Optics

PH113: Physics (B.Tech.
I)
Instructors: Dr. S K Mukherjee and Dr. Anupam Roy

Dept of Physics, BIT Mesra.
Drop an e-mail: royanupam [AT] bitmesra [DOT] ac [DOT] in.
Section L, O & P
PH113: Physics (B.Tech. I)
Syllabus
Module-1: Physical Optics
Polarization, Malus’ Law, Brewster’s Law, Double Refraction, Interference in thin films (Parallel films), Interference in wedge-shaped layers, Newton’s rings, Fraunhofer
diffraction by single slit, Double slit. Elementary ideas of fibre optics and application of fibre optic cables. [8]
Module-2: Electromagnetic Theory
Gradient, Divergence and Curl, Statement of Gauss theorem & Stokes theorem, Gauss’s law, Applications, Concept of electric potential, Relationship between E and V,
Polarization of dielectrics, dielectric constant, Boundary conditions for E & D, Gauss’s law in magnetostatics, Ampere’s circuital law, Boundary conditions for B & H,
Equation of continuity, Displacement current, Maxwell’s equations. [8]
Module-3: Special Theory of Relativity
Introduction, Inertial frame of reference, Galilean transformations, Postulates, Lorentz transformations and its conclusions, Length contraction, time dilation, velocity
addition, Mass change, Einstein's mass energy relation. [6]
Module-4: Quantum Mechanics
Planck's theory of black-body radiation, Compton effect, Wave particle duality, De Broglie waves, Davisson and Germer's experiment, Uncertainty principle, Brief idea of
Wave Packet, Wave Function and its physical interpretation, Schrodinger equation in one-dimension, free particle, particle in an infinite square well. [9]
Module-5: Modern Physics
Laser – Spontaneous and stimulated emission, Einstein's A and B coefficients, Population inversion, Light amplification, Basic laser action, Ruby and He-Ne lasers,
Properties and applications of laser radiation, Nuclear Physics- Binding Energy Curve, Nuclear Force, Liquid drop model, Introduction to Shell model, Applications of
Nuclear Physics, Concept of Plasma Physics, and its applications. [9]
Text books:
1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 4th Edition, Tata Mcgraw Hill, 2009
2: Mathew N.O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford University Press ( 2001)
3: Arthur Beiser, Concept of Modern Physics, 6th edition 2009, Tata McGraw- Hill
4. F. F. Chen, Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled Fusion, Springer, Edition 2016.
Reference books: 1: Fundamentals of Physics, Halliday, Walker and Resnick
Dr. Anupam Roy 2
Module 1
Module – 1 : Physical Optics
Polarization, Malus’ Law, Brewster’s Law, Double Refraction, Interference in thin films (Parallel films),
Interference in wedge-shaped layers, Newton’s rings, Fraunhofer diffraction by single slit, Double slit.
Elementary ideas of fibre optics and application of fibre optic cables. [8]
Text book:
T1: A. Ghatak, Optics, 6th Edition, 2017, McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd.
References: (1) Optics – E Hecht (2) Fundamentals of Optics – Jenkins & White
Class structure: 4 Lectures including 1 Tutorial per week. (8 hours ~ 2 weeks for this module!)
Dr. Anupam Roy 3

Module 1
Date: 05.09.2023
Lecture: 1
Dr. Anupam Roy 4

Module 1 (Physical Optics)
Optics
❑Geometrical Optics and Physical Optics

❑Geometrical Optics is useful when the objects are very large compared to wavelength of light,
e.g., lenses and mirrors.
❑Physical Optics deals with situations where the objects have dimensions comparable to the
wavelength.
❑ Several new aspects of light-matter interaction – interference, diffraction, polarization (can only
be explained by Physical Optics).
Dr. Anupam Roy 5

Optics
❑ Two types of waves: Longitudinal and Transverse
❑ Longitudinal wave: particles of the medium moves in
the direction of propagation of the wave. Example:
Sound wave, expansion & compression of spring.
❑ Transverse wave: particles movement is
orthogonal/perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Example: EM wave (light wave). ❑ Light is an electromagnetic (EM) wave –
consists of electric and magnetic field
vectors in perpendicular directions, and
propagates in a direction perpendicular to
both the fields.
Dr. Anupam Roy 6
Polarization
Direction of polarization is determined only
by the oscillating direction/plane of the
electric field, 𝑬 (not by the magnetic field, 𝑩)
(𝑬 =𝑐𝑩 ≫ 𝑩)
❑ Oscillate one end of a string up and down – a transverse wave is generated.

❑ Each point of the string executes a sinusoidal oscillation in a straight line (along the x-axis) and the wave
is, therefore, known as a linearly polarized wave. It is also known as a plane polarized wave because the
string is always confined to the 𝑥-𝑧 plane.
❑ Polarization can be defined only in case of transverse waves and not in the longitudinal wave.
Dr. Anupam Roy 7

Polarization
❑Polarization: When the electric (or magnetic) field variations in a light wave are in a fixed plane,
we say that the light is polarized.
Dr. Anupam Roy 8

Polarization
❑ Light emitted from a common source like Sun or

Electric bulb, the planes of vibration are random
(each ray in the beam can vibrate in an arbitrary
direction) – Unpolarized Light.
❑ Alternative way to represent unpolarized light: Each electric field vectors

can be decomposed into x- and y-components.
❑ Amplitudes of vibrations along 𝑥-direction is 𝐸𝑥 and along 𝑦-direction is 𝐸𝑦 .
❑ Polarizer is a device that make a unpolarized/randomly polarized light into a polarized light.
Dr. Anupam Roy 9
Polarization
❑ Types of polarization:
❑ Plane or linear polarization: The electric field vector oscillate in one fixed plane
❑ Circular polarization: The electric field vector oscillate in a circle. Left & Right CP
❑ Elliptical polarization: The electric field vector oscillate in elliptical path
(a) Linear polarization (b) circular polarization,

and (c) elliptical polarization
Dr. Anupam Roy 10

Polarization
Mathematically, the plane/linearly polarized light along 𝑥-axis is given by 𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) (1)
Plane/linearly polarized light along 𝑦-axis is given by 𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (2)
𝜑 is the phase difference compared to wave in (1)
Positive phase shift Negative phase shift Dr. Anupam Roy 11

Polarization
Superposition of two linearly polarized waves with 𝝋 = 0
𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡)

= 𝑥ො 𝐸01 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑦ො 𝐸02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑥ො 𝐸01 + 𝑦ො 𝐸02 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)
Amplitude of the resultant wave 2 2

𝐸01 + 𝐸02 = 2𝐸0 (when 𝐸01 = 𝐸02 = 𝐸0 )
𝐸02 𝐸0
Polarization (direction of field) of the resultant wave 𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1
= 45𝑜
𝐸01 𝐸0
❑ When two in-phase linearly polarized light waves are superposed, resultant wave has fixed orientation as well as
amplitude.
❑ In other words, any linearly polarized light can be resolved into two components: along 𝒙-axis and along 𝒚-axis.
Dr. Anupam Roy 12
Polarization
Consider uniform plane waves of same amplitude propagating along 𝑧Ƹ but polarized along 𝑥ො and 𝑦.
ො Their
superposition: 𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸01 + 𝑦ො 𝐸02 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)
Note the relative phase!
45° linearly polarized light !
Dr. Anupam Roy 13

Polarization
❑ What is the amplitude and direction of resultant field when two linearly polarized light with 𝜑 = 𝜋
superpose with each other?
❑ Solve
Dr. Anupam Roy 14

Polarization
𝜋
Superposition of two linearly polarized waves with 𝐸01 = 𝐸02 = 𝐸0 and 𝜑 = ± = 90𝑜
2
𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)
Superposed/resultant field: 𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸1 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐸2 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 [𝑥ො 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑦ො s𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 ]
Amplitude of the resultant field

1Τ2
𝐸 = 𝐸1 ∙ 𝐸2
= 𝑥𝐸
ො 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑦𝐸
ො 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 ∙ 𝑥𝐸
ො 0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑦𝐸
ො 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 1Τ2 = 𝐸0
Resultant amplitude is constant and equal to the amplitude of the initial wave Dr. Anupam Roy 15
Polarization
❑ Direction or polarization of the field
From scalar part of two initial waves
𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) 2 2

𝐸1 𝐸2
+ =1 (Equation of circle)
𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝐸0 𝐸0
The resultant field equation rotate in a circle. The polarization is called Circular Polarization
𝝅
Hence, superposition of two plane/linearly polarized wave with equal amplitude and phase difference = ±
𝟐
leads to circular polarization.
Problem: What is the difference between polarization direction when phase difference is /2 and −/2?
‘Or’ Define left handed polarized (LHP) and Right handed polarized (RHP) light. Dr. Anupam Roy 16
Polarization
❑ Direction or polarization of the field
𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)

𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = −𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)
Left Circular Linear Right Circular Dr. Anupam Roy 17

Polarization
❑ Use of Polarization
❑ Astronomy, Communication and RADAR applications (all radio transmitting and receiving antennas
are intrinsically polarized, special use in radar), 3-D movies and polarized 3-D glasses
❑ Polarization is used in infrared spectroscopy, use in ophthalmic instruments
❑ In sunglasses, polarization is used to reduce glare.
Dr. Anupam Roy 18

Polarization
❑ If an unpolarized wave falls on a slit 𝑆1 then the displacement

associated with the transmitted wave is along the slit length.
❑ A rotation of the slit will not affect the amplitude of the

transmitted wave although the plane of the polarization of
transmitted wave depend on the orientation of the slit. Thus,
the transmitted wave will be linearly polarized and slit 𝑆1 is
acting as a polarizer.
❑ If this polarized beam falls on another slit 𝑆2, then by rotating

