AMT

Spring 2024 | 222 Batch

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TEX 2202
Testing of Textiles Lab

Lab Manual
Experiment: 02
Name: Study on layout plan of BUFT TTQC Laboratories and introduction to textile testing
machinery/equipment.

Introduction
Layout planning is deciding on the best physical arrangement of all resources that consume space
within a facility. These resources might include a desk, a work center, a cabinet, tables,
machineries, a person, an entire office, or even a department. Decisions about the arrangement of
resources in a facility are not made only when a new facility is being designed; they are made any
time there is a change in the arrangement of resources, such as a new worker/machine being added,
a machine being moved, or a change in procedure being implemented. Also, layout planning is
performed any time there is an expansion in the facility or a space reduction.

The arrangement of resources in a facility can significantly affect the productivity of that facility.
A poor layout may result in a lot of wasted time, space, energy, and confusion. There are also other
reasons layout planning is important. In many work environments, such as office settings, face-to-
face interaction between workers/employees is important. Proper layout planning can be critical
in building good working relationships, increasing the flow of information, and improving
communication.

Office layout planning

Warehouse layout planning

Factory layout planning

 Apparel industry layout planning

Objectives of the study

- To know about layout planning
- To know about the importance of layout planning
- To know about the consequences of poor layout planning
- To know about BUFT TTQC Laboratories’ machineries, their functions
- To know about BUFT TTQC Labs’ layouts

Machine Description

# Machine name Brand Origin Function

1 Yarn Twist Tester MAG India TPI Measurement
2 Spray Rating Tester James Heal UK Fabric surface wetting resistance
3 Perspirometer SDL UK Colour fastness to water
Colour fastness to perspiration
4 Martindale Abrasion James Heal UK Fabric pilling resistance and
and Pilling Tester abrasion resistance
5 Oven dryer SDL UK Dry fiber, yarn or fabric
6 Beesley’s Balance MAG India Measure yarn count (indirect
system) of yarn of small piece of
fabric.
7 Course Length Tester Testex China Determine the accurate length of a
complete course of knit fabrics.
8 Yarn Strength Tester MAG India Determine Lea strength of yarn
9 Digital Electronic KERN Germany Measure weight of textile
Balance specimens
10 Microscope Micros Austria Determine physical and optical
characteristics of textile fibers
11 ICI Pilling Box MAG India Determine fabric’s pilling
resistance
12 GSM Cutter Paramount India Cut a piece of fabric for measuring
the GSM
13 Fineness Tester MAG India Determine the micronaire of cotton
fiber.
14 Wrap Reel MAG India Measuring yarn length
15 Fabric Drape Tester Paramount India Determine drapability of fabric
16 Crock Meter SDL UK Determine colour fastness to
rubbing
17 Comb Sorter MAG India Determine the effective length of
cotton fiber
18 Crimp Tester MAG India Determine the crimp of yarn
19 Crease Tester MAG India Determine the crease angle of
fabric
20 Geyro Wash James Heal UK Determine colour fastness to wash
21 Wascator SDL UK Determine the dimensional change
of fabrics
22 Tumble Dryer SDL UK Dry the wet fabric
Layout of TTQC Lab 1
813

Layout of TTQC Lab 2

814
Experiment: 03
Name: Study on identification of different textile fibers through burning tests.

Principle:
Textile chemists and laboratory experts are able to identify certain fibers by their burning
characteristics, and it is possible to do the same tests to determine the content of any fabric or yarn.
The burn test works for both natural and man-made fibers, but it cannot be used with certainty to
identify blended fibers within a fabric.

It is done by focusing on three points:

i. Burn Character
ii. Smoke/Smell
iii. Residue

The burn character means how the material burns; it actually means finding out whether they melt
or burn, the characteristics of the flame, rate of burning or ignition, etc. Smoke or smell means the
color of smoke and the smell of material during burning. The residue also indicates the content of
the fiber as synthetic melts and produces beads while cellulose burns like paper and produces soft
disintegrating ash.

It is important to do a burn test in a well-ventilated area to avoid inhaling potentially toxic fumes.
At minimum, open some windows, or better yet, do the test outside on a calm day and avoid inhaling
the fumes from the burning fibers. During test, making note of the following for identification are
necessary:
 While in the flame, does the fabric melt readily, smolder, or extinguish itself?
 When removed from the flame, what happens to the fabric?
 Does the fabric form a melted bead, or does it leave ash?
 Does the burnt fabric produce a distinct odor or smoke color?

The distinguishing features are quite easy to notice. The first narrowing process involves discerning
animal, vegetable or synthetic fiber categories. In general, animal fibers (wool, mohair, silk, etc.)
burn and curl away from the flame and smell like burning hair. They are self-extinguishing when
removed from the flame and leave a dull black hollow bead that is easily crushed. Vegetable fibers,
like cotton, rayon, linen, hemp, jute, etc., burn but do not pull away from the flame. They smell like
burning paper, leaves or wood, and leave a fine gray ash. Some glow before they actually go out.
Synthetic fibers, like acetate, acrylic, nylon, polyester and spandex, melt and burn, curling away
from the flame. Everything exude a chemical smell of some sort and leave various melted beads.
The following chart is followed to identify the fiber.
Burning Characteristics of different fibers
Procedure
o Pre-wash is mandatory of the mystery fabric to remove any finishes that may affect the burn
characteristics.
o Fabric swatches have to be cut for testing is approximately 2" square.
o Need two long tweezers be used to hold the swatches to be burnt.
o A non-flammable container has to be placed under the burning swatch—a large ashtray or
glass dish will work will work too, as will a metal baking pan.
o An unscented candle should be used to create a small flame.
o Water should be nearby in the event of a flare-up, or do the testing near a sink.
o The sample has to be caught at the tip of tweezers and then moved near fire or just in contact to
see whether it starts burning at the heat of fire, of not then the sample needs to be put directly
in the fire.
o The material should be let burn or melt and the burning character and smell has to be noted.
o At last the residue needs to be examined and noted and then the characteristics should be
compared to the given characteristics of different fibers to identify the sample.
Experiment: 04
Name: Determination of moisture content and moisture regain of given cotton fiber specimen.

Learning outcomes
 Understand the concepts of moisture content and moisture regain,
 Understand the methods of tests of determining moisture content and moisture regain,
 Understand the test results or interpretation of test results of moisture content and moisture
regain.

Introduction
The amount of moisture in a fiber sample is expressed as moisture content and moisture regain.

Moisture content is the weight of water in a material expressed as a percentage of the total weight
of that material.

Moisture content (M) = 𝑊 × 100 ……….. (i)

𝑊+𝐷

Where, D = Dry weight and W = Weight of absorbed water

Moisture regain is the weight of water in a material expressed as a percentage of the oven dry weight
of that material.

Moisture Regain (R) = 𝑊 × 100 ……….. (ii)

𝐷

Where, D = Dry weight and W = Weight of absorbed water

To measure the regain of a sample of textile material it is necessary to weigh the material, dry it and
then weigh it again. The difference between the masses is then the mass of water in the sample.

