DOI: 10.15804/tner.2023.74.4.

06

Rina Dyah Rahmawati

Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Universitas PGRI Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Nawang Sulistyani (Corresponding author)

Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, Indonesia

Yoppy Wahyu Purnomo

Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Yeni Fitriya
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Deasy Ramadhani
Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Relationship between Elementary School Students'

Numeracy and Number Sense

Abstract
Numbers are fundamental mathematical concepts that underlie various other
mathematical principles. This research investigates the relationship between
number sense and the numeracy abilities of fifth-grade elementary school
students. A cross-sectional survey method was used, with 205 respondents
voluntarily participating. The results showed a reciprocal relationship between
number sense and numeracy in elementary school students. Emphasising
number sense can enhance flexibility in numeracy solutions. Number sense
can be developed through assigning math tasks related to the students' environ-
ment or associating it with other learning processes. The study emphasises the
importance of number sense in the primary school mathematics curriculum.

Keywords: numeracy, number sense, gender, reciprocal relationship, elementary

school students
74 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

Introduction

Number is a fundamental mathematical concept that underlies many other math-

ematical concepts (Purnomo, 2013). Therefore, we can see the significance of the
place of numbers in the primary-level mathematics curriculum, most of which
is arguably related to numbers (Purnomo et al., 2014). For example, geometry
and measurement correlate to each other and to the processing and presentation
of data, and their connection to other advanced mathematical concepts such as
algebra and others. Therefore, mastery of numbers and their operations becomes
crucial and should be emphasised in the learning of mathematics, especially in
elementary school.
Policymakers, practitioners, and researchers know that numeracy's benefits
extend beyond scientific development. Numeracy is relevant in solving social
problems, interacting with society, and equipping individuals to face global com-
petition and future work challenges (Kovas et al., 2013; Munn, 1994). Therefore,
several professional institutions and governments are responding to this need by
conducting large-scale assessments to evaluate this competence.
The term “numeracy” is often used to describe number skills and their use in
different situations, and problem solving processes. This terminology is derived
from several researchers (Askew et al., 1997; De Lange, 2003; Kaminski, 2002;
Asmara & Purnomo, 2023) who discovered that numeracy focuses more on the
numerical aspect, which encompasses three disciplines of mathematical literacy,
namely numeracy, quantitative literacy, and spatial literacy, each with distinct
but interconnected properties. However, we argue that numerical literacy also
encompasses its application to other mathematical literacies. Therefore, numeracy
is a person's ability to discover and interpret multi-context-based mathematical
problems, process the information, and then make and evaluate the correct judge-
ments to solve these difficulties. For this study, mathematical questions based on
multi-contextual scenarios are restricted to numerical issues.
According to some researchers, mastering numbers and their operation involved
more than knowing how to use formulas and algorithms. However, it must also
require number sense. It is because the "number sense" refers to a person's adapt-
ability, success, and effectiveness in problem-solving abilities in various scenarios
or situations. This ability is backed up by conceptual and procedural knowledge
of numbers and how they work (Purnomo et al., 2014; Tout, 2020). When students
explore numbers, they can use multiple settings and organise them in a way that is
not conventional algorithms. This study’s hypothesis is that someone like a pupil
with a strong cognitive number sense, they would be able to apply their numer-
Relationship between Elementary School Students' Numeracy and Number Sense 75

