University of Batna 2

Faculty of Mathematics and Computer Science

Departement of Mathematics

Chapter 01: Notions of logic

By: Brahimi Mahmoud

−2 +2

Academic year 2024/2025

I. Notions of logic

1) Logic
a) Proposition
Definition
A proposition is a sentence that is either true or false, not both at the same time.

Examples:
 5 + 9 = 14.
 2 + 4 = 7.
 For all 𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 4 ≥ 0.
 The capital of Algeria is Oran.
 The capital of Algeria.

Remarks
 We symbolize the proposition with symbols 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, …
 If the proposition is true, we symbolize it with the symbol (𝑇) or (1) and if it is
false, we symbolize it with the symbol (𝐹) or (0).

b) Logical links
If 𝑃 is a proposition and 𝑄 is another proposition, we will define new propositions constructed
from 𝑃 and 𝑄.

 The logical operator “and”

 The assertion "𝑃 and 𝑄" or (𝑷 ∧ 𝑸) is true if 𝑃 is true and 𝑄 is true.
 The assertion "𝑃 and 𝑄" is false otherwise.
We summarize this in a truth table
𝑷 𝑸 𝑷∧𝑸
1 1 𝟏
1 0 𝟎
0 1 𝟎
0 0 𝟎

 The logical operator “or”

 The proposition “𝑃 or 𝑄” or (𝑷⋁𝑸) is true if one (at least) of the two
propositions 𝑃 or 𝑄 is true.
 The proposition “𝑃 or 𝑄” is false if both propositions 𝑃 and 𝑄 are false.
 𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⋁𝑸
1 1 𝟏
1 0 𝟏
0 1 𝟏
0 0 𝟎

 Negation of a proposition
̅ or ¬𝑷 such as if 𝑷 it is true then 𝑷
The negation of the proposition 𝑷 is the proposition 𝑷 ̅ it is
̅ it is true.
false and if 𝑷 it is false then 𝑷
Example:
 𝑃: 4 ≠ 3, 𝑃̅ : 4 = 3.
 𝑃: The number 4 is negative, 𝑃̅: The number 4 is positive.
𝑷 ̅
𝑷
1 0
0 1

 The implication ⇒
Definition
̅ ⋁ 𝑸” is noted “𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸”
The proposition “𝑷

Remark
 The proposition “𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄” is reads “𝑃 implies 𝑄”.
 The proposition “𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄” is false if: 𝑃 is true and 𝑄 is false, but in other cases it is
true.

Examples:
 𝑥 2 = 1 ⇒ (𝑥 = 1)⋁(𝑥 = −1)
 2𝑥 − 4 ≤ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ]−∞, 0]
 0 < 𝑥 3 < 27 ⇒ 0 < 𝑥 < 3
𝑷 𝑸 ̅
𝑷 ̅ ⋁𝑸) or (𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸)
(𝑷
1 1 0 𝟏
1 0 0 𝟎
0 1 1 𝟏
0 1 1 𝟏

 The equivalence ⇔
Definition
The equivalence “𝑷 ⇔ 𝑸” is the proposition “(𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸) ⋀ (𝑸 ⇒ 𝑷)”
 Remark
 We will say "𝑷 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝑸" or "𝑷 𝐢𝐬 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐢𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐭𝐨 𝑸" or
"𝑷 𝐢𝐟 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐨𝐧𝐥𝐲 𝐢𝐟 𝑸"
 The proposition “𝑷 ⇔ 𝑸” is true when 𝑷 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑸 are true or when 𝑷 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑸 are
false.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇔𝑸
1 1 𝟏
1 0 𝟎
0 1 𝟎
0 0 𝟏

Examples:
 For 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥𝑦 = 0 ⇔ (𝑥 = 0)⋁(𝑦 = 0)
 For 𝑛 ∈ ℕ; 𝑛2 > 4 ⇔ 𝑛 > 2
 For 𝑥 ∈ ℝ∗+ ; log 𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦

Proposition
Let 𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅 be three proposition. We have the following (true) equivalences:
 𝑃 ⇔ 𝑃̿
 (𝑃⋀𝑄) ⇔ (𝑄⋀𝑃)
 (𝑃⋁𝑄) ⇔ (𝑄⋁𝑃)
 (𝑃̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
∧ 𝑄) ⇔ (𝑃̅⋁𝑄̅ )
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ⇔ (𝑃̅⋀𝑄̅ )
 (𝑃⋁𝑄)
 𝑃 ∧ (𝑄⋁𝑅) ⇔ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄)⋁(𝑃⋀𝑅)
 𝑃⋁(𝑄⋀𝑅) ⇔ (𝑃⋁𝑄)⋀(𝑃⋁𝑅)
 (𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄) ⇔ (𝑄̅ ⇒ 𝑃̅)

Proof: Let us prove the last proposition using a truth table.