Weight of water, W = (W+D) – D [W = weight of water, D = Oven dry weight]

Regain is based on the oven dry mass, which for most fibers is the constant mass obtained by drying
at a temperature of 105±20°C. Constant mass is achieved by drying and weighing repeatedly until
successive weighing differs by less than 0.05%. The relevant British Standard specifies that
successive weighing should be carried out at intervals of 15 min when using a ventilated oven, or at
5 min intervals if using a forced air oven. The exceptions to the above conditions are: acrylic fibers
which should be dried in a normal oven at 110±20°C for 2h.
The dry weight is measured using oven dryer. A large oven contains the fiber sample in a mesh
container. Mass of fiber can be taken using electronic balance. Then fiber is dried and again weighed
using the electronic balance. For doing the experiment on cotton or cellulosic fiber like jute ‘ASTM
D2495’ can be used. This test method covers the determination of the amount of moisture in cotton
by oven-drying and is applicable to raw cotton, cotton stock in process, and cotton waste. This test
method may also, by agreement, be used for determining moisture in blends of cotton with other
fibers. For oven drying, cotton is heated under prescribed conditions of temperature and humidity
until there is no further significant change in its mass.

The moisture content is determined by the amount of water in cotton determined under prescribed
conditions and expressed as a percentage of the mass of the moist material, equation (i). Moisture
regain is determined by finding out the amount of water in cotton determined under prescribed
conditions and expressed as a percentage of the mass of the dried material, equation (ii).

Procedure
British standard is the preferred and most popular option for this test.
 Put the samples for conditioning for 12- 24 hours.
 Measure the weight of the samples by using an electronic balance and take notes.
 Put the samples into an oven dryer [set the temperature at 115°C and time for 15 min].
 Take the mass of the dried samples.
 Repeat the whole process for a couple of times and measure the weights.
 Deduct the dried mass from the initial mass and calculate moisture content and moisture regain
in percentage using formula presented by equations (i) and (ii).

Results & Discussion

Moisture content (M)
Mass of
Initial mass Dried Moisture content
Sample water Mean SD CV%
(W+D) mass (D) (%)
(W)
1 5 4.61 0.39 7.8
2 5 4.62 0.38 7.6
3 5 4.6 0.4 7.3 7.8%
4 5 4.63 0.37 7.5
5 5 4.61 0.39 7.8
Moisture regain (R)
Mass of
Initial mass Dried Moisture regain
Sample water Mean SD CV%
(W+D) mass (D) (%)
(W)
1 5 4.61 0.39 8.6
2 5 4.62 0.38
3 5 4.6 0.4 8.5%
4 5 4.63 0.37
5 5 4.61 0.39

Most fibers are hygroscopic, that is they are able to absorb water vapour from a moist atmosphere
and, conversely, desorb or lose water in a dry atmosphere. Many physical properties of a fiber are
affected by the amount of water absorbed – dimensions, tensile strength, elastic recovery, electrical
resistance, rigidity and so on. When in fabric form the moisture relationships of a fiber play a major
part in deciding whether the fabric is unsuitable for a particular purpose. The importance of this
point is appreciated when fabrics for clothing, both outerwear and underwear, are considered.

Additional factors arise in these cases since the structural details of the fabric can modify the
apparent behaiviour of the fiber. For example, fabrics woven from a hydrophobic material such as
‘terylene’ can pick up water by a wicking action along the fiber and yarn surfaces.

Fibers Moisture Content (M)% Moisture Regain (R)%

Cotton 7.834 8.50
Jute 12.088 13.75
Wool 13.793 16.00
Silk 9.91 11.00
Flax 10.714 12.00
Linen 8.046 8.75
Viscose rayon 11.00 13.00
Acetate rayon 6.00 6.50
Polyester 0.39 0.4
Nylon 4.00 4.5
Hemp 10.71 12.00
Acrylic 1.47 1.5
Spandex 0.6 0.6

Moisture absorption values differ from fiber to fiber because of them having different molecular
structures. Molecular structure containing polar groups such as hydroxyl OH, carboxyl COOH,
carbonyl CO would have a tendency to absorb more water than those having no such groups. For
example, cotton having plenty of OH and COOH attached with the main chain will absorb more
water than polyester as it does not have any such group attached with its molecular structure.

Moisture absorption may also vary among different fibers due to their different polymer systems. In
an orderly array of molecules, the side chains will be linked, but in a random arrangement a number
of free links or hooks will be available, and if they are a polar character (i.e. possessing an attraction
for polar chemical groups) then water molecules can attach themselves. Orderly arrays of molecules
occur in the crystalline regions of the fiber structure and random arrays in the amorphous region.
Based on this assumption we could conclude that the absorption of water takes place in the
amorphous regions. Jute being more amorphous will absorb more water than cotton although they
both have polar groups attached with their molecular structures.
Experiment: 05
Name: Determination of cotton yarn count [Tex and Ne] by wrap reel and electronic balance.

Theory
The thickness or diameter of a yarn is one of its most fundamental properties. However, it is not
possible to measure the diameter of a yarn in any meaningful way. This is because the diameter of a
yarn changes quite markedly as it is compressed.

Diameter

A
B
D1 D2

D1>D2, Yarn A is coarser

than fiber B

Most methods of measuring the diameter of yarn, apart from optical ones, involve compressing the
yarn as part of the measurement process. Therefore, the measured diameter changes with the pressure
used so that there is a need for agreement on the value of pressure at which the yarn diameter is to
be defined. On the other hand, optical systems of measuring yarn diameter have the problem of
defining where the outer edge of the yarn lies as the surface can be rather fuzzy, having many hairs
sticking out from it. Therefore, the positioning of the yarn boundaries is subject to operator
interpretation.

Linear Density

L L

A B

⇓ ⇓
W1 W2

W1>W2, Yarn A is coarser than yarn B

Because of these problems a system of denoting the fineness of a yarn by weighing a known length
of it has evolved. This quantity is known as the linear density and it can be measured with a high
degree of accuracy if a sufficient length of yarn is used.

There are two systems of linear density designation in use: the direct and the indirect. The direct
system of denoting linear density is based on measuring the weight per unit length [W/L] of a yarn.
The indirect system is based upon the length per unit weight [L/W] of a yarn and is usually known
as count because it is based on the number of hanks of a certain length which are needed to make up
a fixed weight.

Yarn counting principles

To determine the count, wrap reel or skein winder can be used which is a device for measuring yarn
and making it into hanks of a standard size. The reel is of a standard size and its revolutions are
counted as the yarn is wrapped around it. Typically, a set number of revolutions will be used so that
the hank is of a standard size, a skein or lea. For example, a skein of cotton would be 80 turns on a
reel of 54 inches’ circumference, making 120 yards, while the standard length for wool worsted
would be 80 yards.

a b

Fig 1: a) Wrap Reel and b) Electronic Balance

The tension of the yarn as it was wound onto the reel was important because it would be elastic and
so a standard tension was required to ensure uniformity. For a given reel, this would be determined
by the friction of the setup and so the test hanks would be made and measured in other ways to
calibrate the device.