ical expertise to resolve mathematical issues in circumstances not restricted by

conventional protocols (Yang & Sianturi, 2021). In contrast, students with strong
numeracy skills are taught to use their intuition with numbers. Their operations
have a comprehensive perspective on approaching various context-based mathe-
matical situations.
Previous research on numeracy has focused on assessing students' numeracy
abilities in general (Barham et al., 2019; Kuperman et al., 2022; Richards & Islam,
2018) and by gender (Aune et al., 2018; Souza & Fonseca, 2013; Suryadarma, 2015).
The same concerns research about number sense that examines students’ skills
generally (Cheung & Yang, 2018; Mohamed & Johnny, 2010; Purnomo et al., 2014;
Wulandari et al., 2021; Yang & Sianturi, 2021) and depending on gender (Gonzalez
et al., 2021; Yilmaz, 2017). However, few studies have explicitly examined these
factors in relation to the impact of number sense. It has been a while since the
previous research looked for factors (Broekman, 2008; McIntosh & Dole, 2000).
Based on the background provided, this study aims to explore the relationship
between number sense and numeracy among elementary school students. To
achieve this goal, the research questions in this study are formulated as follows:
1. What is the numeracy profile, both in general and by gender?
2. What is the number sense profile, both in general and by gender?
3. What is the relationship between number sense and numeracy?

Literature Review

Numeracy

Geiger et al. (2015) argue that the term "numeracy" refers to the ability to use and
select mathematics in daily life and the ability to utilise mathematics effectively
in situations pertaining to one's personal life, career, and discharge of civic duties.
Numeracy is a person's ability to recognise and interpret multi-contextual mathe-
matical problems, process them, and then make and evaluate the correct decisions
to solve problems. Numeracy goes beyond simply understanding numbers and
basic calculations. It encompasses applying mathematical concepts in real-life
situations, such as budgeting, measuring, and analysing data (United Nations
Relief and Work Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), 2013).
Developing strong numeracy skills is crucial in today's complex and data-driven
world, enabling individuals to effectively make informed decisions and navigate
various challenges.
76 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

Another interesting aspect to consider is that, although taught in an integrated

manner, mathematics and numeracy differ significantly in empowering knowledge
and skills. It is because mathematics learning alone does not necessarily foster
numeracy. However, numeracy necessitates mathematical knowledge acquired
through the curriculum. Numeracy goes beyond the theoretical understanding
of mathematics. It emphasises the practical application of mathematical concepts
in real-life situations (Tout, 2020). It equips individuals with the ability to analyse
data, interpret statistics, and solve problems using reasoning. It equips individuals
with the ability to analyse data, interpret statistics, and solve problems using
reasoning. As a result, knowledge and skills such as number sense, which includes
intuition and estimation, are essential in helping individuals truly develop numer-
acy for effective and efficient decision-making.

Number Sense

Number sense is a person’s general understanding of numbers and operations and

using it to make mathematics decisions with various effective, efficient, and flexible
strategies (McIntosh et al., 1997; Purnomo et al., 2014). Moreover, number sense
progressively evolves due to investigating numbers, visualising them in different
situations, and connecting them in ways not constrained by conventional algo-
rithms (Howden, 1989). For various reasons, developing number sense in primary
school is essential, offering four fundamental justifications for why number sense
is important. To begin with, number sense is a manner of reasoning that includes
adaptability, imagination, and logic. Second, "number sense" refers to a compre-
hensive understanding of the scope of numerical operations and the relationship
between using mathematics in practical applications. Third, while thinking
intellectually and expressing numbers, grownups depend more on number sense.
Fourth, focusing too much on written computation hinders students' ability to
think creatively, understand mathematics, and acquire number sense (Yang & Wu,
2010). Developing number sense allows individuals to approach problem-solving
more flexibly and intuitively, enhancing their mathematical proficiency. Addi-
tionally, students gain a deeper understanding of mathematics and its real-world
applications by proportionally mastering number sense and written computation.
As a result, we believe that students with strong number sense are valuable in
working effectively and efficiently with numeracy.
Relationship between Elementary School Students' Numeracy and Number Sense 77

Research Methodology

Research Background

The importance of numbers and operations as underlying content for learning

other mathematical concepts requires special attention and emphasis in elemen-
tary school. Numbers and their operations are also often associated with numeracy
skills, which focus on numeracy. Several studies show that to master numbers
and their operations, it is not enough to use formulas and algorithms, it requires
number sense. This research will focus on quantitatively proving differences
in numeracy and number sense abilities based on gender and the relationship
between number sense and numeracy among elementary school students.