𝑆2 we can vary the amplitude of transmitted wave. This second
slit 𝑆2 is acting as an analyzer. This slit can be used to detect
the direction of polarization of the linearly polarized wave.
Dr. Anupam Roy 19

Polarization
Malus’ law
❑ This law tells us how the intensity transmitted by the analyzer
varies with the angle that its plane of transmission makes with that
of the polarizer (ideal polarizer).
❑ In the case of two piles of plates, the plane of transmission is the

plane of incidence, and for the law of Malus to hold we must
assume that the transmitted light is completely plane-polarized.
❑ The law of Malus states that the transmitted intensity varies as the
square of the cosine of the angle between the two planes of
transmission.
Dr. Anupam Roy 20

Polarization
Malus’ law (Contd..)
❑ If an 𝑥-polarized beam is passed through a polaroid 𝑃2 whose
pass axis makes an angle 𝜃 with the 𝑥-axis, then the intensity of
the emerging beam will be given by,
𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
❑ where 𝐼0 represents the intensity of the emergent beam when

the pass axis of 𝑃2 is also along the 𝑥-axis (i.e., when 𝜃 = 0). This
equation (𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) represents the Malus’ law.
An unpolarized light beam gets 𝑥 -polarized
after passing through the polaroid 𝑃1 , the pass
axis of the second polaroid 𝑃2 makes an angle 𝜃
with the 𝑥-axis. The intensity of the emerging
beam will vary as 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃.
Dr. Anupam Roy 21
Polarization
❑ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 2
❑ If incident wave has amplitude 𝐸0 , then the outgoing wave

has an amplitude of 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
❑ 𝐼 = 𝐸 2 = 𝐸0 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
❑ 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Dr. Anupam Roy 22

Polarization
- Production of polarized light (methods to produce linearly polarized light)
2
❑ 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒
❑ For any 𝜃, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

𝐼0
❑ But 𝜃 is random => 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 =
2
1
❑ Average value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 is
2
(Using Malus law: incident light is polarized)
Dr. Anupam Roy 23

Polarization
Example:
A beam of vertically polarized light is incident on a linear polarizer. It is observed that the intensity of the
light emerging out of the polarizer is 25% of the incident intensity when the angle between the
transmission axis of the polarizer and the vertical is 60o.
Solution
According to Malus law, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
When the transmission axis of polarizer is 60o, the intensity of transmitted light is,
2
𝐼0
𝐼 60 = 𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 60 = = 0.25 𝐼0
4
Dr. Anupam Roy 24
Polarization
So far…
▪ Polarization of light is due to its transverse nature.

▪ Types of polarization: (1) Linear (2) circular (RHP & LHP) (3) Elliptical
▪ Superposition of two linearly polarized waves with phase difference 0, ±𝜋 leads to another linearly polarized
wave.
▪ A linearly polarized light can be resolved into two components perpendicular to each other (along 𝑥 and 𝑦).
𝜋
▪ Superposition of two linearly polarized wave with equal amplitude and phase difference = ± leads to
2
circular polarization.
𝜋
▪ Superposition of two linearly polarized wave with phase difference other than 0, ±𝜋 and ± leads to
2
formation of elliptical polarized wave.
▪ Malus’ law provides a condition, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 for an ideal polarizer.
Dr. Anupam Roy 25
Module 1
Question?
Dr. Anupam Roy 26

Module 1
Date: 08.09.2023
Lecture: 2
Dr. Anupam Roy 27

Module 1
Text book:
Dr. Anupam Roy 28

Polarization
Polarization of unpolarized light:

❑Several strategies
❑By scattering
❑By reflection
❑By double refraction
❑By absorption
Dr. Anupam Roy 29

Polarization
1) Polarization by Scattering
❑ If an unpolarized light is allowed to fall on a gas, then the beam scattered

at 90° to the incident beam is linearly polarized.
❑ It follows from the fact that the waves propagating in the y-direction are
produced by the 𝑥 -component of the dipole oscillations. The 𝑦 -
component of dipole oscillations will produce no field in the 𝑦-direction.
✓ Unscattered part of the incident beam remains unpolarized.
✓ The waves scattered by the gas molecules in perpendicular direction

is linearly polarized.
✓ Waves scattered in other directions are partially polarized. Dr. Anupam Roy 30
Polarization
2) Wire Grid Polarizer and Polaroid
❑ Consists of a regular array of parallel metallic wires (e.g., copper), placed in

a plane perpendicular to the incident beam. Wires are placed closed to
each other such that the spacing ≲ 𝜆 in order to reduce diffraction effects.
❑ Suppose an unpolarized EM wave incidents on the grid. The 𝑦-component

of the incoming field (parallel to wires) moves the electrons of the wire and
generate currents in the wire.
❑ This leads to Joule heating and the 𝑥-component gets converted into the
heat energy. The 𝑥-component of field in not absorbed and passes through.
❑ Thus, it converts an unpolarized light into a linearly polarized with the electric vector along the 𝑥-axis. Dr. Anupam Roy 31
Polarization
2) Wire Grid Polarizer and Polaroid
❑ Note: For this system to be effective, spacing between the wires should
be ≲ 𝜆. Remember, light waves are associated with a very small
wavelength. So, fabrication of a polarizer with such a small spacings is
extremely difficult.
❑ Instead of thin wires, one prepares sheets of long polymers chains. These atoms provide high conductivity.
❑ When a light beam is incident on such a polaroid, the molecules (aligned parallel to each other) absorb the
component of electric field (which is parallel to the alignment). It, thus, acts like the wire grid polarizer.
❑ Now the spacing between two adjacent long chain molecules is small compared to optical wavelength. So, it is
very effective in producing linearly polarized light and can be used for wavelengths in visible range.
Dr. Anupam Roy 32
Polarization
3) Polarization by reflection: Brewster’s law 𝜃 𝜃
❑ Consider unpolarized light to be incident at an angle 𝜃 on a dielectric like glass,

as shown in Figure. There will always be a reflected ray and a refracted ray. The
reflected ray is partially plane-polarized.
❑ Only at a certain angle, about 57° for ordinary glass (air-glass interface), it is
completely plane-polarized. At this polarizing angle 𝜃𝐵 , the reflected and
refracted rays are just 90° apart.
❑ This is Brewster's law, which shows that the angle of incidence for maximum
polarization depends only on the refractive index. This remarkable discovery
enables one to correlate polarization with the refractive index.
Dr. Anupam Roy 33
Polarization
3) Polarization by reflection: Brewster’s law
❑ When light wave travels from low density (refractive index) medium (e.g., air) to high density (refractive index)
medium (e.g., water or glass), at a particular angle of incidence, the reflected light is polarized. The angle at
which polarization occurs is known as Brewster angle (𝜃𝐵 ).
❑ At Brewster angle, the angle between reflected and transmitted (refracted) wave is 90°.
Unpolarized light incident (a) at angle I and (b) at angle B
 Wave polarized parallel to the plane of incidence

• Wave polarized perpendicular to the plane of incidence
Dr. Anupam Roy 34
Polarization
❑ Consider unpolarized light to be incident at an angle 𝜃 on a dielectric like glass, Air (n1)
as shown in Figure. When the reflected and refracted rays become
perpendicular, the reflected ray becomes completely plane-polarized. The Glass (n2)
corresponding angle of incidence is called the Brewster’s angle (𝜃𝐵 ).
𝑛2
❑ 𝜃𝐵 = tan−1
𝑛1
❑ Proof: 𝜃𝐵 + 𝜃𝑟 = 90° Tangent of Brewster angle is equal to

the ratio of the refractive indices of
❑ Snell’s law: 𝑛1 sin 𝜃𝐵 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃𝑟 = 𝑛2 sin(90° − 𝜃𝐵 ) = 𝑛2 cos 𝜃𝐵 the media at whose interface incident
𝑛2 𝒏𝟐 light is reflected.
❑ tan 𝜃𝐵 = ⇒ 𝜽𝑩 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 Dr. Anupam Roy 35
𝑛1 𝒏𝟏
Polarization
Example
❑ When the incident beam is in air (𝑛1 = 1) and the transmitting medium is glass (𝑛2 = 1.5) the Brewster angle
is nearly 57°.
❑ For air (𝑛1 = 1) and water (𝑛2 = 1.33) interface (like the surface of a pond or a lake), 𝜃𝐵 is 53°. This means
that when the sun is 37° above the horizontal, the light reflected by a calm pond or lake should be completely
linearly polarized.
❑ Problem: A plate of flint glass (refractive index 1.67) is immersed in water (refractive index 1.33). Calculate the
Brewster angle for internal as well as external reflection at an interface. Dr. Anupam Roy 36
Polarization
4) Polarization by double refraction (Birefringence)
❑ Similar to reflection, refraction can also polarize the beam.
❑ Only optically anisotropic crystals (calcite, cellophane) polarizes the beam. (Optically anisotropic means that
optical properties are not the same in all directions.)
❑ Light passes through optically anisotropic crystals shows “double refraction” or “birefringence”.
❑ Materials showing double refraction are called Birefringent material.
Example:
❑ A dot mark on a paper appears as two dots when viewed through calcite crystal.
❑ Calcite crystal splits the incident beam into two due to double refraction.
Dr. Anupam Roy 37
Polarization
❑ When an unpolarized light beam is incident on a

calcite (CaCO3) crystal, it splits into two beams, each
of which is linearly polarized.
❑ The ray that follows Snell’s law is called ordinary ray

or o-ray.
❑ The ray that does not follow Snell’s law is called

extraordinary ray or e-ray.
❑ If the crystal is rotated about the incident ray as an

axis, then the e-ray rotates about the o-ray.
Dr. Anupam Roy 38
Remember: Snell’s law
❑ Snell’s law gives a relationship between the angles of incidence (𝜃1 ) and refraction (𝜃2 ) when a ray of light travels
from a rarer medium of refractive index (𝑛1 ) to a denser medium of refractive index (𝑛2 )
❑ 𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2
Dr. Anupam Roy 39