To determine the yarn count in direct system, the following equation is used.

The weight of a fixed length of yarn is determined. The common feature of all direct count systems
is the length of yarn fixed, and the weight of yarn varies according to its fineness.

𝑊×𝑙
N = 𝐿×𝑤

Where,
N = the yarn number or count
W = the weight of the sample at the official regain in the units of the system
L = the length of the sample
I = the length unit of system
w = the weight unit of the system

Numbering System Length Unit (I) Weight Unit (w)

Tex system, Tex 1000 metres No. of grams
Millitex, mtex 1000 metres No. of milligrams
DeciTex, dtex 10000 metres No. of grams
Kilotex, ktex 1000 metres No. of kilograms

Denier, D 9000 metres No. of grams

Jute count 14, 400 yards No. of pounds (lb)

Count ↑ Diameter/Coarseness ↑
Synthetic fibers; nylon, polyester, elastomeric, etc.

To determine the yarn count in indirect system, the following equation is used.

The length of a fixed weight of yarn is measured. The common feature of all indirect count systems
is the weight of yarn fixed, and the length of yarn varies according to its fineness.

𝐿×𝑤
N = 𝑊×𝑙
Where,
N = the yarn number or count
W = the weight of the sample at the official regain in the units of the system
L = the length of the sample
I = the length unit of system
w = the weight unit of the system

Numbering System Length Unit (I) Weight Unit (w)

English cotton count, Ne 840 yards (yds) 1 pound (lb)

Metric count, Nm 1000 meters/1km 1 kg

Woolen count (YSW) 256 yards 1 pound (lb)

Woolen count (Dewsbury) 1 yard 1 ounce (oz)

Worsted count, NeK 560 yards 1 pound (lb)

Linen count, NeL 300 yards 1 pound (lb)

Count ↑ Diameter/Fineness ↓
Natural fibers; cotton, wool, linen, etc.

Calculation and Results

For Direct System [Tex]
Sample length Sample weight Count/Number Mean/Average
# SD CV%
[yds] [g] [N Tex] [N Tex]
1 120 2.56
2 120 2.53
3 120 2.55
4 120 2.56
5 120 2.54

For Indirect System [Ne]

Sample length Sample weight Count/Number Mean/Average
# SD CV%
[yds] [g] [Ne] [Ne]
1 120 2.56
2 120 2.53
3 120 2.55 15
4 120 2.56
5 120 2.54
Experiment: 06
Name: Determination of Cotton Yarn CSP and Tenacity by using a Lea Strength Tester.

Principle
As yarn forms the basis of production of all types of fabrics it is essential that the strength and
elongation of the yarn is monitored by a yarn strength testing system to ensure that it is suitable for
today’s high-speed production techniques and its performance matches the requirements of the
finished product.

• Tensile: The tension capacity in a material or tension exerted on a material.

• Strength: The property of a material that resists deformation induced by external force.
• Tensile strength: The strength of a material under tension which is distinct from
compression, fusion or shear.

The strength and extension results from samples of yarn taken from different parts of a package can
be very variable. Yarn made from staple fibers is worse in this respect than yarn made from
continuous filaments owing to the fact that the number of fibers in the cross-section of a staple fiber
yarn is variable. This means that in order to get a reasonable estimation of the mean strength of a
yarn a large number of tests have to be carried out on it. Skein Method or Lea Strength Test is quite
a popular test method. Tests on hanks or skeins of yarn containing up to 120 meters or yds of yarn
at a time which is broken as one item is called Skein Test.

In this method, a long length of yarn is wound into a hank or skein using a wrap reel as would be
used for linear density measurement, the two loose ends being tied together. The whole hank is then
mounted in a strength testing machine between two smooth capstans, which may be free to rotate.
The hank is subjected to increasing extension while the force is monitored. When one part of the
yarn breaks, the hank begins to unravel. If the yarn was looped over frictionless pulleys, once one
end broke the yarn would then unwrap completely and the strength per strand that was measured
would be that of the weakest spot. Because of the friction present in the system the force continues
to increase until sufficient strands have broken for the hank to unravel, the force passing through a
maximum value at some point. This maximum force is known as the hank strength. Because the
friction of the yarn against the pulleys plays a large part in the result, the measured hank strength
can vary according to yarn friction and the particular machine that it is measured on.

It actually works on Constant rate of extension (CRE) principle in which the rate of increase of
specimen length is uniform with time and the load measuring mechanism moves a negligible
distance with increasing load. It actually describes the simple fact that the moving clamp is displaced
at a constant velocity. As a result, the specimen between the stationary and the moving clamp is
extended by a constant distance per unit of time and the force required to do so is measured.
By using this instrument, the breaking load can be found in lbs while the breaking force can be
calculated by multiplying by the standard acceleration due to gravity on Earth, which is defined as
exactly 9.81 m/s² to determine the breaking force in lbf.

Breaking force [lbf] = breaking load x 9.81

The count strength product (CSP or LCSP) is a measure used for cotton yarns and is the product
of the yarn count and the lea (hank) strength. It is based on measuring the strength of an 80-turn
hank made on a 1.5 yd wrap reel to give a total length of 120 yd.

CSP = breaking force [lbf] x cotton count value [cc]

The strength [breaking force] is usually measured in pounds force (lbf). The value enables a
comparison to be made among yarns of a similar but not necessarily identical count in the same
way that tenacity values are used. Assuming that all 160 strands of the hank have the same strength
as the single yarn, the tenacity can be related to the count strength product by the following
formula:
Tenacity (N/tex) = 0.000047 × CSP (lbf × CC)
[where CC = cotton count value]

Procedure
o Yarn sample needs to be conditioned for 12 hours in conditioning room.
o 1 lea or 120 yds of yarn from the sample package would have to be wrapped by Wrap reel.
o The sample should be weighed on electric balance in gm generally.
o Now the equation for required count system with the given values can be used to determine
the linear density or count of the sample yarn.
o The Lea Strength Tester needs to be started before placing the sample from upper jaw to
lower jaw at very low tension and the lower jaw will start to move downwards and the
individual yarns of the bundle will start to break.
o The machine would not stop straightway instead it will continue loading until a handful of
yarns break so that the broken hank can totally unravel.
o The breaking load in lb would be shown in the counter and it can be used to determine
breaking force [lbf] and CSP of cotton sample and yarn strength.

