Selective Attention is the capacity for or

process of reacting to certain stimuli RELEARNING

selectively when several occur • is the number of trials it takes to learn once
simultaneously. again items that were learned in
the past.
cocktail party problem is the process of • Relearning has also been referred to as
tracking one conversation in the face of the savings and can be observed in
distraction of other conversations. adults, children, and animals

Three factors affecting Selective Attention Recognition

1.Distinctive sensory characteristics of the • Familiarity with the stimulus
target’s speech. Distinctive sensory •Specifically, anticipation of recall tasks
characteristics of the target’s speech. generally elicits deeper levels of information
Examples of such characteristics are high processing than anticipation of recognition
versus low pitch, tasks.
pacing, and rhythmicity. •Receptive knowledge - respond to a
2.Sound intensity (loudness) stimulus
3.Location of the sound source
Example:
Divided Attention • They carry the hereditary units transmitted
We often manage to engage in more than from the parents to the offspring.
one task at a time, and we shift our
attentional resources to allocate them Explicit Memory
prudently, as needed. • Declarative Memory
• Specific Information
MEMORY • Autobiographical or General Knowledge
• the means by which we retain and draw on
our past experiences to use that information Endel Tulving (1985)
in the present • Episodic Memory
• The process by which information is - Autobiographical memory
encoded, stored, and retrieved - Things that happened to us or to our
• Constructive in nature presence
- Prior experience and context of recall affect •Semantic Memory
memory - General Knowledge

RECALL Implicit Memory

• you produce a fact, a word or other item • Nondeclarative memory
from memory. • Procedure or skill
•Fill-in-the-blank • Those that you can do, but cannot state
• and most essay tests require that you why or how you do it
recall items from memory • Built be years of use - habit
1. Serial recall
- allows us to recall a list of items in a 3 General Types of Memory
specific order (ex. recalling a telephone 1. Procedural Memory
number, • refers to our often-unexplainable
2. Free recall knowledge of how to do things.
- memory retrieval process where we are • When we walk from One place to another.
asked to remember information without any • speak to another person in English, dial a
specific cues or prompts. cell phone, or play a video game, we are
- ex. you recall a list of item in any order using procedural memory
3. Cued recall
- retrieval of memory with the help of cues 2. Classical Conditioning Effect
- example: you used the word bird to •which we learn, often without effort or
remember feather; u use a shopping list that awareness, to associate neutral stimuli with
serve as a cue another stimulus, which creates a naturally
occurring response, such as enjoyment or
RECOGNITION salivation.
•you select or otherwise identify an item as
being one that you have been exposed to 3. Priming
previously. • changes in behavior as a result
•Multiple-choice and true- false tests involve experiences that have happened frequently
some degree of recognition. or recently.
• activation of knowledge Stages of Memory
(sensory, short term, long term)
Retrospective
- Recalling information previously learned

Prospective
- Remembering to do things in the future

Encoding
• First stage of information processing
Sensory Memory
• Transformation into a psychological format
● the brief storage of sensory
the can be represented mentally
information.
● Sensory memory is a memory buffer
Types of Encoding:
that lasts only very briefly and
• Visual Code - maintenance of a mental
then, unless it is attended to and
image of the letters
passed on for more processing, is
• Acoustic Code - silently reading to
forgotten.
yourself the letters or repetition
● The purpose of sensory memory is to
in sequence
give the brain some time to process
• Semantic Code- assignment of meaning
the incoming sensations, and to allow
to stimuli
us to see the world as an
unbroken stream of events rather
Encoding: Mnemonic Devices
than as individual pieces.
 Categorical Clustering- Organize a
● Lasts up to four seconds, unless
list of items into a set of categories
 Interactive Images- Create rehearsed
interactive images that link the ● Visual sensory memory = iconic
isolated words in a list. memory
 Pegword System -Associate each
new word with a word on a previously Iconic Memory
memorized list and form an interactive ● Visual sensory memory
image between the two words. ● The iconic store is a discrete visual
 Method of Loci- Visualize walking sensory register that holds information
around an area with distinctive for very short periods.
landmarks that you know well, and ● Lasts only a few milliseconds
then link the various landmarks to
specific items to be remembered
● Eidetic imagery
 Acronym- Devise a word or
expression in which each of its letters Iconic memory seems to last longer
stands for a certain other word or Photographic memory
concept ● Sperling's experiment
 Acrostic- Form a sentence rather than
a single word to help you remember Echoic Memory
the new words ● Auditory sensory memory
 Keyword System- Form an ● Echoic memories can last as long as
interactive image that links the sound four seconds
and meaning of a foreign word with
the sound and meaning of a familiar
word. Short Term Memory
● is the place where small amounts of
Storage
information can be temporarily kept
● Maintaining information over time
for more than a few seconds but
● Maintenance rehearsal
usually for less than one minute
- mentally repetition ● Information in short-term memory is
● Elaborative rehearsal not stored permanently but rather
- relating information to prior becomes available for us to process,
knowledge and making it and the processes that we use to
personally meaningful make sense of, modify, interpret, and
store information in STM are known as
Retrieval working memory
● Location of stored information and
returning it to consciousness Working Memory's Central Executive
the part of working memory that directs -Sound combination associated with
attention and processing the letters (e.g. rhyming)
● The strategy to keep information in  Semantic
short term memory - Meaning of the word
● Repetition
● Elaboration