Polarization
❑ The velocity of e-ray is different from o-ray.
❑ If 𝑣𝑜 < 𝑣𝑒 , then the crystal is negative (for example, calcite).
❑ If 𝑣𝑜 > 𝑣𝑒 , then the crystal is positive (for example, quartz).
❑ There is a particular direction, called the Optic Axis, along

which there is no splitting and 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑒 (only one ray is
obtained that follows the Snell’s law).
❑ Optic axis: A special directions in a birefringent crystal along

which two refractive indices are equal and both o- and e-rays
in the direction of optic axis propagate with same velocity. Dr. Anupam Roy 40
Polarization
❑ Optic axis (Example): Calcite crystal normally used in the shape of rhombohedra
bounded by six parallelograms with angles 102° and 78°. At corners A and H, angle of
each of the three faces is obtuse and these points are known as blunt corners.
❑ A line passing through one of the blunt corners and is equally inclined to all the three
edges meeting at that point gives the direction of optic axis. Any line parallel to this
line is also known as optic axis.
❑ Birefringent crystals with only one optic axis are called uniaxial crystals (e.g., Calcite, Quartz). Crystals having two
optic axes are called biaxial crystals (e.g., Mica).
❑ When the refractive index for o-ray (𝑛𝑜 ) is more than that for the e-ray (𝑛𝑒 ) – negative uniaxial crystal. (𝑛𝑜 > 𝑛𝑒 ).
For positive uniaxial crystal, (𝑛𝑜 < 𝑛𝑒 ). Dr. Anupam Roy 41
Polarization
❑ The birefringent crystal splits an unpolarized light into e-ray and o-ray.
❑ the electric field of e-ray vibrate in the plane containing the optic axis and electric
field of o-ray vibrates perpendicular to the optic axis.
❑ Therefore, due to double refraction, the

unpolarized light beam splits into two
components which are plane polarized.
Dr. Anupam Roy 42

Module 1
Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 43

Module 1
Date: 11.09.2023
Lecture: 3 (Tutorial Class)
Dr. Anupam Roy 44

Module 1
Malus’s Law
Dr. Anupam Roy 45

Module 1
Dr. Anupam Roy 46

Module 1
Dr. Anupam Roy 47

Module 1
Dr. Anupam Roy 48

Module 1
Date: 12.09.2023
Lecture: 4
Dr. Anupam Roy 49

Module 1
Text book:
Dr. Anupam Roy 50

Interference
❑ Superposition of two coherent wave (definite phase relation)
(ideally from the same source) to form periodic variation
(fringes) in the intensity.
❑ Fringe with highest intensity is due to constructive interference.
❑ Fringe with lowest intensity is due to destructive interference. Wave amplitudes add in Wave amplitudes cancel
constructive interference to give zero output due to
❑ Interference can be produced by (a) division of wavefront and (b) destructive interference
division of amplitude.
❑ Consider two waves as ❑ Principle of superposition:

❑ 𝑦1 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 ❑ 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
❑ 𝑦2 = 𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
Dr. Anupam Roy 51
Interference by a plane parallel film
Constructive and destructive interferences
❑ Consider two waves as
❑ 𝑦1 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑦2 = 𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
❑ Principle of superposition: 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
❑ Remember: path difference of 𝝀 (the wavelength) corresponds to a phase difference of 𝟐𝝅.
❑ For constructive interference, the phase difference between 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 is 𝜑 = 2𝑛𝜋, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, … …, i.e., the
optical path difference (OPD) is 𝑙 = 𝑛𝜆
❑ For destructive interference, the phase difference is 𝜑 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋, 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, … …, i.e., the optical path
𝜆 1
difference (OPD) is 𝑙 = 2𝑛 + 1 = (𝑛 + )𝜆
2 2
Dr. Anupam Roy 52

Interference by superposition of waves
❑ Constructive interference: 1 + 2
❑ Path diff.: 0, , 2, …., n
❑ Destructive interference: 1 + 3
❑ Path diff.: /2, 3/2, …., (2n+1)/2
❑ Partial constructive interference: 1 + 4

❑ Path diff.: /4 ….
2𝜋
❑ 𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = × 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝜆
Dr. Anupam Roy 53
Interference by a plane parallel film (normal incidence)
❑ The film has parallel surface, and incident rays are normal to the surface
❑ For constructive interference, we should have:

2𝑛𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆, 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … …
❑ For destructive interference, we should have:

1
2𝑛𝑑 = (𝑚 + )𝜆, 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … …
2
❑ The above relations are incorrect, because due to reflection from a rarer medium to a denser medium, a phase
𝜆
difference of 𝜋 (or an optical path difference, OPD of ) is introduced.
2
❑ Optical path difference, OPD = actual distance × refractive index of medium
❑ The correct relations are:
1
❑ For constructive interference, we should have: 2𝑛𝑑 = (𝑚 + )𝜆, 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … …
2
❑ For destructive interference, we should have: 2𝑛𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆, 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … … Dr. Anupam Roy 54
Interference by a plane parallel film (oblique incidence) Source ‘S’
P
❑ The film has parallel surface, and incident rays are at certain angle
to the surface.
❑ Light from a monochromatic source ‘S’ falling on a thin film
creates two set of parallel rays.
❑ Wave reflected from the upper surface of the film interferes with
the wave reflected from the lower surface.
❑ Each set, when collected through a lens can make constructive or destructive interference pattern (at P)
depending upon the phase relation between them.
Dr. Anupam Roy 55

Interference by a plane parallel film (oblique incidence)
❑ Optical path difference (OPD) can only be introduced in the

region BCFD.
❑ Remember: OPD = actual distance × refractive index of medium
❑ 𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 𝑛2 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐹 − 𝑛1 𝐵𝐶
❑ ∠𝐵𝐹𝐶 = 𝜃𝑖 and ∠𝐹𝐵𝐾 = 𝜃𝑟
❑ From Δ𝐵𝐹𝐶, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 ……….Eqn (1)
𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐹 = 𝐵’𝐹
❑ From Δ𝐵𝐾𝐹, 𝐾𝐹 = 𝐵𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 ……….Eqn (2)
𝐾𝐹 𝑛2
❑ Substitute Eqn. 2 in Eqn. 1: 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 = 𝐾𝐹 (using Snell’s law) ……..Eqn (3)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 𝑛1
Dr. Anupam Roy 56
❑ Optical path difference: 𝑂𝑃𝐷 (Δ) = 𝑛2 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐹 − 𝑛1 𝐵𝐶

❑ From Δ𝐵𝐹𝐶, 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐵𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 [Eqn (1)] and from Δ𝐵𝐾𝐹,
𝐾𝐹 = 𝐵𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 [Eqn (2)]
❑ Substituting Eqn. 2 in Eqn. 1, we get:
𝐾𝐹 𝑛2
❑ 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑖 = 𝐾𝐹 (using Snell’s law) ……..[Eqn (3)]
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑟 𝑛1
𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐹 = 𝐵’𝐹
❑ OPD: Δ = 𝑛2 𝐵𝐷 + 𝐷𝐹 − 𝑛1 𝐵𝐶 = 𝑛2 𝐵′ 𝐹 − 𝑛1 𝐵𝐶
𝑛2
= 𝑛2 𝐵′ 𝐹 − 𝑛1 𝐾𝐹 = 𝑛2 𝐵′ 𝐹 − 𝐾𝐹
𝑛1
= 𝑛2 𝐵′ 𝐾 = 𝑛2 𝐵𝐵′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 = 𝑛2 2𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 . (cosine law) Dr. Anupam Roy 57

❑ Optical path difference: 𝑂𝑃𝐷 = 2𝑛2 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 (cosine law)
❑ Due to reflection from a rarer medium to a denser medium, a phase difference of 𝜋 (or an optical path
difference of 𝜆/2) is introduced.
𝜆
❑ Ray reflected from the top surface of film undergoes a phase change of  (or path change ). So, total
2
𝜆
path difference is 2𝑛2 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 +
2
𝜆 1
❑ Condition for destructive interference is: 2𝑛2 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 + = (𝑚 + )𝜆 for 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … .
2 2
❑ Or, 2𝑛2 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 = 𝑚𝜆 (condition for minima)
𝜆
❑ Condition for constructive interference is: 2𝑛2 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 − = 𝑚𝜆 for 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, … .
2
1
❑ Or, 2𝑛2 𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 = (𝑚 + )𝜆 (condition for maxima in interference pattern)
2 Dr. Anupam Roy 58
Example
❑ A thin film of thickness 4 x 10-5 cm is illuminated by white light normal to its surface. Its refractive
index is 1.5. Of what color will the thin film appear in reflected light?
Solution
❑ Color in reflection will appear due to constructive interference.
1
❑ Condition for constructive interference is, 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑟 = (𝑚 + )𝜆
2
2400
❑ By putting the values of 𝑛 (= 1.5), 𝜃𝑟 (= 0°) and 𝑑 (= 4 x 10−5 cm), and solving, 𝜆 = 𝑛𝑚
(2𝑚+1)
❑ Taking 𝑚 = 0, 1, 2, 3, we get 𝜆 = 2400, 800, 480, 343.1 𝑛𝑚

❑ Wavelengths 2400, 800 and 343.1 nm are not in visible region. 480 nm is in blue spectral region. So,
the color appear in interference is Blue. Dr. Anupam Roy 59
Interference by a wedge-shaped film (two non-parallel reflecting planes)
❑ So far, we have assumed the film to be uniform thickness.