Calculation and Results

For determining the yarn count in (Ne) system:
Sample length Sample weight Yarn Count Average Standard
# CV%
[yds] [lbs] [Ne] Count [Ne] Deviation
1 120 0.0050 28
2 120 0.0045 29
3 120 0.0048 27 28
4 120 0.0049 28
5 120 0.0051 28

For determining the CSP:

Breaking Load Breaking Force CSP Mean/Average Standard
# CV%
[lbs] [lbf] [lbf x CC] CSP Deviation
1 10 98.1 2746.8
2 11 107.91 3021.48
3 9.0 88.2 2469.6 2696.79
4 9.5 93.19 2609.3
5 9.6 94.17 2636.76
For determining the Tenacity:
Tenacity (N/Tex) = Mean Standard
# CSP CV%
[0.000047 x CSP] Tenacity Deviation
1 2746.8 0.1290
2 3021.48 0.1420
3 2469.6 0.1160
4 2609.3 0.1226
5 2636.76 0.1239
Experiment: 07
Name: Determination of cotton yarn twist per inch (TPI) by using an untwist-re-twist method.

Theory
Twist is primarily introduced into a staple yarn in order to hold the constituent fibers together, thus
giving strength to the yarn.

The effects of the twist are twofold:

o as the twist increases, the lateral force holding the fibers together is increased so that more
of the fibers can contribute to the overall strength of the yarn.
o Secondly as the twist increases, the angle that the fibers make with the yarn axis increases,
so preventing them from developing their maximum strength which occurs when they are
oriented in the direction of the applied force.

The overall result is that there is a point as twist is increased where the strength of the yarn reaches
a maximum value, after which the strength is reduced as the twist is increased still further. The
twist value required to give the maximum strength to a yarn is generally higher than the twist
values in normal use since increased twist also has an effect on other important yarn properties.

Twist is usually expressed as the number of turns per unit length such as turns per metre or turns
per inch. However, the ideal amount of twist varies with the yarn thickness: the thinner the yarn,
the greater is the amount of twist that has to be inserted to give the same effect. The factor that
determines the effectiveness of the twist is the angle that the fibers make with the yarn axis. In
yarns of different linear densities, the same angle is produced by different amounts of twist but it
leads to the same twist- dependent properties in the yarns.

Fig 1: A tension type twist tester

One method of determining the yarn twist is untwist-re-twist method using a tension twist tester.
This method is based on the fact that yarns contract in length as the level of twist is increased.
Therefore, if the twist is subsequently removed, the yarn will increase in length reaching a
maximum when all the twist is removed. The method uses a piece of equipment such as that shown
in Fig 1 in which the end of the yarn distant from the counter is attached to a pointer which is
capable of magnifying its changes in length. At the start of the test the yarn is placed under a
suitable tension, either by a clip-on weight or by a weighted arm as shown.

The test procedure is to untwist the yarn until all its twist has been removed and then to continue
twisting the yarn in the same direction, until it returns to its original length. The basis of the method
is the assumption that the amount of twist put in is equal to the twist that has been removed.

Procedure
o The yarn is first gripped in the left-hand clamp which is mounted on a pivot and carries a
pointer.
o After being led through the rotating jaw, the yarn should be pulled through until the pointer
lies opposite a zero line on a small quadrant scale; jaw can be then closed.
o At this stage the specimen will be under a small tension and have a nominal length of 10''.
o As the twist is removed, the yarn extends and the pointer assumes a vertical position, so
removing the tension.
o Eventually all the twist would be taken out but the jaw should be kept rotating in the same
direction until sufficient twist has been inserted to bring the pointer back to the zero mark
again.
o The total number of turns recorded on the revolution counter.

Twist per inch = dial reading / (gauge length × 2)

Calculation and Results

For Hosiery Yarn [Knit yarn]

# TPI Average TPI Standard Deviation, SD CV (%) Remarks
1 17.5
2 18.0
3 17.0 17.5
4 17.5
5 18.5

For Woven Yarn

# TPI Average TPI Standard Deviation, SD CV (%) Remarks
1 34.0
2 35.0
3 34.5
34.0
4 34.0
5 34.5
Experiment: 08
Name: Determination of weight per unit area/areal density/GSM of knit and woven fabrics
by cutting and weighing method.

The weight/areal density of a fabric can be expressed in the two ways such as the weight per
unit area (grams per square meter, g/m2 or ounces per square yard, oz/yd2) or the weight per
unit length (grams per linear meter, GLM).

In woven fabric, the weight (g) per unit length (m) is usually referred as the weight per
running meter and it is, therefore, necessary to know the agreed standard width upon which
the weight per running meter is based. Usually this width depends upon the width at the
loom.

1m

1m A

1 m/
100 cm

A Weight = 165 g
1 m/
GSM = 165
100 cm

2 2
10 cm Area of (A) = 1 m = 10,000 cm
2 2
Area of (B) = 1/100 m = 0.01 m
10 cm B 2 2
= 10,000/100 cm = 100 cm

Why do we test such a

Weight = 1.65 g small piece?
GSM = 1.65 x 100 = 165
Instruments used
G.S.M cutter, Paramount, India
Electronic balance, KERW, England

GSM Measurement

For measuring GSM, a GSM cutter is used to cut the fabric and weight is measured using a
balance. Both of these measurements and methods are equally used for both woven and
knitted fabrics.
GSM = cut weight x 100
By using GSM it is possible to compare the fabrics in unit area, that is, which is heavier
and which is lighter.

• Shouldn’t it be square in shape? .. [areas are equal so no problem]

• How can it be a round shape? …. [cutting in round shape is easy!]

Area of the circle = Area of this square shape (B)

2 2
πr = 100 cm
= B
r = √(100/ π) cm
2

= 5.64 cm
 r = 5.64 cm
d = 11.28 cm

Weight = 1.65 g
GSM = 1.65 x 100 = 165

Working Principle
o Cut the fabric with the GSM (Gram Per Square Meter) cutter.
o Weigh the fabric by electronic balance.
o Multiply the weight of the by 100.

Calculation and Results

For Woven Fabric:

Fabric Obtained weight
# GSM Average GSM SD CV%
Specification (g)
1 Woven 1.40 140
2 Woven 1.38 138
3 Woven 1.41 141 139.7
4 Woven 1.39 139
5 Woven 1.37 137

For Knit Fabric:

Fabric Obtained weight
# GSM Average GSM SD CV%
Specification (g)
1 Knit 1.65 165
2 Knit 1.64 164
3 Knit 1.65 165 165
4 Knit 1.66 166
5 Knit 1.65 165
Example:
100 inch
Fabric weight = 65.5 kg
Fabric length = 150 m
Fabric width = 100 inch
Fabric GSM = ? 150 m
65.5 g
65.5 x 1000 x 39.37
GSM =
150 x 100

GSM = 171.9 ≃ 172 GSM = ?

Calculate GSM of the following:

10 cm

2 inch 5 cm

15 inch 6.5 g

2 inch 0.45 g 5 cm 0.5 g

GSM = ? GSM = ? GSM = ?

Experiment: 09
Name: Determination of dimensional changes (shrinkage) of given knit fabric.

Introduction
A fabric would have great technical merit if its dimensions remained constant throughout its
useful life. Suits would retain their shape and shirts would retain their size if fabrics could be
produced which maintained their original finished settings. One very important dimensional
change is that which occurs when a fabric is washed.