Sample

This research used a cross-sectional survey to collect data from April to May
2022. The data collection occurred in schools, where instruments were distributed
directly and online through the Google Form platform. The study involved 205
fifth-grade elementary school students residing in Yogyakarta City, Indonesia,
with an average age of approximately 11. Among the participants, there were
89 male students and 116 female students. Seven elementary schools in the city
participated in the survey, with an average of 29 students in each school (SD =
11.88). The schools were chosen through purposive sampling, with the fifth grade
selected as it meets the minimum criteria assessment. Similar to the international
assessment tool PISA, the Indonesian government's minimum criteria assessment
is organised to evaluate the literacy and numeracy skills of elementary school
students in Indonesia.

Instruments and Procedures

Two types of instruments were employed to assess students' number sense and
numeracy abilities. The first instrument adapted numeracy questions from the
National Assessment Programme Literacy and Numeracy (NAPLAN), comprising
40 multiple-choice questions and short fill-ins (NAPLAN, 2016). The maximum
score achievable on the numeracy test is 40, with one point awarded for each
correct answer. The NAPLAN numeracy test evaluates students' proficiency in
numeracy, including their knowledge, skills, and understanding of mathematics.
This assessment covers comprehension, fluency, problem-solving, and reasoning
78 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

across three mathematical content strands: numbers and algebra, measurement

and geometry, and statistics and probability (https://www.nap.edu.au/naplan/
whats-in-the-tests).
The second instrument used was the Number Sense test, adopting items from
the study by Purnomo et al. (2014). This instrument consisted of 30 multiple-choice
questions and short fill-ins. The scoring system was the same as the numeracy test,
with one point for correct answers and zero points for incorrect answers, resulting
in a maximum possible score of 30. The elements of number sense in this study
encompass understanding fundamental ideas related to numbers and operations,
recognising number sizes, utilising multiple representations of numbers and oper-
ations, identifying the relative effects of operations on numbers, and evaluating
the reasonableness of computational results (Purnomo et al., 2014). While some
questions were directly adopted and translated into Indonesian with redesigns,
others were adapted for the number sense instrument. The questions were trans-
lated into Indonesian and adjusted in difficulty to align with the curriculum for
elementary schools in Indonesia.
Both exams were administered on separate days. Each test was conducted
offline with the assistance of the respective class teachers. The first session of
the numeracy tests lasted 50 minutes, while the second session of the number
sense test was allotted 35 minutes for completion. The results of the adaptation
of the numeracy and number sense instruments were then tested for reliability,
and values of 0.65 and 0.76 were obtained. These values fall within the sufficient
reliability category (Table 1).

Data Analysis

The data analysis begins with descriptive statistics, such as mean, standard devia-
tion, minimum, and maximum scores for each variable under consideration. The
analysis then employs t-tests to investigate gender disparities in performance. The
variables number sense and numeracy are then analysed using regression analysis.
Relationship between Elementary School Students' Numeracy and Number Sense 79

Results

Descriptive Data

The results of the descriptive analysis of the numeracy and number sense tests are
shown in Table 1. Table 1 also depicts the relationship between the two variables
and their reliability.

Table 1. Descriptive Data of Numeracy and Number Sense

Numeracy Number Sense Gender Age
Numeracy 1
Number Sense 0.336*** 1
Gender 0.005 0.070 1
Age -0.127 0.024 0.132 1
Mean 21.122 14.740 0.434 11.420
Std. Deviation 5.99 5.06 0.497 0.649
Minimum 7.00 4.00 0.000 10.000
Maximum 36.00 29.00 1.000 14.000
Reliability 0.65 0.76 - -