❑ Now, we will discuss the interference pattern produced by a
film of varying thickness.
❑ For example, wedge shaped film, where two surfaces (top and
bottom) are not parallel.
❑ Two rays are normally incident on the upper surface, and they
get reflected from the lower surface almost normally.
❑ The path difference is still given by the cosine law. However,
𝑋𝐵′ for a small angle 𝜑 and almost a normal incidence, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 ≈ 1.
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 =
𝑋𝐴′
𝑋𝐵′ = 𝐵𝐵′ − 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑋𝐴′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 Dr. Anupam Roy 60
❑ Consider a bright fringe at A. The optical path difference (OPD),

∆= 𝑛(𝐿𝑀 + 𝑀𝐴) ≈ 2𝑛𝐴𝐴′ (∵ 𝐴𝐴′ ≃ 𝐿𝑀 ≃ 𝑀𝐴)
❑ For the next bright fringe (at B), OPD, ∆ ≈ 2𝑛𝐵𝐵′
❑ From the condition of bright fringe,
1 1
❑ 2𝑛𝐴𝐴′ = (𝑚 + )𝜆 (set 𝜃 → 0 in 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (𝑚 + )𝜆)
2 2
1
❑ So, condition for maxima is 2𝑛𝑑 = (𝑚 + )𝜆 (consider 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑑)
2
𝑋𝐵′ ❑ Similarly, condition for minima is 2𝑛𝑑 = 𝑚𝜆
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 =
𝑋𝐴′
❑ Consider a bright fringe at A. The optical path difference

(OPD), ∆= 𝑛(𝐿𝑀 + 𝑀𝐴) ≈ 2𝑛𝐴𝐴′ (∵ 𝐴𝐴′ ≃ 𝐿𝑀 ≃ 𝑀𝐴)
❑ For the next bright fringe (at B), OPD, ∆ ≈ 2𝑛𝐵𝐵′
❑ From the condition of bright fringe,
1 1
❑ 2𝑛𝐴𝐴′ = (𝑚 + )𝜆 (set 𝜃 → 0 in 2𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = (𝑚 + )𝜆)
2 2
1 3
❑ 2𝑛𝐵𝐵′ = 𝑚 + 1 + 𝜆= 𝑚+ 𝜆
2 2
❑ Subtracting, 2𝑛(𝐵𝐵′ − 𝐴𝐴′ ) = 𝜆

𝑋𝐵′ ❑ Using the relation, 𝑋𝐵′ = 𝐵𝐵′ − 𝐴𝐴′ = 𝑋𝐴′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑, we get
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 =
𝑋𝐴′
❑ 2𝑛 𝑋𝐴′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 𝜆
❑ 2𝑛 𝑋𝐴′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 𝜆
❑ Now, 𝑋𝐴′ = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 (distance between one
bright/dark fringe to the next one)
❑ Let’s say, 𝑋𝐴′ ≡ 𝛽
❑ Hence, 2𝑛 𝑋𝐴′ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 2𝑛𝛽 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 𝜆
𝝀
❑ In the limit 𝜑 → 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 ≃ 𝜑 and we have 𝜷 =
𝟐𝒏𝝋
❑ This is the relation for the fringe width

𝑋𝐵′ ❑ 𝛽 represents the fringe width and we have assumed 𝜑 to be
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = very small. Such fringes are commonly referred to as fringes of
𝑋𝐴′
equal thickness.
𝝀
❑ In the limit 𝜑 → 0, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 ≃ 𝜑 and we have 𝜷 =
𝟐𝒏𝝋
❑ This is the relation for the fringe width (𝛽) – width of the bright fringes or that of the dark fringes.
❑ Fringe width depends on the wavelength (𝜆) of incident light, the refractive index of the film (𝑛) and the
angle of wedge (𝜑).
❑ To observe a bright or dark fringe of a particular order for a wedge-shaped film with small wedge angle
(𝜑) and normal incidence of light, thickness (𝑑) must be constant.
❑ For a wedge-shaped film, 𝑑 remains constant only along lines parallel to the thin edge of the wedge. The
bright and dark fringes are obtained as straight lines parallel to the thin edge of the wedge.
𝜆
❑ At the thin edge, 𝑑 = 0 and therefore path difference = , (the condition of minimum intensity) and the
2
edge of the wedge-shaped film will be dark.
Dr. Anupam Roy 64
Thin Film Interference
❑Interference from parallel reflecting plates (normal incidence)
❑Interference from parallel reflecting plates (oblique incidence)
❑Interference from non-parallel reflecting plates (wedge-shaped planes)
Dr. Anupam Roy 65

Newton’s Rings
❑There is a glass plate, on which a plano-convex lens is

placed with the plane surface facing upward.
❑Consider a monochromatic light incident on the lens.
❑Then we obtain circular fringes, called “fringes of equal

thickness”.
❑Light reflected from the curved surface of the lens and

from the glass plate interfere to produce these fringes.
Dr. Anupam Roy 66

Newton’s Rings
❑When a curved surface (Convex surface of a plano-convex lens)
LOL’ is placed on a flat surface POQ, a wedge (with upper
surface curved) forms QOL’.
❑At the point of contact, the thickness of air film is Zero
❑Light wave from source A falling on this surface results in

reflected ray 1 and refracted-reflected ray 2.
❑Interference of two waves results in concentric ring of dark and

bright fringes called “Newton’s Ring”.
❑At the point of contact, the fringe is completely dark, as it was

in case of wedge-shaped film.
Dr. Anupam Roy 67
Newton’s Rings
❑When a curved surface (Convex surface of a plano-convex lens)
LOL’ is placed on a flat surface POQ, a wedge (with upper surface
curved) forms QOL’.
❑Recall small (wedge) angle approximation. At the point of contact,

the fringe is completely dark, as in case of wedge-shaped film.
❑For near normal incidence (𝜑 → 0), the optical path difference is

2𝑛𝑡 (𝑛 = refractive index of the lens, glass plate; see Fig).
1
❑Condition for maxima (bright): 2𝑛𝑡 = (𝑚 + )𝜆
2
❑Similarly, condition for minima (dark): 2𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆
Dr. Anupam Roy 68

Newton’s Rings
𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅-𝑡
Upper 𝑅
surface of 𝑅-𝑡
the lens
𝑡 𝑡
𝑟𝑚 𝑚th bright fringe
❑ Upper surface of the lens (labeled). Radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens is 𝑅.
❑ Line in red represents 𝑚th bright fringe of radius 𝑟𝑚 and 𝑡 is the thickness of air film where 𝑚th film is
formed.
Dr. Anupam Roy 69
Newton’s Rings
𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅-𝑡
Upper 𝑅
the lens
𝑡 𝑡
❑ Using the Pythagoras theorem: 𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑚 2 + (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 .

❑ Hence, 𝑟𝑚 2 = 𝑅2 − 𝑅 − 𝑡 2
= 𝑅2 − 𝑅2 + 𝑡 2 − 2𝑅𝑡 = 2𝑅𝑡 − 𝑡 2 = 𝑡 2𝑅 − 𝑡 ≃ 2𝑅𝑡. (since 2𝑅 >> 𝑡)
Dr. Anupam Roy 70

Newton’s Rings
𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅-𝑡
Upper 𝑅
the lens
𝑡 𝑡
❑ Using the Pythagoras theorem: 𝑅2 = 𝑟𝑚 2 + (𝑅 − 𝑡)2 . ⇒ 𝑟𝑚 2 = 2𝑅𝑡.
𝑚𝜆
❑ For the dark fringe: 2𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝜆 ⇒ 2𝑡 =
𝑛
𝑚𝜆𝑅
❑ Hence, 𝑟𝑚 2 = 𝑅. 2𝑡 = ⇒ 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑚𝜆𝑅
𝑛
𝑛 Dr. Anupam Roy 71
Newton’s Rings
𝑅
2𝑅 2𝑅-𝑡
Upper 𝑅
the lens
𝑡 𝑡
𝑚𝜆𝑅
❑ For the dark fringe: 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑛
1
𝑚+2 𝜆𝑅
❑ Similarly, for the bright fringe: 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑛
❑ Note: for the air film, 𝑛 = 1. Dr. Anupam Roy 72

Newton’s Rings
❑ Radii of the rings vary as the square-root of odd natural numbers (𝑛 =

0,1,2,3 … . .).
❑ The rings will get closer and closer as their order increases.
❑ Radii of Newton’s rings depend on the wavelength of light used.
❑ Wavelength of light can be determined by measuring the radius (diameter)
of ring and radius of curvature (𝑅) of lens.
Dr. Anupam Roy 73

Newton’s Rings
❑Homework
❑In terms of the diameter of the film: 𝐷𝑚 = 2𝑟𝑚
❑Calculate the diameter of the 𝑚th bright ring, 𝐷2 𝑚
❑Calculate the diameter of the (𝑚 + 𝑝)th bright ring, 𝐷2 𝑚+𝑝
𝐷2 𝑚+𝑝 − 𝐷 2 𝑚
❑Subtracting these two one can express the wavelength in terms of diameters: 𝜆 =
4𝑝𝑅
Dr. Anupam Roy 74

Module 1
Tutorial
Dr. Anupam Roy 75

Module 1
Next Class
Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 76
Module 1
Date: 15.09.2023
Lecture: 5
Dr. Anupam Roy 77