𝑷 𝑸 𝑷⇒𝑸 ̅
𝑷 ̅
𝑸 ̅ ⇒𝑷
𝑸 ̅ ̅ ⇒𝑷
(𝑷 ⇒ 𝑸) ⇔ (𝑸 ̅)
1 1 1 0 0 1 𝟏
1 0 0 0 1 0 𝟏
0 1 1 1 0 1 𝟏
0 0 1 1 1 1 𝟏

2) Quantifiers
a) The quantifier ∀ (For all)
A proposition 𝑃 can depend on a parameter 𝑥, for example, "𝑥 4 ≥ 0", the proposition 𝑃(𝑥) is
true or false depending on the value of 𝑥.
The proposition ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑬; 𝑷(𝒙) is a true proposition when the assertions 𝑃(𝑥) are true for all
elements 𝑥 of the set 𝐸. We read "For all 𝑥 belonging to 𝐸, 𝑃(𝑥)", meaning "For all 𝑥
belonging to 𝐸, 𝑃(𝑥) is true".
Examples:

 The proposition ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥 2 ≥ 0 is true

 The proposition ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ; 𝑛 < 0 is false
 The proposition ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥 2 ≥ 4 is false

b) The quantifier ∃ (Exists)

The proposition ∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑬; 𝑷(𝒙) is a true proposition when we can find at least one 𝑥 of 𝐸 for
which 𝑃(𝑥) is true. We read "there exists 𝑥 belonging to 𝐸 such that 𝑃(𝑥) (is true)”
Examples:
 ∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥 2 > 6 is true
 ∃𝑛 ∈ ℕ; 𝑛 < −5 is false
 ∃𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 true

c) Negation of quantifiers
Definition
̅̅̅̅̅̅
 The negation of ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑬; 𝑷(𝒙) is ∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑬; 𝑷(𝒙)
̅̅̅̅̅̅
 The negation of ∃𝒙 ∈ 𝑬; 𝑷(𝒙) is ∀𝒙 ∈ 𝑬; 𝑷(𝒙)

Examples:
 The negation of (∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥 2 = 5) is (∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 ≠ 5)
 The negation of (∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 + 3 ≥ 0) is (∃∈ ℝ; 𝑥 + 3 < 0)
 The negation of (∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 9) is (∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ; ∀𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 + 𝑦 ≥ 9)

Remarks
 The order of quantifiers is very important. For example, the two logical
sentences
(∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ; 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 9) and (∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ; ∀𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 + 𝑦 < 9) are different
 When we write "∃𝑥 ∈ ℝ ; 𝑃(𝑥)" it just means that there exists a real
number, nothing says that this 𝑥 is unique, i.e there exists at least one real
number 𝑥 such that 𝑃(𝑥).
 To specify that 𝑥 is unique, we add an exclamation point "∃! 𝑥 ∈ ℝ ; 𝑃(𝑥)"
 For the negation of a logical sentence, it is not necessary to know whether
the sentence is false or true. We change the "for all ∀" to "there exists ∃" and
vice versa, then we take the negation of the proposition 𝑃.
 The negation of the strict inequality " < " is the broad inequality " ⩾ ", and
vice versa.
II. Types of reasoning

1) Direct reasoning
We want to show that the assertion "𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄" is true. We assume that 𝑃 is true and we show
that then 𝑄 is true.

Example:
Let 𝑥 be a real number, show that if 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2 then 5 ≤ 2𝑥 + 3 ≤ 7.

2) Case by case
If we wish to verify an assertion 𝑃(𝑥) for all the 𝑥 in a set 𝐸, we prove the assertion for the 𝑥
in a part 𝐴 of 𝐸, then for the 𝑥 not belonging to 𝐴.

Example:
For all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ show that: |𝑥𝑦| = |𝑥||𝑦|.

3) Contrapositive
Reasoning by contraposition is based on the following equivalence: (𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄) ⇔ (𝑄̅ ⇒ 𝑃̅ )
So if we want to show the assertion "𝑃 ⇒ 𝑄", we actually show that if 𝑄̅ is true then 𝑃̅ is
true.

Example:
Let 𝑛 be a natural number, show that if 𝑛2 odd then 𝑛 odd.

4) Absurd
Reasoning by contradiction is a reasoning that allows us to show that a proposition is true by
showing that its opposite is false. It is based on the logical rule that: If 𝑃̅ is false, then 𝑃 is
true.

Example:

Show that, ∀𝑛 ∈ ℕ; √𝑛2 + 1 ≥ 𝑛.

5) Counter-example
If we want to show that an assertion of the type "∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐸, 𝑃(𝑥)" is false then it suffices to
find 𝑥 ∈ 𝐸 such that 𝑃(𝑥) is false.

Example:
Show that the following assertion is false, ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 < 0.
 6) Recurrence
The recurrence principle allows us to show that an assertion 𝑃(𝑛), depending on naturel
number 𝑛, is true for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, the demonstration by recurrence takes place in two steps:

- We prove 𝑃(𝑛) is true for 𝑛 = 𝑛0 (initial condition)

- We assume 𝑃(𝑛) is true and we show that 𝑃(𝑛 + 1) is true (final condition).

Once this is established, we conclude that 𝑃(𝑛) is true for all 𝑛 ≥ 𝑛0 .

Example:
Show that ∀𝑛 ≥ 1; 1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 .