A dimensional change resulting in decrease in length or width of a specimen subjected to specified

condition is called shrinkage.

Reduction in length and width of fabric takes place usually through the process of conditioning,
wetting, steaming, chemical treatment and wet processing as in laundering and in chemical practice.
Cotton fabric suffers from two main disadvantages of shrinking and creasing during subsequent
washing.

There are two types of shrinkage occurs during washing:

1) Length wise
2) Width wise

Shrinkage is mainly due to yarn swelling and the resulting crimp increase during washing in case
of cotton fabrics. Yarn swelling percentage is more in polyester cotton blending yarn.

Principal causes:
• Yarn twist ⬆ Shrinkage ⬇
• Knitting tension ⬆ Shrinkage ⬆
• Fabric GSM ⬇ Shrinkage ⬆

Influencing factors:
• Twist factor ⬆ Shrinkage ⬆
• Stitch length ⬆ Shrinkage ⬆
• Elasticity of yarn ⬇ Shrinkage ⬆
Shrinkage% (Length) =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ) − 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ)
× 100
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ)
Shrinkage% (Width) =
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ (𝐴𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ) − 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ (𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ)
× 100
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ (𝐵𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑠ℎ)

Working Procedure
Method: ISO 6330: 2001 2A/5A
Detergent: 0.5 g/L

o Make a pillow sample of 50 cm x 50 cm size and is then spread on a flat table, let it be
relaxed.
o Put the glass template on the sample pillow. There are six marks on the glass template and
the distance between two marks (as of Fig. 1 above) is 35 cm.
o Mark the fabric with some unchangeable marker.
o Wash the fabric pillow at 40°C temperature for 40 minutes in presence of 0.5 g/L
detergent and 4-5 liter of water.
o Dry the sample (either Line Dry or Flat Dry or Tumble Dry).
o Take the measurements between those points (3 in length direction, 3 in width direction).

Calculation

Length before wash = 35 cm

Length after wash = (34+33+32)/3 = 99/3 = 33 cm

33 − 35
Shrinkage% (Length) = × 100
35
= - 5.71%

Width before wash = 35 cm

Width after wash = (34+34+34)/3 = 102/3 = 34 cm

34 − 35
Shrinkage% (Width) = × 100
35
= - 2.86%

Results and discussion

Shrinkage tolerance in different knit fabrics.

Fabric type Length (%) Width (%)

S/J -5.50 -5.50
Lycra S/J -6.00 -6.00
Single Lacoste -7.00 -7.00
Lycra Single Lacoste -7.00 -7.00
1x1 Rib -7.00 -7.00
Lycra 1x1 Rib -7.00 -7.00
2x2 Rib -8.00 -8.00
Lycra 2x2 Rib -8.00 -8.00
Interlock -7.00 -7.00
Terry Fleece -5.00 -5.00

Effects of GSM on fabric shrinkage

LENGTH WIS E SHRINKAGE (%) WIDTH WIS E SHRINKAGE (%)

6.5
5 5

4.4
3.62 2.96 2.98
3.32
2.08
2.18

120 GSM 130 GSM 140 GSM 160 GSM 180 GSM 120 GSM 130 GSM 140 GSM 160 GSM 180 GSM

Factors controlling shrinkage in fabrics or garments are:

 Construction: A tighter fabric construction reduces potential shrinkage.
 Yarn twist: Optimum twist (based on yarn size) is very important for controlling
shrinkage and torque.
 Type of weave or knit: Pain weave of Jersey knit show more resistance to shrinkage
than other types.
 Tension during sewing of garments: Uneven or too much sewing tension can lead to
differential shrinkage causing puckering in the seam areas.
 Stability of fiber and yarns: Improper stabilization could lead to excessive shrinkage
especially in blends where synthetic fiber shrinks differentially than the cellulosic
fibers.

Methods for shrinkage controlling:

Compressive Shrinkage (Relaxation Method)
 Used for woven cotton, tubular knit cotton, linen and rayon;
 the method consists of mechanically compressing the fabric lengthwise by overfeeding
onto a large roller with damp blankets. Sanforized is a well-known trade mark for
fabrics treated by this method.
Heat Set (Relaxation Method)
 Used for fabrics from synthetic fibers such as nylon, polyester and acrylic or blends of
cotton and synthetic;
 it is based on the principle that synthetics (thermoplastic materials) will become
stabilized in their configuration in which they happen to be when heated to their
softening temperature.
Experiment: 10
Name: Determination of dimensional distortion (spirality) of given knit fabric.

Introduction
Spirality is a dimensional distortion in circular plain knitted fabrics.

The lengthwise rows of stitches, called wales or needle lines, should occupy a truly vertical
line in the fabric and should always be at right angles to the cross wise courses of stitches.

Many times the wales may skew to the right or left forming an angle, which appears in the
form of a twilled surface. This geometrical defect has been termed spirality of knitting in
circular fabrics.
Measurement
Spirality can be evaluated according to ISO 16322-2: 2005 Test Method (with benchmarks
measuring = 45 cm x 45 cm; a pillow cover with three-side stitched) with normal machine
cycling (Rota wash) and a washing temperature of 40°C for 40 minutes.

After washing and drying, the spirality in the fabric can be measured by using:

Spirality (%) = (Avg. spiral distance/Total distance) x 100

Average spiral distance

Spirality % = x 100
Total distance
= 2.5/45 x 100
= 5.55%

3
Results and discussion

Influencing factors

Yarn properties
• Yarn count (finer) ⬆ spirality ⬆ due to more twisting.
• Yarn twist ⬆ spirality ⬆ due to twist liveliness.
• Yarn conditioning in appropriate temperature and humidity means spirality level in
minimum.
• Friction spun > ring spun > rotor spun > air-jet spun
Fabric properties
• Stitch length ⬆ spirality ⬆
• More spirality in s/j due to non-arrest of loops. Less with double jersey; no
appreciable problem of spirality is there in ribs and interlocks.
• Slack fabric presents higher spirality angle compared to tightly knitted fabrics.
• Fabric relaxation (dry and wet) reduces residual knitting tension introduced during
knitting thereby reduces the tendency of forming spirality.

Machine parameters
• No. of feeder ⬆ spirality ⬆ due to more course inclination.
• Direction of spirality depends on the rotational direction of the knitting machine.
Earlier research work revealed that, for a clockwise rotating machine, the wale
would be inclined towards the left, thus producing the S spirality.
• Machine gauge ⬇ spirality ⬆

Remedial measures
Compacting: In tubular compactor, the squeezing line gets on the sides in this process and
is done on natural movement thus controlling spirality. If the wales are straightened
manually then it results in spirality.
Resin treatment: Cross-linking the fabric by means of inter fibre bonding also reduces
spirality.
Heat setting: Steam or hot water setting reduces twist liveliness and hence spirality.
Mercerization is recommended for cotton yarns, so that fibres are made to relax
permanently.
Balancing yarn twist factor: In an earlier investigation on plain knitted wool fabrics, it has
been revealed that raising the twist factor of a ply yarn increases the left-hand of S-direction
spirality of fabrics. But while increasing the twist factor of a single yarn, there is decrease
in left-hand of S-direction spirality with an increase in right-hand or Z-direction spirality.
Thus, there is possibility to balance twist factors for both ply and single yarns with a view
to achieve zero spirality. Experimental study by Chen, Q H on wool knits indicates that,
when the ratio of twist factor of the ply yarn to the twist factor of single yarn is about 0.73,
zero spirality may be achieved.
Experiment: 11
Name: Determination of color fastness to rubbing of a dyed woven fabric.