**. The correlation is significant at the two-tailed 0.001 level.

In Table 1, the numeracy test results showed a mean score of 21.122 (SD = 5.99),
with an average of 52% correct answers. The highest-scoring respondents correctly
answered 90% of the questions, while the lowest-scoring respondents correctly
answered 17%, indicating a significant 29-point difference in scores.
Table 1 displays the number sense test results, indicating a mean score of 14.740
(SD = 5.06), with 14 out of 30 correct answers, compared to less than half in the
numeracy test. The highest scorers achieved a 96% accuracy rate by answering 29
questions correctly, while the lowest scorers answered only 13%. Despite having
a smaller minimum score than the numeracy test, the number sense test had
a narrower range of 25 points.
Table 1 also indicates the reliability and correlations between variables. The
reliability for both instruments is at an adequate level, namely 0,65 and 0,76 for
the numeracy and number sense tests, respectively. These two variables also have
a significant positive correlation (0.336) at a significance level of 0.001 (2-tailed).
It indicates that individuals with high levels of Numeracy also tend to have high
80 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

Number Sense. Furthermore, there are no other pairs of variables that have sig-
nificant correlations.

Numeracy and Number Sense Based on Gender

Table 2 displays the results of the numeracy and number sense tests for each gen-
der of respondents. The t-test findings for both variables are also shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Data of Numeracy and Number Sense Based on Gender

Gender N Mean SD T
1. Numeracy Female 116 21.095 5.328 t (203) = – 0. 074, p = 0.941
Male 89 21.157 6.791
2. Number Sense Female 116 14.431 4.804 t (54) = – 1.003, p = 0. 317
Male 89 15.146 5.372

As seen in Table 2, in the numeracy test, the mean of the female responders
was 21.095, with a 5.328 standard deviation. In contrast, the mean and standard
deviation for male responders were 21.157 and 6.791, respectively. According to
the number sense test findings, the mean score of female respondents was 14.431,
with a standard deviation of 4.804. Meanwhile, male respondents on this test had
a mean of 15.146 with a standard deviation of 5.372. A t-test with a p-value of
0.941 revealed no significant difference in numeracy test scores between female
and male respondents, which is greater than 0.05. With a p-value of 0.317, which
is also greater than 0.05, the number sense test results indicated no significant
difference between the two groups.

Relationship between Student Number Sense and Numeracy

The regression test assesses the impact of number sense on student numeracy
and vice versa. Before this, two datasets were examined for prerequisites such
as normality and linearity, enabling the application of parametric tests. Table 3
illustrates the regression results.
Relationship between Elementary School Students' Numeracy and Number Sense 81

Table 3. Numeracy and Number Sense Descriptive Data on responder charging

outcomes statistics
Numeracy Number Sense
Predictor
B SE B β B SE B β
Number Sense 0.400 0.079 0.337*** - - -
Numeracy - - - 0.283 0.056 0.336***
Gender -0.223 0.801 -0.019 0.697 0.673 0.068

**. The regression is significant at the two-tailed 0.01 level.

***. The regression is significant at the two-tailed 0.001 level.

According to the regression test findings in Table 3, pupils' number sense

strongly predicts their numeracy competence (β = 0.337, p < 0.001). Similarly,
numeracy ability statistically predicts the number sense of primary school stu-
dents significantly (β = 0.336, p < 0.001). In contrast, gender variables were unable
to significantly predict either number sense (β = – 0.019, p > 0.05) or numeracy
ability (β = 0.068, p > 0.05).

Discussion

According to the conclusions of this study, the average achievement of respond-

ents in numeracy was 56%, and in number sense, it was 46%. These two results are
not significantly different; both are still around 50%, with an 8% difference. Even
though it is around the average, the respondents' scores in each variable are very
wide. It demonstrates that the individuals' capabilities are still highly diverse.
This study's first finding shows no significant variation in numeracy results
based on gender. Researchers think this lack of difference is caused by several
factors within and outside the students. For example, differences in the quality of
mathematics learning between male and female students do not necessarily cause
low numeracy for both, nor does parent involvement in the student's learning pro-
cess necessarily influence it. It was also stated by Fryer and Levitt (2010) that the
many factors that cause no gender gap in mathematics range from demographic
and socioeconomic factors to parental characteristics, time spent learning mathe-
matics, and the educational environment. However, although it is very small, there
appears to be a gender gap between male and female students in numeracy skills,
with an average of 0.062 and a standard deviation of 1.463. Very small differences
in these conditions have also been found in several previous studies (e.g., Surya-
82 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