Module 1
Text book:
Dr. Anupam Roy 78

Diffraction
❑Consider a plane wave incident on a narrow slit of width b.
❑What should we expect according to the geometrical optics?
❑That only the region AB of the screen (SS’) to be bright and
rest of the screen will be dark.
❑Now, if the slit-width is comparable to the wavelength, then the intensity in the AB region is not
uniform, and there is also some intensity inside the geometrical shadow.
❑Smaller the slit-width, larger is the amount of energy reaching the geometrical shadow.
❑This spreading out of a wave when it passes through a narrow opening is usually referred to as
diffraction and the intensity distribution on the screen is known as the diffraction pattern.
❑This spreading out decreases with decrease in wavelength. Dr. Anupam Roy 79
Diffraction
❑This is the phenomenon of bending of light as it passes the edge of an object

❑Most prominent when aperture ≲ 𝜆. Diffraction always occurs but it’s effects are noticeable
only when the wavelength is comparable to the size of the diffracting object.
❑The phenomena is caused by the interference of a large number of waves.
Dr. Anupam Roy 80
Interference vs Diffraction
❑Interference is due to superposition of two separate wavefronts originating from the same
coherent source.
❑Diffraction is due to superposition of secondary wavelets originating from a wavefront.
❑The width of interference fringes may or may not be same.
❑Bands observed in diffraction are never of same width.
❑In interference, all bright fringes bears same intensity.
❑In diffraction, intensity of bright bands usually decreases with increase in order.
❑Intensity distribution of an interference fringe is uniform.
❑Diffraction bands does not have uniform intensity distribution.
Dr. Anupam Roy 81
Diffraction
❑Types of diffraction (based on the distance of source and observation screen from the
diffracting aperture or obstacle):
❑Fresnel diffraction (either the source and or the screen, or both, are at finite
distance from the aperture)
❑Fraunhofer diffraction (source and screen are at infinite distance from the aperture)
Dr. Anupam Roy 82

Diffraction
❑In Fresnel diffraction

▪ Source of light or the screen or both are, in general, at a finite distance from the
diffracting obstacles.
▪ Superposing wavefronts are not plane, but either cylindrical or spherical.
❑In Fraunhofer diffraction
▪ Source and screen are at infinite distance from the aperture. This condition is achieved
by putting suitable lenses between the source, the obstacles and the Screen.
▪ It is based on the concepts of secondary wavelets given by Huygens and their
superposition.
▪ Superposing wavefronts are plane wavefronts. Dr. Anupam Roy 83
Diffraction: Diffraction from a single slit (Point source)
❑Recall Huygen’s Principle: Each

point on a wave front can be
thought of as a new source of
wavelets, and the development
of the new wave front at a later
time is determined by the
propagation of these wavelets.
❑Wavefront is a surface on which
all waves have the same phase.
Dr. Anupam Roy 84

P
P0
S
L1
L2
Slit Observation
screen
❑A point source (S) of monochromatic light is placed in the focal plane of a converging lens L1, so
that a plane wave is incident on a long narrow slit.
❑A converging lens L2 is placed on the other side of the slit.
❑The observation screen is placed at the second focal point of this lens ( L2 ). Dr. Anupam Roy 85
❑Diffraction pattern consists of a horizontal streak of

light along a line perpendicular to the length of the slit
(see Figure a).
❑Horizontal pattern is a series of bright spots. The
intensity of the central spot is maximum and its peak is
located at P0, which lies at the intersection of the axis of
L1 and L2 with the observation screen is the brightest
(see Figure b).
❑On the either side of this spot, few more bright spots
symmetrically situated with respect to P0 are observed.
Dr. Anupam Roy 86
❑ Intensities of other spots, on either side of the central

spot, decrease rapidly as we move away from P0.
❑ The central maximum is called principal maxima and

other maxima are called secondary maxima. The width of
the central spot is twice the width of other spots.
❑ The central peak is symmetrical. But on either side of the

central maximum, secondary maxima are asymmetrical.
In fact, the positions of the secondary maxima are slightly
shifted towards the observation point P0 .
Dr. Anupam Roy 87
❑ When a plane wavefront falls on the diffracting slit, each

point of the aperture such as A1, A2, A3,...... becomes a
source of secondary wavelets, which propagate in the
direction of the point 𝑃𝜃 .
𝑑
❑ Optical paths are same for rays passing through a lens and getting
focused to a single point.
❑ Let A1A2 = A2A3 =……..= ∆
❑ Path difference between two consecutive rays = ∆ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
2𝜋
❑ So, the phase difference must be 𝜑 = Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. Dr. Anupam Roy 88
𝜆
❑ Suppose the 1st ray (starting at A1) be 𝑎 cos𝜔𝑡.

❑ Then the 2nd ray (starting at A2) is 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑).
❑ Similarly, the other rays are 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 2𝜑), 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡 −
3𝜑), …….etc. 𝑑
❑ All the waves superpose on a point P on the screen. So the net field
at P will be:
❑ 𝐸 = 𝑎 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + cos 𝜔𝑡 − 2𝜑 + … … … . . ]
❑ We are considering 𝑛 sources A1, A2, ……, An, with a gap ∆ of
between consecutive sources. At the end, we will set 𝑛 → ∞ and
∆→ 0 such that 𝑛∆= 𝑏 and the sources are continuous. Dr. Anupam Roy 89
❑ 𝐸 = 𝑎 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + cos 𝜔𝑡 − 2𝜑 + … … … . . ]
= 𝑎 𝑅𝑒 [𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 𝑖 𝜔𝑡−𝜑 + 𝑒𝑖 𝜔𝑡−2𝜑 +⋯]
❑ Use de Moivre’s theorem: 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
❑ Hence, 𝐸 = 𝑎 𝑅𝑒 [𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 {1 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 + 𝑒 −2𝑖𝜑 + ⋯ … + 𝑒 − 𝑛−1 𝑖𝜑 }]
𝜑 𝜑 𝜑
−𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 −𝑖𝑛
1− 𝑒 −𝑖𝑛𝜑 𝑒 2 𝑒 2 − 𝑒 2
= 𝑎 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 . −𝑖𝜑
= 𝑎 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 . 𝜑 𝑖𝜑 𝑖𝜑
1−𝑒 −𝑖 −
𝑒 2 𝑒2 − 𝑒 2
❑ Use de Moivre’s theorem: 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) − cos 𝜃 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 2𝑖 sin 𝜃
❑ Now, look at the terms within the first bracket:
Dr. Anupam Roy 90
𝜑 𝜑 𝜑 𝑛𝜑
−𝑖𝑛 2 𝑖𝑛 2 −𝑖𝑛 2 𝑖 𝑛−1 𝜑 sin
𝑒 𝑒 − 𝑒 − 2
❑ Hence, 𝐸 = 𝑎 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 . 𝜑 𝑖𝜑 𝑖𝜑 = 𝑎 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 . 𝑒 . 𝜑
2
−𝑖 − sin
𝑒 2 𝑒2 − 𝑒 2 2
𝑛−1 𝜑 𝑛𝜑
𝑖 𝜔𝑡− sin
2
= 𝑎 𝑅𝑒 𝑒 2 . 𝜑
sin
2
𝑛𝜑
sin 𝑛−1 𝜑
⇒ 𝐸=𝑎 2
𝜑 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 2
sin
2
𝑛𝜑
𝑛−1 𝜑 sin
2
⇒ 𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − , where 𝐸0 = 𝑎 𝜑
2 sin 2
❑ 𝐸0 is the amplitude of the resulting field. Dr. Anupam Roy 91

𝑛𝜑
𝑛−1 𝜑 sin 2
❑ 𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − , where 𝐸0 = 𝑎 𝜑
2 sin( 2 )
2𝜋
❑ But, 𝜑 = Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆
𝑛𝜑 𝑛 2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
❑ Hence, = . Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛Δ sin 𝜃 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃 (using 𝑛∆= 𝑏 when 𝑛 → ∞ and ∆→ 0)
2 2 𝜆 𝜆 𝜆
𝜋
sin 𝜆 𝑏 sin 𝜃
❑ Using the above we get, where 𝐸0 = 𝑎 𝜋
sin( 𝜆 Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
❑ Since, Δ → 0 we can rewrite sin 𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 for 𝑥 → 0

𝜋
sin 𝜆 𝑏 sin 𝜃
❑ Hence, 𝐸0 = 𝑎 𝜋
𝜆
Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Dr. Anupam Roy 92
𝑛𝜑
𝑛−1 𝜑 sin 2
❑ 𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − , where the amplitude of the resulting field, 𝐸0 = 𝑎 𝜑 .
2 sin( 2 )
𝑛𝜑 𝜋
❑ Using, = 𝑏 sin 𝜃 (𝑛∆= 𝑏 when 𝑛 → ∞ and ∆→ 0)
2 𝜆
𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝜆 𝑏 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜆 𝑏 sin 𝜃 Since, Δ → 0,
❑ Using the above we get, where 𝐸0 = 𝑎 𝜋 ≈ 𝑎 𝜋
sin 𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 for 𝑥 → 0
sin( 𝜆 Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝜆
Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝜆 𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝑛 sin 𝜆 𝑏 sin 𝜃
❑ Or, 𝐸0 = 𝑎 𝜋 × = 𝑛𝑎 𝜋 (Why? Because 𝑛∆= 𝑏)
Δ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆 𝜆
sin 𝛽 𝜋
❑ This can be expressed as: 𝐸0 = 𝐴 where 𝑛𝑎 = 𝐴 and 𝛽 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 (in the limit 𝑛 → ∞
𝛽 𝜆
and 𝑎 → 0 the product 𝑛𝑎 tends to a finite limit)
Dr. Anupam Roy 93
𝑛−1 𝜑 𝑛𝜑
❑ Now, 𝐸 = 𝐸0 cos 𝜔𝑡 − ≃ 𝐸0 cos[𝜔𝑡 − ] (∵ for 𝑛 → ∞, 𝑛 − 1 = 𝑛)
2 2
sin 𝛽
❑ Hence, 𝐸 = 𝐴 cos[𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽]
𝛽
❑ Intensity pattern on the screen: (Intensity is given as square of amplitude)
2 sin 𝛽 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
❑ 𝐼 = 𝐸0 = (𝐴 ) = 𝐼0 2 (where 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 )
𝛽 𝛽
Dr. Anupam Roy 94