Learning outcomes
 Understand color fastness and colour fastness to rubbing,
 Understand the procedure of colour fastness to rubbing test,
 Understand the evaluation/interpretation of colour fastness to rubbing test results.

Crock meter

Color change grey scale

Color staining grey scale

Introduction
Rubbing color fastness refers to the ability to sustain original color of dyed fabrics when rubbing.
Dry rubbing color fastness refers to the situation of fading and staining of dyed fabric when rubbed
with a standard white cloth. Wet rubbing color fastness refers to the situation of fading and staining
of dyed fabric when rubbed with a standard white cloth which water content is 95% to 105%.
The evaluation of rubbing color fastness depends on the degree of staining of white cloth. After
testing, the white cloth is compared to staining sample cards to measure staining fastness. Rubbing
color fastness, same as washing color fastness, divide into 5 grades and 9 files, among which grade
5 is the best and grade 1 is the worst. The friction fading of fabric is to make dye fall off caused
by friction. Wet rubbing is influenced by both external force and water, so it is about one level
lower than dry rubbing.

Apparatus
 Crock meter
 Grey scale
 Crock meter test cloth

Atmospheric condition
Temperature: 25±2°C
RH: 65%

Working Principle
 First cut the to be tested sample as long as it requires to cover the metallic mounting plate,
 Set the crocking cloth (5x5 cm) to the finger of the crock meter by using spinal spring clip,
 Lower the covered finger on the test sample [ISO 105x12, AATCC 08 – force applied: 11.1
N ± 10%],
 Turn hand crank at the rate of one turn per sec (10 x 10 sec),
 Remove the crocking cloth and evaluate with gray scale,
 Complete this process twice; once the crocking cloth being dry and once it being wet
[distilled water of 100% expression].

Result
Fastness Grade
Fabric direction
Fading Remark Staining Remark
Dry condition
Warp 3 Moderate 3 Moderate
Weft 3-4 Fair 3-4 Fair
Wet condition
Warp 1-2 Poor 1-2 Poor
 Weft 1-2 Poor 1-2 Poor

A B C D

A. Original dyed sample B. Sample after crocking

C. Original crocking cloth D. Crocking cloth after crocking/rubbing

 Match the contrast between A-B with the contrast of grey scales for colour changing/fading
and rate accordingly.
 Match the contrast between C-D with the contrast of grey scales for staining and rate
accordingly.

Rubbing of two different coloured fabrics or one coloured and another white fabric may cause
transfer of colour from one to the other. The problem arises mainly from the presence of superficial
dyes, which may be due to development of heavy shades, inadequate washing at the end of dyeing,
formation of few coloured molecules at the textile–air interface, water solubility of dyes or weak
dye–fibre attachment on the surface layer. Wet rubbing fastness tends to produce a lower result
when compared to dry rubbing; this may be due to solubilisation of a part of the dye and its
migration to the surface of coloured fabric. In forming insoluble azoic colours on cotton, a part of
lake is formed at the cotton–air interface where one part of lake remains at the interior of cotton
due to padding with naphthol, while the diazotised part remains outside on the surface and the
coupling occurs at the interface imposing a restriction on removal of these lakes during washing
causing poor rubbing fastness, an inherent property of naphthol colours.

Each color either it is pigment, reactive, disperse or direct has its own fastness properties to
rubbing. The colors like black, red, burgundy, navy blue have poor color fastness properties
because of their chemical structures. Fabric of finer construction and having a smooth surface
tends to have a better colour fastness to rubbing. The opposite is true for coarser and rougher fabric.
Experiment: 12
Name: Determination of color fastness to wash of a dyed fabric sample.

Learning outcomes
 Understand color fastness and colour fastness to washing,
 Understand the procedure of colour fastness to washing test,
 Understand the evaluation/interpretation of colour fastness to washing test results.

Introduction
The ability of a dyed fabric to retain its original shade during washing is called wash fastness.
Consumers launder their garments at sometime in the lifespan of the textile, therefore, it is
necessary to assess or see if those colors will retain their original shade.

Color fastness to wash being one of the most important and mostly used color fastness test is very
important for lab-dip in dyeing factory. During test the specimen, in contact with one or two
specified adjacent fabrics, is mechanically agitated under described conditions of time and
temperature in a soap solution and rinsed and dried. The change in color of the specimen and the
staining of the adjacent fabric are assessed with the grey scales.

Methods
ISO 105 C06 is the first choice of maximum buyers.

Solution [as per ISO 105 CO6] Dyed sample

Sodium Perborate [NaH2BO4] 1 gpL

ECE Phosphate Detergent 4 gpL
Distilled water
MF
Dyed sample [10 cm x 4 cm]
Multi-fibre [5 cm x 4 cm]

0
Process Temp. 40 – 50 C
Process length 30 minutes
Take it out and wash
Dry at > 600 C
Instruments:

Rotawash/Gyrowash
Stainless steel balls [d = 0.6 cm, w = 1 mg]
Multi-fiber fabric
Grey scale
Sewing machine
Thermometer
Color matching cabinet

Working procedure
 Cut the sample [10 cm x 4 cm] from bulk and keep it for 4.30 to 6 hours for conditioning,
 Sew the specimen with multi-fibre fabric [5 cm x 4 cm] of same size at one corner,
 Make the solution of 4 gpl ECE phosphate detergent and 1 gpl sodium perborate,
 Put the specimen with multi-fibre fabric and the solution into the Rotawash m/c,
 Add 25 pieces of steel balls,
 Set the temperature [60°C] and time [30 min],
 Rinse with hot water,
 Hand wash the sample in cold water,
 Dry the specimen in the air at a temperature not exceeding 60°C,
 Check the colour change/fading and staining with grey scale and make a test report.

Colour changing/fading

B
 Colour staining

A. Sample after washing B. Original dyed sample

C. Multi-fiber after wash D. Original multi-fiber

 Match the contrast between A-B with the contrast scales of grey scales for colour
changing/fading and rate accordingly.
 Match the contrast between C-D with the contrast of grey scales for staining and rate
accordingly.