darma, 2015; Aune et al., 2018; Aufa & Manoy, 2022; Mellyzar et al., 2022; OECD,
2019). Meanwhile, based on the more detailed data obtained in this research, it
can be seen that male students tend to be slightly superior to female students. It is
supported by a study that found that the advantage of boys in numeracy is small
at age 10, but grows considerably between age 15 and 27 (Borgonovi et al., 2021).
Gender gaps in elementary school and adolescence may be related to social gender
norms and differences in psychological traits, particularly those related to different
cognitive and emotional development timings. Over time, the increasing gender
gap in numeracy among elementary school students is in line with the increasing
specialisation of men in fields of study and/or work that use numeracy skills more
intensively (Contini et al., 2017).
The second finding in this study also show no significant difference in the
number of sense profiles based on gender. These results are consistent with the
research by Gonzalez et al. (2021), which explained that they did not find any
significant differences between genders in the number sense ability of students.
Yilmaz (2017) explained that the result differences that occur in these two genders
can be influenced by several factors, such as the instructions presented before
taking the test, the test environment, or the personal interest of each respondent
who takes the test, thereby affecting the average test results of the respondents as
a whole. Some of these factors still need further research to prove their validity.
However, like numeracy, number sense also has a very small gender gap between
men and women, namely an average of 0.715 and a standard deviation of 0.568.
It appears that men's number-sense abilities tend to be higher than women's. It
is supported by a study of Jordan et al. (2007), which states that the gender effect
is small even though male students' number sense tends to be superior to female
students. At elementary school age, the number of sense abilities also gradually
increases. It can be related to students' reading abilities. In other words, students'
initial reading literacy influences their number sense even though their cognitive
abilities are the same (Aunola et al., 2004).
The third finding in this research answers the research question about the
relationship between numeracy and number sense. The results of this research
are consistent with our hypotheses, individuals with good number sense may
successfully manage numeracy challenges, but those with high numeracy have
a broad perspective and intuition about numbers and their operations. Longitudi-
nal research has shown that number sense significantly affects future mathematics
performance and remains predictive across different levels of classes, even after
controlling for cognitive factors, age, and reading skills (Dyson et al., 2013; Jordan
et al., 2006; 2010; Jordan & Dyson, 2016). It underscores that number sense is
Relationship between Elementary School Students' Numeracy and Number Sense 83

a factor influencing students' numeracy. Students with a strong number sense are
also proficient in numeracy. Moreover, the TIMSS international survey, renowned
for measuring numeracy skills globally, incorporates number sense as a key ele-
ment in numeracy tests. Number sense and numeracy are mutually influential,
each contributing to the development of the other.
Through observation, Hassinger-Das et al. (2015) found that number sense is
one of the factors that contribute to early numeracy difficulties. Numbers, being
fundamental mathematical concepts, especially in elementary schools, make
number sense a crucial skill for students. The lack of number sense ability is iden-
tified as one of the causes of early numeracy challenges. It is further supported
by research conducted by Lopez-Pedersen et al. (2022), which explains that low
numeracy skills in students are influenced by at least four factors: early numeracy
skills, word problem-solving, arithmetic skills, and number sense. Students with
low numeracy performance are particularly vulnerable to difficulties in learning
mathematics.
Numeracy and number sense are inextricably linked and mutually impact each
other. A study states that number sense is one of the benchmarks for numeracy
(Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER), 2000). It causes these two
things to influence each other, including the same gender similarities. Neither
numeracy nor number sense provide significant differences based on gender. In
their research, Tin Fallow et al. (2018) discovered that number sense is the first
ability taught in early numeracy abilities, especially in kindergarten and elemen-
tary school first grade. Number sense is a fundamental ability in numeracy and
mathematics. Furthermore, in line with this statement, the research Maclellan
(2012) explains that number sense is a general understanding of number knowl-
edge and numeracy processes. Number sense is essential throughout the numeracy
process, playing a critical part in finding information, applying knowledge, and
assessing problem-solving procedures.