Limitations in STM
● Limited in length and amount of
information it can hold
●
● Limitation in capacity
● Peterson and Peterson (1959) found
that when people were asked to
remember a list of three-letter strings
and then were immediately asked to
perform a distracting task (counting
backward by threes), the material was
quickly forgotten such that by 18
seconds it was virtually gone

George Miller (1956) An Integrative Model: Working Memory

● Most adults can hold between five and ● probably the most widely used and
nine pieces of information, average of accepted model today
seven ● Working memory holds only the most
● Seven plus minus two-magic number recently activated, or conscious,
What is your phone number? portion of long-term memory, and it
moves these activated elements into
Chunking and out of brief, temporary memory
● the process of organizing information storage
into smaller groupings (chunks),
thereby increasing the number of
items that can be held in STM.

Long Term Memory

● memory storage that can hold
information for days, months, and
years.
● The capacity of long-term memory is
large, and there is no known limit to
what we can remember (Wang, Liu, & Exceptional Memory
Wang, 2003). Mnemonist
● Although we may forget at least some ● someone who demonstrates
information after we learn it, other extraordinarily keen memory ability,
things will stay with us forever usually based on using special
techniques for memory enhancement.
Levels of Processing Framework ● Synesthesia
● memory does not comprise three or - experience of sensations in a
even any specific number of separate sensory modality different from the
stores, but rather varies along a sense that has been physically
continuous dimension in terms of stimulated
depth of encoding ● Conversion of sound to a visual
● There are no distinct boundaries impression
between one level and the next. ● Hypermnesia
● Emphasis is on processing - a process of producing retrieval of
memories that would seem to have
Levels of Processing Framework been forgotten
 Physical ● "Unforgetting" - technically incorrect
- Visually apparent features of the as memories are never unavailable,
letters but inaccessible
 Phonological Forgetting
Interference Theory 2. showing that implanted memories are
● forgetting occurs because recall of false is often extremely hard to do
certain words interferes with recall of
other words Trauma and Illness
● Retroactive interference Amnesia
- Newly acquired knowledge ● severe loss of explicit memory
interferes with recall of older ● Retrograde amnesia
material ● Lose purposeful memory prior to
● Proactive interference trauma
- Old material interferes with recall ● Common for concussion
of new material ● Anterograde Amnesia
Decay Theory ● Inability to form new memories
● asserts that information is forgotten ● Infantile Amnesia
because of the gradual disappearance, ● Inability to recall events that occured
rather than displacement, of the while very young
memory trace.
● Decay theory turns out to be Alzheimer's Disease
exceedingly difficult to test because ● a disease of older adults that causes
under normal circumstances, dementia as well as progressive
preventing participants from memory loss
rehearsing is difficult. Information is ● Dementia is a loss of intellectual
forgotten because it is not rehearsed function that is severe enough to
impair one's everyday life.
Other factors affecting forgetting ● The earliest signs of Alzheimer's
● Serial-position curve represents the disease typically include impairment
probability of recall of a given word, of episodic memory. People have
given its serial position (order of trouble remembering things that were
presentation) in a list learned in a temporal or spatial
● Recency effect refers to superior context.
recall of words at and near the end of ● As the disease progresses, semantic
a list. memory also begins to go.
● Primacy effect refers to superior
recall of words at and near the
beginning of a list.

Schacter's Seven Sins

Transience
● Deterioration of memories over time
● A memory is clearest immediately
after an event.
Absentmindedness
● Forgetting due to lapses in attention
Blocking
● Accessibility is temporarily blocked
Misattribution
● Source of memory is confused
Suggestibility
● False memories
Bias
● Memories are distorted by current
belief system
Persistence
● Inability to forget undesirable memory
Repression
● Repressed memories are memories
that are alleged to have been pushed
down into unconsciousness because of
the distress they cause.
● Scepticism on their existence
1. some therapists may inadvertently
plant ideas in their clients' heads
(suggestibility/leading)