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
❑ Maxima and Minima of the intensity: 𝐼 = 𝐼0 2
𝛽
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
❑ 𝛽 = 0 will give the central maximum where 𝐼 = 𝐼0 = 𝐴 (∵ lim = 1)
𝛽→0 𝛽
❑ This implies that all diffracted waves arrive in phase at the point P0 (at 𝜃 = 0) and interfere
constructively. 𝐴2 is then the value of the maximum intensity at the centre of the diffraction pattern.
𝑑 Dr. Anupam Roy 95

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝛽
❑ Position of secondary maxima and minima:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
❑ 𝛽 = 0 will give the central maximum where 𝐼 = 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 (∵ lim = 1)
𝛽→0 𝛽
❑ The intensity is maximum for 𝜃 = 0 and 𝐼𝜃=0 = 𝐼0 = 𝐴2

❑ The intensity gradually falls on either side of the principal maximum and becomes zero when
𝛽 = ± 𝜋.
❑ The angular half width of principal maximum is from 𝛽 = 0 to 𝛽 = 𝜋.
❑ The second minimum on either side occurs at 𝛽 = ± 2𝜋.
Dr. Anupam Roy 96
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝛽

❑ 𝛽 = 0 will give the central maximum where 𝐼 = 𝐼0 = 𝐴2
❑ The intensity is maximum for 𝜃 = 0 and 𝐼𝜃=0 = 𝐼0 = 𝐴2
❑ General condition for minima: 𝛽 = 𝑚𝜋 where 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, … . .
𝜋
Or, 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 where 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, … . . (since 𝛽 = 𝑏 sin 𝜃)
𝜆
❑ This is the condition for minima. The location of minima, determined by 𝜃 depends on the
wavelength of light (𝜆) and the slit width (𝑏).
Dr. Anupam Roy 97
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝛽

❑ 𝛽 = 0 will give the central maximum (for 𝜃 = 0) and 𝐼𝜃=0 = 𝐼0 = 𝐴2
❑ General condition for minima: 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 𝑚𝜆 where 𝑚 = ±1, ±2, ±3, … . .
❑ Location of minima, determined by 𝜃 depends on wavelength of light (𝜆) and the slit width (𝑏).
𝜆
❑ The first minimum occurs at 𝜃 = ± sin−1 . The second minimum occurs at 𝜃 =
𝑏
2𝜆
± sin−1 and so on …….
𝑏
𝑏
❑ Note: sin 𝜃 ≯ 1, so the maximum value of 𝑚 is the integer which is less than (and closest to) .
𝜆
Dr. Anupam Roy 98
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝛽
❑ Direction and position of secondary maxima:

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
❑ To determine the positions of maxima, differentiate the equation 𝐼 = 𝐼0 2 with respect to
𝛽
𝛽 and set it equal to zero.
𝑑𝐼
❑ That means: =0
𝑑𝛽
𝑑𝐼 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 2 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛽 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽

❑ = 𝐼0 2 = 𝐼0 − = sin 𝛽 (𝛽 − tan 𝛽)
𝑑𝛽 𝑑𝛽 𝛽 𝛽2 𝛽3
𝑑𝐼
❑ We will set = 0. That means, sin 𝛽 (𝛽 − tan 𝛽) = 0
𝑑𝛽 Dr. Anupam Roy 99
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝛽

𝑑𝐼
❑ =0 ⇒ sin 𝛽 (𝛽 − tan 𝛽) = 0
𝑑𝛽
❑ The condition sin 𝛽 = 0, or, 𝛽 = 𝑚𝜋 (𝑚 ≠ 0) correspond to minima.

❑ The transcendental equation tan 𝛽 = 𝛽 gives the condition for maxima.
❑ 𝛽 = 0 will give the central maximum. The other roots can be found by determining the points
of intersections of the curves 𝑦 = 𝛽 and 𝑦 = tan 𝛽. The intersections occur at 𝛽 = 1.43𝜋, 𝛽 =
2.46𝜋, etc., and are known as the first maximum, the second maximum, etc.
Dr. Anupam Roy 100
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
𝛽
❑ Note: The intensity maxima do not fall exactly midway between two minima. For example, the first
secondary maximum occurs at 𝛽 = 1.43𝜋 (rather than 1.50𝜋). Similarly, the second maximum occurs
at 𝛽 = 2.46𝜋 (rather than 2.50𝜋) and so on.
❑ This means that the intensity curves for secondary maxima are asymmetrical and the positions of
maxima are slightly shifted towards the centre of the pattern.
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 2 sin(1.43𝜋)
❑ Intensity of second maxima is 𝐼 = 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 = 𝐼0 (0.0496)
𝛽 (1.43𝜋)
❑ Intensity of the first secondary maxima (nearest to central peak) is ~ 4.96% of the central maximum.
Dr. Anupam Roy 101
Module 1
Date: 19.09.2023
Lecture: 6
Dr. Anupam Roy 102

Diffraction: Two-Slit interference (Young’s double slit experiment)
❑ Optical path difference between the two rays reaching at

point P is 𝑑 sin 𝜃.
2𝜋
❑ Phase difference, φ = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
𝜆
❑ Total amplitude at P: Arrangement for producing Young’s

interference pattern
𝜑 𝜑
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 = 2𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − cos
2 2
𝜑 𝜋
❑ Let, = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝛾
2 𝜆
❑ Then, 𝐸𝑝 = 2𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛾 cos 𝛾 = (2𝑎 cos 𝛾) cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛾

Dr. Anupam Roy 103
Diffraction: Two-Slit interference (Young’s double slit experiment)
❑ Intensity distribution for two-slit interference:
𝐼 = |𝐸𝑝0 |2 = (2𝑎 cos 𝛾) 2

⇒ 𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 cos 2 𝛾 (where 𝐼0 = 𝑎2 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽
❑ Recall the intensity expression for single-slit diffraction: 𝐼 = 𝐼0 2
𝛽
sin2 𝛽
❑ Next topic: Intensity expression for two-slit diffraction: 𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 cos 2 𝛾
𝛽2
❑ Note: For the two-slit diffraction, the intensity distribution is a combination of intensity
patterns of single-slit diffraction and two-slit interference.
Dr. Anupam Roy 104
Diffraction: Two-Slit Fraunhofer Diffraction
✓ Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced by a single slit of width 𝑏 and found that the intensity
distribution consists of maxima and minima.
❑ Now, we will study the Fraunhofer diffraction pattern produced by two parallel slits (each of
width 𝑏) separated by a distance 𝑑.
❑ In this case, the resultant intensity distribution is a product of the single-slit diffraction pattern
and the interference pattern produced by two point sources separated by a distance 𝑑.
Dr. Anupam Roy 105

❑ Assumption: two slits are identical in all respect.
❑ Source slit and the lens are symmetrically
placed relative to two slits.
❑ We assume that the slits consist of a large
number of equally spaced point sources and
that each point on the slit is a source of
Huygens’ secondary wavelets.
❑ Let the point sources be at A1, A2, A3, ……(in the 1st slit) and B1, B2, B3, …… (in the 2nd slit).
❑ We assume that the distance between two consecutive points in either of the slits is ∆.
Dr. Anupam Roy 106
❑ Let’s consider that the diffracted rays make an
angle 𝜃 with the normal to the plane of the slits.
❑ The path difference between two consecutive rays
reaching the point P will be ∆ sin 𝜃.
❑ The field produced by the 1st slit at the point P
will, therefore, be given by
sin 𝛽 Where, 𝛽 =
𝜋
𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 (𝜃 is the diffraction angle).
𝐸1 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽) 𝜆
𝛽
Phase difference between the rays coming from
❑ Similarly, the 2nd slit will produce a field at P: pair of corresponding points on the slits (e.g., A1
sin 𝛽 2𝜋
𝐸2 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − Φ) and B1, A2 and B2, etc.) is: Φ =
𝜆
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
𝛽 Dr. Anupam Roy 107
❑ Hence, the resultant field
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
𝐸 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐴 [cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 + cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − Φ)]
𝛽
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽
❑ This represents the interference of two waves each of amplitude 𝐴 and differing in phase by Φ.
𝛽
❑ The above equation can be rewritten as
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛽 Φ Φ Where Φ =
2𝜋
𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐸 = 2𝐴 cos cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛽 − 𝜆
𝛽 2 2
Φ 𝜋
❑ The intensity distribution will be of the form ⇒ = 𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≡ 𝛾
2 𝜆
sin2 𝛽 𝜋
𝐼 = 𝐸0 2 =4 𝐼0 cos 2 𝛾 (where 𝐼0 = 𝐴2 ) and 𝛽 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃.
𝛽2 𝜆
Dr. Anupam Roy 108
sin2 𝛽
❑ Intensity distribution is of the form: 𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 cos 2 𝛾
𝛽2
sin2 𝛽
❑ 𝐼0 represents the intensity distribution produced by one of the slits.
𝛽2
sin2 𝛽
❑ Note: the intensity distribution is a product of two terms: the first term ( 2 ) represents the
𝛽
diffraction pattern produced by a single slit of width 𝑏 and the second term (cos 2 𝛾) represents
the interference pattern produced by two point sources separated by a distance 𝑑.
sin2 𝛽
❑ Note: if the slit widths are very small (so that there is almost no variation of the term
𝛽2
with 𝜃) then one simply obtains the Young’s interference pattern.
Dr. Anupam Roy 109