Conclusions

The study investigates the relationship between number sense and numeracy abil-
ity. It found that students' number sense can predict their numeracy abilities and
vice versa. The research suggests that interventions targeting number sense can
positively impact numeracy skills and vice versa. No significant gender differences
were found in either area.
84 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

Acknowledgements

The authors express their gratitude to all participants for their time and willingness
to participate in the survey and to anonymous reviewers for their constructive
suggestions on the draft of the paper.

References:
Askew, M., Brown, M., Rhodes, V., Wiliam, D., & Johnson, D. (1997). The contribution of
professional development to effectiveness in the teaching of numeracy. Teacher Devel-
opment, 1(3), 335–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/13664539700200030
Asmara, S. D., & Purnomo, Y. W. (2023). Context of Data and Uncertainty: One of the
Challenges for Numeracy Provision in Elementary School Teacher Education. Acta
Scientiae, 25(6), 235–271. https://doi.org/10.17648/acta.scientiae.7276
Aufa, N., & Manoy, J. T. (2022). Student’s Mathematical Literacy in Solving Asesmen
Kompetensi Minimum Question in terms of Gender. MATHEdunesa, 11(1), 219–229.
https://doi.org/10.26740/mathedunesa.v11n1.p219–229
Aune, T. K., Ingvaldsen, R. P., Vestheim, O. P., Bjerkeset, O., & Dalen, T. (2018). Relative
age effects and gender differences in the national test of numeracy: A population study
of Norwegian children. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(JUL), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3389/
fpsyg.2018.01091
Aunola, K., Leskinen, E., Lerkkanen, M. K., & Nurmi, J. E. (2004). Developmental dynamics
of math performance from preschool to grade 2. Journal of Educational Psychology,
96(4), 699–713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–0663.96.4.699
Barham, A. I., Ihmeideh, F., Al-Falasi, M., & Alabdallah, A. (2019). Assessment of first-grade
students’ literacy and numeracy levels and the influence of key factors. International
Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(12), 174–195. https://doi.
org/10.26803/ijlter.18.12.11
Borgonovi, F., Choi, A., & Paccagnella, M. (2021). The evolution of gender gaps in numer-
acy and literacy between childhood and young adulthood. Economics of Education
Review, 82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102119
Broekman, H. (2008). Number Sense, Numeracy and Mathematical Literacy. 2(2).
Cheung, K. L., & Yang, D. C. (2018). Examining the differences of Hong Kong and Taiwan
students’ performance on the number sense three-tier test. Eurasia Journal of Mathe-
matics, Science and Technology Education, 14(7), 3329–3345. https://doi.org/10.29333/
ejmste/91682
Contini, D., Tommaso, M. L. Di, & Mendolia, S. (2017). The gender gap in mathematics
achievement: Evidence from Italian data. International Journal of …, May, 1–6.
De Lange, J. (2003). Mathematics for Literacy. In Quantitative Literacy: Why Numeracy
Matters for Schools and Colleges (pp. 75–89). http://www.maa.org/ql/pgs75 89.pdf.
Relationship between Elementary School Students' Numeracy and Number Sense 85