Results
Fastness Grade
Fabric sample
Fading Remark Staining Remark
Sample 1 3 Moderate 3 Moderate
Sample 2 3-4 Fair 3 Moderate
Sample 3 3 Moderate 3 Moderate
Sample 4 3 Moderate 3 Moderate
Sample 5 3 Moderate 3 Moderate

The washing performance of dyed textiles depends on numerous factors, such as dye chemistry,
size and solubility of dye, nature of dye-fiber attachment, dye-solvent interaction, location of dye
on fiber structure and detergent formulation used in washing.

Reactive dyes are water soluble as well as hydrolysable in the dyebath due to the water-dye
interaction. Monochlorotriazine and vinyl sulphone dyes are monofunctional; they attach to the
fiber through covalent bonds but also undergo a competing hydrolysis reaction with the water in
the dye- bath. Thorough washing after dyeing removes hydrolysed dyes completely thus offering
excellent wash fastness. This is the reason why these dyes are highly preferred in printing. In
contrast, dichlorotriazine reactive dyes form partially hydrolysed dyes and therefore show poor
wash fastness. Direct dyes are water soluble and dyeings are never washed unless after-treated;
during after-treatment the dye molecule is made larger by reacting with external chemicals to
remain trapped in situ on cotton. In the above two cases, especially for deep shades, any loosely
attached superficial dye must be thoroughly washed out to ensure acceptable fastness performance.
The opening of polyester’s structure in HTHP (high temperature high pressure) dyeing should be
adequate to ensure the passage of the dye to the interior of the fiber. Dyeing machines are heated
through connecting pipes by injecting steam which supplied via a boiler. Leakages or condensation
in the supply pipe during a typical winter can cause a drop in effective steam pressure. This leads
to inadequate opening of the fibre structure well below 130±2°C and restricts the location of most
of the dye to the surface only and results in poor wash fastness during washing.

The final structure of the dye must be big enough to be trapped in situ within the fibre. This may
be achieved by allowing aggregation of dye. If dyes are insoluble and possess smaller structures,
the extent of aggregation will decide washing performance. Better formation of aggregates by
anthraquinoid vat dyes promises excellent wash fastness compared to relatively smaller aggregates
of sulphur dyes, which show only very good wash fastness. Interestingly in both these cases, the
fibre is cotton and the mode of attachment is by means of physical forces.
Experiment: 13
Name: Determination of color fastness to perspiration of a dyed fabric specimen.

Introduction
Perspiration fastness refers to the ability not to fade and not to stain when dyed fabric is perspired.

Human perspiration is an emulsion consisting of trace elements, ammonia, urea, amino acid,
glucose and chlorides, and the major constituent is lactic acid with a pH of around 6.14–6.57. It
may be the synergistic combined effect of metal and heat or the emulsion on dye that causes fading
of colour at selective points. Sweat is divided into acidity and basicity due to difference of people.
Textiles contact long with sweat has a large impact on some dyes.

This method is intended for the determination of resistance of color of textiles of all kinds against
all forms of perspiration. Perspiration fastness test is to use artificial perspiration with different
acid and alkaline to imitate the sweat situation when human wear textiles, then test the textiles.
The machine used to test perspiration fastness is perspiration fastness tester.

Size: 100 x 40 mm Size: 100 x 40 mm

Adjacent fabric

Adjacent fabric
Same fabric

Same fabric

Composite Composite
specimen specimen

Sample preparation
*** One piece of white outer-lining fabric is made of the same fibre as that in the colored specimen, the
second outer-lining white fabric is a different one.

*** Choices of standard single fiber adjacent cloth

First piece Second piece First piece Second piece
Cotton Wool Viscose Wool
Wool Cotton Acetate Viscose
Silk Cotton Nylon Wool or viscose
Linen Wool Polyester or acrylic Wool or cotton

During testing, textile sample and adjacent fabric are sewn together, soaked in artificial
perspiration, squeezed to get rid of excess liquid, handled under specified conditions [pressure,
temperature, time in tester], dried, and finally evaluated [by the use of gray cards] in order to
determine the degree of discoloration/changing/fading and staining/bleeding.

Immerse one composite specimen Immerse one composite specimen

in alkaline solution for 30 minutes in acidic solution for 30 minutes at
at room temperature to ensure room temperature to ensure that
that the specimen is thoroughly the specimen is thoroughly wet.
wet.

Composite Composite
specimen specimen

Alkaline Solution Acidic Solution

1-histidine monohydrochloride monohydydrate 0.5 g 1-histidine monohydrochloride monohydydrate 0.5 g

Sodium chloride 5.0 g Sodium chloride 5.0 g
Disodium hydrogen orthophosphate dihydrate 2.5 g Disodium hydrogen orthophosphate dihydrate 2.2 g
Volume 1L Volume 1L
pH [0.1N sodium hydroxide] 8.0 pH [0.1N acidic acid] 5.0
0 0
Temperature 37 ± 2 C Temperature 37 ± 2 C
Time 4 hours Time 4 hours

Solution preparation and Working procedure

Working procedure
A specimen of 100 mm x 40 mm and a multi-fiber of same size are interleafed between two
different specific white unfinished outer-lining fabrics and stitched at the periphery followed by
treatment with two different artificial perspiration solutions of acidic and alkaline pH separately;
the compositions are shown above. While one piece of white outer-lining fabric is made of the
same fibre as that in the coloured specimen, the second outer-lining white fabric is a different one.

The composite samples are thoroughly wetted in two artificial perspiration solutions at liquor ratio
1:50 for 30 min at room temperature and are placed between two glass plates under a weight of
4.5 kg for 4 h at 37 ± 2°C, which is body temperature. Samples are removed from the glass plates,
dried at or just below 60°C and change in colour as well as the degree of staining on white are
compared and reported.

5 kg [12.5 kPa]

Perspirometer placed over

acrylic plates

Composite specimen

Perspirometer
 Acrylic plates

0
Temperature 37 ± 2 C
Time 4 hours

Oven

Colour changing/fading

B
 Colour staining

A. Sample after perspiration test B. Original dyed sample

C. Multi-fiber after perspiration test D. Original multi-fiber

 Match the contrast between A-B with the contrast scales of grey scales for colour
changing/fading and rate accordingly.
 Match the contrast between C-D with the contrast of grey scales for staining and rate
accordingly.

Results and Discussion

Fastness Grade
Fabric sample
Fading Remark Staining Remark
Alkaline
Sample 1 3-4 Fair 3-4 Fair
Sample 2 3-4 Fair 3-4 Fair
Acidic
Sample 1 4-5 Very good 4-5 Very good
Sample 2 4-5 Very good 4-5 Very good

The physiological function of perspiration, also known as sweating or transpiration, is to assist in

regulating body temperature by increasing heat loss due to evaporation from the skin, particularly
at high temperatures and during muscular exercises. But this perspiration causes discolouration of
dyeings in selected areas through solubilisation of a part of the dye during use of the garment. This
test intends to determine the resistance of color of dyed textile to the action of acidic and alkaline
perspiration.