❑ Maxima and Minima
sin2 𝛽
❑ Intensity distribution is of the form: 𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 cos 2 𝛾. Intensity, 𝐼 = 0 when
𝛽2
❑ 𝛽 = 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, … … . (∵ sin 𝛽 = 0) This is the condition for diffraction minima
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
❑𝛾 = , , , … … (∵ cos 𝛾 = 0) This is the condition for interference minima
2 2 2
❑ Corresponding angles of diffraction are given by the following equations:
❑ Interference maxima occurs when (approximately) 𝛾 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, … … . Or when

𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0, 𝜆, 2𝜆, … … .
Dr. Anupam Roy 110
❑ Intensity distribution is of the form:

sin2 𝛽
𝐼=4 𝐼0 cos2 𝛾
𝛽2
❑ Graphical representation
Dr. Anupam Roy 111

❑ Maxima and Minima
sin2 𝛽
❑ Intensity distribution is of the form: 𝐼 = 4 𝐼0 cos 2 𝛾.
𝛽2
❑ Missing orders
❑ A maximum may not occur at all if 𝜃 corresponds to a diffraction minimum, i.e., if
𝑏 sin 𝜃 = 𝜆, 2𝜆, 3𝜆, … …
Dr. Anupam Roy 112

Optical Fibre
❑ Optical fibre are optical waveguides which allows the transmission of light wave.
❑ Idea of using light waves for communication: Graham Bell (1980) – photophone.
❑ Optical fibre works on the law of total internal reflection.
❑ The optical fibre consists of two concentric glass (silica) cylinders.

❑ The inner cylinder is called the core, while the outer is known as
cladding.
❑ The diameter of the core can be in the range of 2-50 μm and the
cladding has typical diameter of 125 μm.
Dr. Anupam Roy 113
Total Internal Reflection
❑ When the angle of incidence is

greater than the critical angle, the
light is reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium with
high efficiency.
❑ Snell’s law:
❑ 𝑛1 sin 𝜙1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜙2
❑ At the critical angle: 𝜙1 = 𝜙𝑐 and
𝜋
𝜙2 =
2
❑ sin 𝜙𝑐 = 𝑛2Τ𝑛1
Dr. Anupam Roy 114
Optical Fibre as a Communication Medium: Application
❑ High information capacity of fibre

❑ Low attenuation and dispersion
❑ Space saving
❑ Low cross-talk
❑ Immunity to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
❑ Higher security
❑ Ease of expansion
❑ Easy maintainability
Dr. Anupam Roy 115
Optical Fibre
❑ Remember: refractive indices for the core and cladding are n1 and n2, respectively,
with n1> n2. This condition is necessary for the total internal reflection.
Dr. Anupam Roy 116

Optical Fibre
❑ Acceptance angle
❑ The maximum angle a to
the axis at which light may
enter the fibre in order to
be propagated is referred
as the acceptance angle
for the fibre.
Dr. Anupam Roy 117

Types of Optical Fibre
❑ On basis of core diameter:
▪ Single-mode (SM) fibre
▪ Multi-mode (MM) fibre
❑ On basis of refractive indices of core and clad:
▪ Step index single mode (SI SM) fibre: uniform refractive indices for both core (n1) and
cladding (n2) with n1> n2. The core is very narrow (typically 2 to 10 μm) and supports only a
single mode propagation.
▪ Step index multimode (SI MM) fibre: uniform refractive indices for both core (n1) and
cladding (n2) with n1> n2 as in case of single mode fibre, but the core diameter is above 50 μm
to support many modes simultaneously.
▪ Graded index multimode (GRIN MM) fibre: core with refractive index highest at the centre
and gradually decreasing till it is the same as that of the cladding at core-cladding boundary.
Dr. Anupam Roy 118
Module 1
Polarization, Malus’ Law, Brewster’s Law, Double Refraction, Interference in thin films (Parallel films), Interference in
wedge-shaped layers, Newton’s rings, Fraunhofer diffraction by single slit, Double slit. Elementary ideas of fibre optics
and application of fibre optic cables. [8]
Text book:
Dr. Anupam Roy 119

Module 1
Dr. Anupam Roy 120

Module 1
PH113 / Assignment - Module 1
❑After the 1st polarizer: 𝐸1 = 𝐸0 cos(45°)

𝐼0
❑The related intensity: 𝐼1 =
2
❑Remember: 𝐸0 = √𝐼0
𝐼0
❑After the 2nd polarizer: 𝐸1 = 𝐸0 cos(45°). The related intensity: 𝐼2 = cos 2 (45°)
2
Dr. Anupam Roy 121
Module 1
❑Initial beam is polarized along the 𝑦-axis.

❑So, it does not affect the intensity of a 𝑦-polarized light.
❑All subsequent polarizers have the same effect: 𝐼𝑖 = 𝐼0 cos 2(𝑖−1) (20°) where 𝑖 = 1, 2, … . 𝑛.
Dr. Anupam Roy 122

Module 1
Intensity should decrease if the

second polarizer is removed
since we’ll now work with
cos 2 (40°).
Dr. Anupam Roy 123

Module 1
−1 𝑛2
❑Brewster’s law: 𝜃𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 where 𝑛2 > 𝑛1 .
𝑛1
❑Here 𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 and 𝑛1 = 𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟

❑Find the angle.
❑𝜃𝐵 = 53°. Therefore, the sun should be 37° above the ground (horizontal).
Dr. Anupam Roy 124
Module 1
Hint: The external surface is formed between air/water, and the internal surface is formed
between water/glass.
−1 𝑛2
Use: 𝜃𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 where 𝑛2 > 𝑛1
𝑛1
Dr. Anupam Roy 125

Dr. Anupam Roy 126

Dr. Anupam Roy 127

❑ Hint: Q. 5(b)
❑ 𝐸𝑟𝑒𝑠 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 𝐸0 𝑥ො cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐸0 𝑦ො cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐸0 (𝑥ො + 𝑦)
ො cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥
❑ Therefore, the amplitude of the resultant wave is √2𝐸0 , obtained using |𝑬𝒓𝒆𝒔 | = √(𝑬𝒓𝒆𝒔 ·
𝑬𝒓𝒆𝒔 ) and the polarization direction is (𝑥ො + 𝑦)),
ො i.e., 𝜋/4 away from the 𝑥-axis.
❑ Hint: Q. 5(c)
❑ Due to the phase 𝜋, one of the wave will pick up a − sign (minus sign).
Dr. Anupam Roy 128

❑ Interference by a plane parallel film (oblique incidence): We already solved it considering a

denser medium (with refractive index 𝑛2 ) and a rarer medium (with refractive index 𝑛1 ).
❑ Here, consider the rarer medium to be air, hence, 𝑛1 = 1. Consider the refractive index of the
denser medium to be 𝑛2 = 𝜇. Dr. Anupam Roy 129
❑ Consider the geometry shown in Figure.
❑ Path difference between the reflected beams from the top

surface (R1) and the bottom surface R2 is:
❑ 𝑝. 𝑑. =  𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐴𝑁
𝐵𝑀 𝑡
❑ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = =
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑟 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑟 )
❑ 𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑖
❑ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝐴𝑀 + 𝑀𝐶 = 𝐵𝑀 tan(𝜃𝑟 ) + 𝐵𝑀 tan(𝜃𝑟 ) = 2𝑡 tan(𝜃𝑟 )

𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑟 )
❑ So, 𝐴𝑁 = 2𝑡 sin 𝜃𝑖
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜃𝑟 ) Dr. Anupam Roy 130
𝐵𝑀 𝑡
❑ 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐶 = =
𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃𝑟 ) 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃𝑟 )

❑ Using Snell′s law: 𝐴𝑁 = 2𝑡 μ sin 𝜃𝑟 = 2μ𝑡
❑ With AB, BC and AN, the path difference is,
❑ 𝑝. 𝑑. =  𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 − 𝐴𝑁
𝑡 𝑡 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝜃𝑟
=𝜇 + − 2μ𝑡 = 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝜃𝑟 )
cos(𝜃𝑟 ) cos(𝜃𝑟 ) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝑟
Dr. Anupam Roy 131

❑ The color in reflection will appear due to constructive interference.

1
❑ The condition for constructive interference is, 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝜃) = (𝑛 + )𝜆 where 𝜃 is the angle of incidence
2
with respect to the normal.
❑ By putting 𝜃 = 0, 𝜇 = 1.5 and 𝑡 = 4 × 10−5 cm, we get
2400
❑ the values of 𝑛, 𝜃 and 𝑑, and solving, 𝜆 = 𝑛𝑚
(2𝑛+1)
❑ Taking 𝑛 = 0, 1, 2, 3, we get 𝜆 = 2400, 800, 480, 343.1 𝑛𝑚, respectively.