Dyson, N. I., Jordan, N. C., & Glutting, J. (2013). A Number Sense Intervention for
Low-Income Kindergartners at Risk for Mathematics Difficulties. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 46(2), 166–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219411410233
Fryer, R. G., & Levitt, S. D. (2010). An Empirical Analysis of the Gender Gap in Mathe-
matics. Journal of Media Economics, 2(2), 210–240. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.2.2.210
Geiger, V., Goos, M., & Forgasz, H. (2015). A rich interpretation of numeracy for the 21st
century: a survey of the state of the field. ZDM – International Journal on Mathematics
Education, 47(4), 531–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-015-0708-1
Gonzalez, A. M., Odic, D., Schmader, T., Block, K., & Baron, A. S. (2021). The effect of
gender stereotypes on young girls’ intuitive number sense. PLoS ONE, 16(10 October).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0258886
Hassinger-Das, B., Jordan, N. C., & Dyson, N. (2015). Reading stories to learn math: Math-
ematics vocabulary instruction for children with early numeracy difficulties. Elementary
School Journal, 116(2), 242–264. https://doi.org/10.1086/683986
Howden, H. (1989). Teaching Number Sense. The Arithmetic Teacher, 36(6), 6–11. https://
doi.org/10.5951/AT.36.6.0006
Jordan, N. C., & Dyson, N. (2016). Catching Math Problems Early: Findings From the
Number Sense Intervention Project. In Continuous Issues in Numerical Cognition:
How Many or How Much (pp. 59–79). Elsevier Inc. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
801637-4.00003-2
Jordan, N. C., Glutting, J., & Ramineni, C. (2010). The importance of number sense to
mathematics achievement in first and third grades. Learning and Individual Differences,
20(2), 82–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.07.004
Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., Locuniak, M. N., & Ramineni, C. (2007). Predicting First-Grade
Math Achievement from Developmental Number Sense Trajectories. Learning Disabili-
ties Research & Practice, 22(1), 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2007.00229.x
Jordan, N. C., Kaplan, D., Oláh, L. N., & Locuniak, M. N. (2006). Number Sense Growth
in Kindergarten: A Longitudinal Investigation of Children at Risk for Mathematics Dif-
ficulties.
Kaminski, E. (2002). Promoting mathematical understanding: Number sense in action.
Mathematics Education Research Journal, 14(2), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF032
17358
Kovas, Y., Voronin, I., Kaydalov, A., Malykh, S. B., Dale, P. S., & Plomin, R. (2013). Literacy
and Numeracy Are More Heritable Than Intelligence in Primary School. Psychological
Science, 24(10), 2048–2056. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613486982
Kuperman, V., Wild, H., & Kyro, A. (2022). How representative are student convenience
samples ? A study of literacy and numeracy skills in 32 countries. 1–22. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271191
Lopez-Pedersen, A., Mononen, R., Aunio, P., Scherer, R., & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2022).
Improving Numeracy Skills in First Graders with low performance in early numer-
acy: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Remedial and Special Education. https://doi.
org/10.1177/07419325221102537
86 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

McIntosh, A., & Dole, S. (2000). Number Sense and Mental Computation: Implications for
Numeracy. Improving Numeracy Learning, 34–37.
McIntosh, A., Reys, B., Reys, R., Bana, J., & Farrell, B. (1997). Number sense in school
mathematics: student performance in four countries (Issue 1997). https://ro.ecu.edu.au/
ecuworks
Mellyzar, M., Unaida, R., Muliani, M., & Novita, N. (2022). Hubungan Self-efficacy dan
Kemampuan Literasi Numerasi Siswa: Ditinjau Berdasarkan Gender [The Relationship
between Self-efficacy and Students' Numeracy Literacy Ability: Viewed Based on Gen-
der]. Lantanida Journal, 9(2), 104. https://doi.org/10.22373/lj.v9i2.11176
Mohamed, M., & Johnny, J. (2010). Investigating number sense among students.
Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8(5), 317–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
sbspro.2010.12.044
Munn, P. (1994). The early development of literacy and numeracy skills. Euro-
pean Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 2(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/
10.1080/13502939485207491
NAPLAN. (2016). National assessment program – literacy and numeracy. May, 1–23.
OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 Results WHERE ALL STUDENTS CAN SUCCEED: Vol. II.
OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/f7986824-en
Purnomo, Y. W. (2013). Komputasi Mental untuk Mendukung Lancar Berhitung Operasi
Penjumlahan dan Pengurangan pada Siswa Sekolah Dasar [Mental Computation to
Support Fluent Counting in Addition and Subtraction Operations in Elementary School
Students]. In National Seminar on Mathematics and Mathematics Education. Department
of Mathematics Education (Educational of Mathematics) FMIPA UNY., 657–662.
Purnomo, Y. W., Kowiyah, K., Alyani, F., & Assiti, S. S. (2014). Assessing Number Sense Per-
formance of Indonesian Elementary School Students. International Education Studies,
7(8), 74–84. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v7n8p74
Richards, J., & Islam, M. S. (2018). Assessing literacy and numeracy among primary school
students: A pilot survey in rural Bangladesh. International Journal of Educational Devel-
opment, 61(June 2017), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2017.12.001
Souza, M. C. R. F. De, & Fonseca, M. D. C. F. R. (2013). Numeracy Practices and Gender
Relations: Tensions and Inequalities in the Work Activities of Female and Male Students
at Youth and Adult Education. Revista Brasileira de Educação, 18, 55. https://doi.org/doi.
org/10.1590/S1413-24782013000400007
Suryadarma, D. (2015). Gender differences in numeracy in Indonesia: evidence from
a longitudinal dataset. Education Economics, 23(2), 180–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/
09645292.2013.819415
ten Braak, D., Kleemans, T., Størksen, I., Verhoeven, L., & Segers, E. (2018). Domain-spe-
cific effects of attentional and behavioral control in early literacy and numeracy
development. Learning and Individual Differences, 68, 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
lindif.2018.10.001
Relationship between Elementary School Students' Numeracy and Number Sense 87