The color fastness to perspiration (acid and alkaline) should be at least level 3-4 (Fair). This criterion
doesn’t apply to white products, to products that are neither dyed nor printed, to furniture fabrics,
curtains or similar textiles intended for interior decoration. A level of 3 (Moderate) is nevertheless
allowed when fabric is both light colored and made of silk blends with more than 20% silk. This
kind of test is specifically applied for the dyed fabrics to be used in sportswear and heavy-duty wear.
Normal cloth may also need to be tested if there is any requirement.
Experiment: 14
Name: Determination of abrasion resistance and pilling of fabric specimen.

Learning outcomes
 Understand abrasion resistance and pilling,
 Understand the procedure of determining abrasion resistance and pilling,
 Understand the evaluation/interpretation of test results.

Introduction
Abrasion is the wearing/worn away/deteriorating of any part of the material by rubbing against
another surface.

Abrasion resistance refers to the ability of a textile fiber to withstand prolong rubbing action
without deteriorating or being worn away.

Abrasion resistance, in general, is difficult to define, but usually it means the loss of coating by
rubbing or scraping. It is sometimes called “erosion.” Marring is sometimes included as abrasion.
It is the permanent deformation of a surface by something rubbing against it. The deformation does
not break the surface.

There are many methods of abrasion-resistance tests, of which the Martindale abrasion tester
method [ASTM D 4966-12] is the most popular method.

The resistance to abrasion is affected by the conditions of the tests:

 nature of abradant;
 tension on the abradant
 pressure between the specimen and abradant; and
 the dimensional changes in the specimen.

The abradant is either changed for each specimen or held at a fixed frequency. The abrasion
resistance is measured in number of cycles. It is the number of cycles required to form either a pin
hole in the test specimen or breaking of a set of threads.

The abrasion properties of textiles depends on many factors, for example, fiber properties [nylon
and aramid fibers will have excellent abrasion properties, whereas acetate will display signs of low
abrasion], the structure of the yarn [rotor yarn has more resistance than ring yarn], the weave or
knit structures [woven (plain>any twill) > knit (interlock > any other knit structures)], and finishes
applied onto the surface of the textile.
A number of important points require consideration before abrasion resistance tests are carried out:
the choice of the method may be governed by the type of apparatus available, the precision
demanded and so forth. Some of the more important points are condition of the specimen, choice
of testing instrument, choice of abrasive motion, direction of abrasion, choice of abradant, backing
the specimen, cleanliness of the specimen and instrument, tension on the specimen, pressure
between abradant and specimen, end-point of the test etc.

Abraded area

Martindale Abrasion Tester

Method

1. Four specimens, each of 38 mm in diameter are cut by using the appropriate cutter. Weigh
each sample and take notes.
2. Then they are mounted in the specimen holders with a circle of standard foam backing behind
the fabric. The specimens must be placed flat against the mounting block.
3. The test specimen holders with the specimens are placed on the abradant.
4. A spindle is inserted through the top plate and the correct weight [usually of a size to give a
pressure of 12 kPa but a lower pressure of 9 kPa may be used if specified] is placed on top of
this.
5. After appropriate clamping of specimen on the holders, required numbers of cycles of
abrasion [up to 2000] is applied. The specimens are examined/weighed at suitable intervals
[every 200 cycles of abrasion]. All four specimens should be judged individually.

Assessment of Abrasion Damage

Several methods are used to judge the amount of damage. Some are mentioned below:
1. The difference in appearance between an abraded and unabraded specimen.
2. The number of cycles required to produce a hole, broken threads or broken strip.
3. Loss in weight often plotted against the number of cycle.
4. Change in thickness e.g. loss of pile height.
5. Loss in strength e.g. tensile, bursting or tearing strength, expressed in percentage of
unabraded strength.
6. Change in some other properties like luster, air permeability etc.
7. Microscopic examination of damage of yarns and fibers.

Weight before abrasion – Weight after abrasion

Weight Loss % = x 100
Weight before abrasion

Result [Loss in weight]

Average sample weight Number of Sample weight after Average loss
# Remarks
before abrasion [mg] Cycles abrasion [mg] in weight (%)
1 200 4940 0.6
2 400 4750 4.42
3 600 4625 6.94
4 800 4565 8.15
Data table for
5 1000 4435 10.76
4970 each sample can
6 1200 4310 13.28
also be created.
7 1400 4200 15.49
8 1600 4120 17.11
9 1800 4005 19.41
10 2000 3865 22.23
 Abrasion Propeties
25

20
Loss in weight [%]

15

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
Number of cycles

Factors affecting abrasion tests

1. Condition of specimen: The fabric should be conditioned and tested in a standard testing
atmosphere.
2. Choice of testing instrument: The choice of testing instrument may be dependent upon the
character of the testing desired, e .g-flat abrasion, flexing abrasion, etc.
3. Choice of abrasive motion: The rubbing movement may be reciprocating, rotary or
multidirectional.
4. Direction of abrasion: The direction of abrasion can be at angles to the warp and weft
directions.
5. Choice of abradant: The severity of the abrasion will vary with the nature of abradant. For
example: steel and silicon carbide give constant abrasive qualities. A standard worsted or
canvas fabric, emery cloth of various grade are also used as abradant.
6. Backing the specimen: The hardness of the backing of the specimen may affect the results.
In some testes a hard backing is used, in others a felt or foam rubber.
7. Cleanliness of the specimen and instrument: The region to be abraded should be handled
as little as possible and be free from foreign matter such as graphite of pencils. The
accessories of the instrument which may rub the fabric must be spotlessly clean and free
from grease.
8. Tension on the specimen: Standard method of mounting the specimen should be used to
avoid errors due to variation in the tension used.
9. The pressure between abradant and specimen: The severity of the abrasion will be affected
by the pressure applied. So suitable standard must be set up.
10. The end point of the test: The test should be frequently stopped as soon as the hole appeases
or the specimen breaks by automatic stop motion.
Experiment: 15
Name: Study on determination of seam slippage/seam strength of fabric specimen.

ASTM D1683 covers a test for measuring the seam strength of a woven fabric. Seams are used to stitch
two different pieces of fabric together. Most seams are made with a sewing machine.
Seam strength is a comparison test between an unseamed test piece of fabric and the seamed fabric
specimen. The specimen is pulled in tension until it breaks. If the unseamed portion fails before the seam
fails, the woven textile is said to have 100% seam efficiency. If the seam fails at say, half the breaking
strength of the regular test piece, the seam efficiency is said to be 50%.

350 mm x 100 mm

F F

Unseamed sample

350 mm x 100 mm

F F

Seamed sample
Force, N

1500 Warp way

1200

900

600

300

Extension, mm
 Force, N

Weft way

400

300

200

100

Extension, mm

Warp way
Unseamed max force (N) Seamed max force (N) Seam Efficiency Observation
1250.55 221.38 17.70% Sewing thread
breaks

Weft way
Unseamed max force (N) Seamed max force (N) Seam Efficiency Observation
362.78 323.67 89.21% Sewing thread
breaks

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