×101
1st visit in swimming pool 4 (Sp 4a) 1×101 3×101 1×101
2nd visit in swimming pool 4 (Sp 4b) 1×101 3×101 0×101
3rd visit in swimming pool 4 (Sp 4c) 2×101 0×101 1×101
4th visit in swimming pool 4 (Sp 4d) 1×101 1×101 1×101

The study found that some of the swimming pools met WHO and EPA standards for water quality. The recorded
temperature range of 25.75°C to 26.38°C falls within the WHO's recommended limit from 2006. According to
Attah et al. (2007), swimming pools with temperatures above 27°C are more likely to be contaminated compared
to those maintained between 22-27°C, as higher temperatures can promote bacterial growth (Leoni et al., 2001).
The significant temperature variations (25.2–33.1°C) observed in the four surveyed swimming pools may be due
to water heating in some pools and others being shaded from the sun during peak hours. The pH levels in most
pools tended to rise after use, which is a key indicator of microorganism presence (EPA, 2011). Adrian et al. (1984)
reported that 37% of swimming pools in South Australia had pH levels outside the recommended range, similar
to the findings in this study where pH levels exceeded the standard limit, possibly due to untrained staff
managing the pools and excessive use of chlorine as a disinfectant.

Swimming pools Sp 3 and Sp 4 had the lowest chloride content both before and after use, which could result from
ineffective treatment or poor management. These pools also attracted more visitors due to lower charges.
According to the EPA (2007), the presence of chloride in water indicates the effectiveness of chlorine as a
disinfectant. Other parameters, such as electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, turbidity, dissolved oxygen,
alkalinity, and hardness, varied across the pools but remained within the standard limits. However, residual
chlorine, a crucial parameter, was lacking in all pools, particularly in Sp 2 and Sp 3, consistent with previous
studies linking inadequate sanitation in public swimming pools to decreasing sanitizer levels (Sule and Oyeyiola,
2010; Agbagwa and Harry, 2012; Esinulo and Ogbuagu, 2016).

The average total bacterial counts (TBC) for all the outdoor swimming pool waters were generally high and
exceeded the guideline set by the EPA and WHO for water. This high bacterial count suggests the presence of

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J Mater Environ Sust Res (2024), 4(2): 16-27

significant amounts of organic matter and dissolved salts in the water. The main origins of these bacteria are
typically human and animal wastes. Other sources of bacterial contamination include surface runoff, pasture
areas, and other lands where animal waste is deposited, as well as discharges from sewage treatment facilities,
seepage, or, septic tanks and bacteria from unprocessed soils or plants (Howe et al., 2002; Onifade et al., 2019).

While the bacteriological guidelines for outdoor swimming pools vary by region and nation, they are often stricter
than those for drinking water, which are established through international agreements among stakeholders. For
example, in the United Kingdom, it is advised that outdoor swimming pool water should not contain any coliform
bacteria in 100ml of water (Craun et al., 2005; Indabawa et al., 2015). The average values of TBC, total coliform
count (TCC), and faecal coliform count (FCC) were relatively high across the four swimming pools, particularly
in Sp 3, and exceeded the WHO's (2011) recommended value of zero for drinking water. This result is consistent
with the findings of Onifade et al. (2019), who assessed the physicochemical and bacteriological quality of public
swimming pools in designated hotels in Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria.

5. Conclusion

These outcomes indicate that none of the investigated outdoor public swimming pools fully complied with the
WHO guidelines for recreational water. Given the correlation between low chlorine concentrations and the
presence of bacteriological contamination detected in the present study, the Ministry of Health should implement
stricter inspection procedures, focusing on regular cleaning of filtration systems to remove biofilm and enhance
disinfection. To create a more secure environment in these outdoor swimming pools, it is also essential to raise
users' awareness and understanding of the hazard to promote proper manners around pools.

Declarations

Acknowledgements: We extend our sincere thanks to Mr. Divine Osajiele for his help with the fieldwork.

Author Credit Statement: Ikhuoriah, S. O. design the research, prepare the manuscript and did the data analyses
and Onajite I. E. perform the laboratory analysis and assisted in the manuscript preparation.

Declaration of Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests

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