Tout, D. (2020). Evolution of adult numeracy from quantitative literacy to numeracy:

Lessons learned from international assessments. International Review of Education,
66(2–3), 183–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-020-09831-4
United Nation Relief and Work Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).
(2013). The Teacher’s Role in Promoting Literacy and Numeracy. UNRWA. https://www.
unrwa.org/sites/default/files/teachers_role_in_promoting_literacy_and_numeracy.pdf
Wulandari, N. P., Ekowati, D. W., Novitasari, D., Hamdani, D., & Gunawan, G. (2021).
Spatial Reasoning Profile of the Students with Good Number Sense Ability. Journal of
Physics: Conference Series, 1933(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1933/1/012077
Yang, D.-C., & Sianturi, I. A. J. (2021). Sixth Grade Students’ Performance, Misconception,
and Confidence on a Three-Tier Number Sense Test. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 19(2), 355–375. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-020-10051-3
Yang, D.-C., & Wu, W.-R. (2010). The Study of Number Sense: Realistic Activities Integrated
into Third-Grade Math Classes in Taiwan. Journal of Educational Research, 103(6),
379–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220670903383010
Yilmaz, Z. (2017). Young children’s number sense development: Age related complexity
across cases of three children. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education,
9(4), 891–902.

AUTHORS
RINA DYAH RAHMAWATI

Doctoral Programme of Elementary Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Center of Excellence for Literacy and Numeracy, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas PGRI Yogyakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: rinadyah.2020@student.uny.ac.id
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3390-6303

NAWANG SULISTYANI

Lecturer, Department of Elementary Teacher Education, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang

Center of Excellence for Literacy and Numeracy, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: nawang_sulistyani@umm.ac.id
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2864-548X

YOPPY WAHYU PURNOMO

Full Professor at Department of Elementary Education, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta,

Indonesia
Center of Excellence for Literacy and Numeracy, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: yoppy.wahyu@uny.ac.id
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6216-3855
88 Rina Dyah Rahmawati, et al.

YENI FITRIYA

Master student from the Department of Elementary Education, Universitas Negeri

Yogyakarta
Center of Excellence for Literacy and Numeracy, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: yenifitriya.2022@student.uny.ac.id
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3821-4007

DEASY RAMADHANI

Master student from the Department of Elementary Education, Universitas Negeri

Yogyakarta
Center of Excellence for Literacy and Numeracy, Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia
E-mail: deasyramadhani.2022@student.uny.ac.id
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0147-4481