❑ Wavelength 2400, 800 and 343.1 nm are not in the visible region. Only 480 nm is in the visible
spectral region (blue). So, the color appear in interference is Blue. Dr. Anupam Roy 132
❑ The condition for interference maxima in the light reflected normally from the film of
1
thickness t is: 2𝜇𝑡 = (𝑛 + )𝜆
2
❑ For the minima: 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
❑ Use 𝜇 = 1.33 and respective wavelengths for maxima and minima.
❑ Solve it
❑ Answer: 𝑡 = 3383 Å
Dr. Anupam Roy 133
Dr. Anupam Roy 134

❑ The condition for constructive interference is, 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝜃) = 𝑛𝜆 where 𝜃 is the angle of incidence with
respect to the normal.
❑ Suppose the film thickness changes from 𝑡 to 𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡 over the length.
❑ Let 𝑛 be the order of the dark fringe appearing at one end of the film. The order of dark fringe at the
other end will be (𝑛 + 9).
❑ Therefore, we have:
❑ 2𝜇𝑡 cos(𝜃) = 𝑛𝜆
❑ 2𝜇 (𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) cos(𝜃) = (𝑛 + 9)𝜆
9𝜆
From the above two equations, we get 2𝜇𝛿𝑡 cos(𝜃) = 9𝜆 => 𝛿𝑡 =
2𝜇 cos 𝜃
❑ Use cos(𝜃) = 1 for the normal incidence and find the answer. (Answer: 1.89 × 10-4 cm)
Dr. Anupam Roy 135
Let 𝑡 be the thickness of the wire and 𝑙 is the length of the wedge. The wedge angle, 𝜃 = 𝑡/𝑙 (in radian)
Now, the fringe width is 𝛽 = 𝜆/2𝜃. Or, 𝛽 = 𝜆𝑙/2𝑡
Since 𝑁 fringes are seen, 𝑙 = 𝑁𝛽.
Thus, 𝛽 = 𝑁𝛽𝜆/2𝑡 => 𝑁 = 2𝑡/𝜆
Given: 𝜆 = 6800 Å, and 𝑡 = 0.048 𝑛𝑚
Answer: 𝑁 = 141 (Be careful with the units)
Dr. Anupam Roy 136
Dr. Anupam Roy 137

❑ For near normal incidence (and considering points very close to the point of contact) the optical path
difference between the two waves is very nearly equal to 2𝜇𝑡, where 𝜇 is the refractive index of the film
and 𝑡 the thickness of the film.
1
❑ Condition for maxima: 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛 + 𝜆; 𝑛 = 0,1,2, … …
2
❑ Condition for minima: 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛𝜆
Dr. Anupam Roy 138

❑ Recall: 𝑟𝑛 2 = 2𝑅𝑡. Hence, 2𝑡 = 𝑟𝑛 2 /𝑅
1 1
❑ Condition for maxima (bright fringe): 2𝜇𝑡 = 𝑛 + 𝜆. For an air film. 𝜇 = 1. Hence, 2𝑡 = 𝑛 + 𝜆
2 2
𝑟𝑛 2 1 1
❑ So, we get: = 𝑛+ 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑟𝑛 2 = 𝑛 + 𝑅𝜆
𝑅 2 2
❑ In terms of the diameter of the ring, 𝐷𝑛 = 2𝑟𝑛
❑ The diameter of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ bright ring is, 𝐷𝑛2 = 2 2𝑛 + 1 𝑅𝜆

2
❑ If 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 is the diameter of (𝑛 + 𝑝)-th bright fringe, 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 = 2[2(𝑛 + 𝑝) + 1]𝑅𝜆
2
❑ Subtracting above two equations, 𝐷𝑛+𝑝 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4p𝑅𝜆
2 −𝐷2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 𝑛
❑ Hence, 𝜆 =
4𝑝𝑅 Dr. Anupam Roy 139
Q. 11(c)
Q. 11(a)
The best way would be to compute the
difference between (𝑛 + 𝑝) and 𝑛-th ring:
2 −𝐷2
𝐷𝑛+𝑝 𝑛
𝜆= (typically p ≈ 10)
4𝑝𝑅
Here, 𝐷𝑛 is the diameter of the 𝑛-th ring.
Q. 11(b)
Example 15.2 in Ajoy Ghatak’s Optics book
(Sixth edition).
Dr. Anupam Roy 140
12. Solution to the transcendental equation tan 𝛽 = 𝛽
❑ Transcendental equation generally do not permit analytical

solutions.
❑ One can obtain a solution graphically.
❑ Plot 𝑦 = 𝛽 and 𝑦 = tan(𝛽) and find the point of intersection
(marked red circle in the figure).
❑ 𝑥 = 0 is a trivial solution.
❑ Other solution(s) are: 𝑥 = 1.43𝜋, 2.46𝜋, 3.47𝜋, . . .
Dr. Anupam Roy 141

❑ Use: velocity = frequency X wavelength. That means, 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆

❑ So, 𝜆 = 𝑣/𝑓 = 330/100 𝑚 = 3.3 𝑚.
❑ Note: Diffraction is observed if the aperture is at least of the size of 𝜆.
Dr. Anupam Roy 142

Dr. Anupam Roy 143

Additional Questions
A Newton’s rings arrangement is used with a source emitting two wavelengths: 1 = 4.5 × 10−5 cm and
2 = 4.5 × 10−5 cm and it is found that the 𝑛-th dark ring due to 1 coincides with the (𝑛 + 1)-th dark
ring due to 2. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 90 cm, find the diameter of the 𝑛-th dark
ring for 1.
❑ Condition for the minima (dark fringes) in a Newton’s ring: 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑛𝑅𝜆
Where 𝐷𝑛 is the diameter of the 𝑛-th ring, 𝑅 is the radius of curvature and 𝜆 is the wavelength of
the light.
Dr. Anupam Roy 144

A Newton’s rings arrangement is used with a source emitting two wavelengths: 1 = 4.5 × 10−5 cm and
2 = 4.5 × 10−5 cm and it is found that the 𝑛-th dark ring due to 1 coincides with the (𝑛 + 1)-th dark
ring due to 2. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface is 90 cm, find the diameter of the 𝑛-th dark
ring for 1.
2
❑ In this case, 𝐷𝑛 = 𝐷𝑛+1 ⇒ 𝐷𝑛2 = 𝐷𝑛+1
⇒ 4𝑛𝑅𝜆1 = 4(𝑛 + 1)𝑅𝜆2
4𝑅𝜆2 𝜆2
⇒𝑛 = = (Calculate 𝑛) (Answer: 𝑛 = 3)
4𝑅(𝜆1 −𝜆2 ) (𝜆1 −𝜆2 )
❑ Use 𝑛 = 3 to calculate 𝐷3 (= 25.45 × 10−2 cm)

Dr. Anupam Roy 145
In the experimental set up for obtaining Fraunhofer diffraction pattern of a vertical slit of width 0.3 mm,
the focal length of lens kept between the slit and the screen is 30 cm. The slit is illuminated with yellow
sodium light which is a doublet. You may take 𝜆 = 6000 Å. Calculate (a) the diffraction angles and positions
of the first, second and third minima, and (b) the positions of the first, second and third secondary maxima
on either side of the central spot.
Suppose, the slit widths are changed to 0.2 mm, 0.1 mm and 0.06 mm. Calculate the positions of the first
and second minima.
❑ Solve it
Dr. Anupam Roy 146
In the experimental set up for single slit, consider that the slit width 𝑏 has values 𝑏 = 10𝜆, 5𝜆 and 𝜆.
Calculate the spread of the central maximum for each value of slit width.
❑ Solve it
Dr. Anupam Roy 147

Module 1
Next Class: Module 2
Questions?
Dr. Anupam Roy 148

Optics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Optics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Optics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PH113: Physics (B.Tech.

Instructors: Dr. S K Mukherjee and Dr. Anupam Roy

Drop an e-mail: royanupam [AT] bitmesra [DOT] ac [DOT] in.

Module – 1 : Physical Optics

Dr. Anupam Roy 3

Dr. Anupam Roy 4

❑Geometrical Optics and Physical Optics

Dr. Anupam Roy 5

❑ Oscillate one end of a string up and down – a transverse wave is generated.

Dr. Anupam Roy 7

Dr. Anupam Roy 8

❑ Light emitted from a common source like Sun or

❑ Alternative way to represent unpolarized light: Each electric field vectors

❑ Amplitudes of vibrations along 𝑥-direction is 𝐸𝑥 and along 𝑦-direction is 𝐸𝑦 .

(a) Linear polarization (b) circular polarization,

Dr. Anupam Roy 10

Plane/linearly polarized light along 𝑦-axis is given by 𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑) (2)

𝜑 is the phase difference compared to wave in (1)

Positive phase shift Negative phase shift Dr. Anupam Roy 11

𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) + 𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡)

Amplitude of the resultant wave 2 2

Note the relative phase!

45° linearly polarized light !

Dr. Anupam Roy 13

Dr. Anupam Roy 14

𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)

𝐸2 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑦ො 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)

Superposed/resultant field: 𝐸(𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝐸1 𝑧, 𝑡 + 𝐸2 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝐸0 [𝑥ො 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑦ො s𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡 ]

Amplitude of the resultant field

From scalar part of two initial waves

𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) 2 2

𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) 𝐸1 (𝑧, 𝑡) = 𝑥ො 𝐸0 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡)

Left Circular Linear Right Circular Dr. Anupam Roy 17

Dr. Anupam Roy 18

❑ If an unpolarized wave falls on a slit 𝑆1 then the displacement

❑ A rotation of the slit will not affect the amplitude of the

❑ If this polarized beam falls on another slit 𝑆2, then by rotating

Dr. Anupam Roy 19

❑ In the case of two piles of plates, the plane of transmission is the

Dr. Anupam Roy 20

❑ where 𝐼0 represents the intensity of the emergent beam when

❑ If incident wave has amplitude 𝐸0 , then the outgoing wave

Dr. Anupam Roy 22

❑ For any 𝜃, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

(Using Malus law: incident light is polarized)

Dr. Anupam Roy 23

▪ Polarization of light is due to its transverse nature.

Dr. Anupam Roy 26

Dr. Anupam Roy 27

Module – 1 : Physical Optics

Dr. Anupam Roy 28

Polarization of unpolarized light:

Dr. Anupam Roy 29

❑ If an unpolarized light is allowed to fall on a gas, then the beam scattered

✓ Unscattered part of the incident beam remains unpolarized.

✓ The waves scattered by the gas molecules in perpendicular direction

2) Wire Grid Polarizer and Polaroid

❑ Consists of a regular array of parallel metallic wires (e.g., copper), placed in

❑ Suppose an unpolarized EM wave incidents on the grid. The 𝑦-component