UNIT 2

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF Concept, Meaning and

Definition
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES*
Contents
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Biological and Cultural Diversity
2.2 Estimated Population and Distribution
2.3 Global Overview of Indigenous Peoples
2.3.1 Asia

2.3.2 Africa

2.3.3 Latin America

2.4 Summary
2.5 References
2.6 Answers to Check Your Progress
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 describe the biological and cultural diversity of indigenous people;
 explain how indigenous people are deprived of their rights;
 elucidate the estimated numbers and distribution of the indigenous
population in the world; and
 explain the global overview of indigenous people types and the recognition
of their rights.

2.0 INTRODUCTION
In the global arena indigenous peoples are difficult to define or classify.
Indigenous peoples include heterogeneous cultures, religions and forms of
social and economic organisation. They may be organised in tribal societies or
be mobile peoples, may live in remote areas of states which contain valuable
natural resources, practice various means of livelihood, such as hunting and
foraging, shifting agriculture, pastoral nomadism and so on. Colonialism has
influenced the lives and practices of many indigenous peoples in varied ways
and to different extents, however, some isolated tribal peoples have still not
been affected by colonialism, for example,
• the Amazonian Yanomami tribes,
• the Penan tribe of Sawarak (East Malaysia),
• the Dani tribes of Papua (discovered in 1938) and

31
Contributor: Dr. K. Anil Kumar, Assistant Professor, Discipline of Anthropology, School of Social Sciences, Indira
*

Gandhi National Open University, Maidan Garhi, New Delhi

Introduction to • a Papuan tribe discovered in 1993, who never had contact with the outside
Indigenous Peoples world.
Some indigenous peoples have maintained their traditional lifestyles and practice
their ancient religions, whereas some others have been influenced by religions
alien to them, like Christianity, Islam or Buddhism. Some indigenous peoples
may be said to be living on the peripheries of so-called high cultures, whereas
others have been assimilated in cities and towns. Some of their members have
graduated from universities while others are considered as social underdogs or
victims of alcoholism (Pritchard 2001). The global distribution of indigenous
peoples makes a significant contribution to the world’s cultural diversity.
There are indigenous peoples in every continent, representing thousands of
cultures, languages and unique backgrounds. International organisations,
including the UN, acknowledge that there are currently approximately 30
‘uncontacted’ peoples in countries such as Brazil, Peru and Papua New Guinea,
known only through anthropological evidence.

2.1 BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY

Each indigenous culture has its unique tradition. Despite the enormous diversity
among indigenous people, there are some features that indigenous peoples,
from a more general perspective and to varying degrees, have in common. This
section attempts to highlight such features.
According to the United Nations Permanent Forum about Indigenous peoples,
it is estimated that there are more than 370 million indigenous people spread
across 90 different countries worldwide. Indigenous peoples, also called tribal,
aboriginal or autochthonous peoples, national minorities or first peoples, are best
defined by using several criteria applicable in different countries. Indigenous
peoples from various parts of the world may have all or part of the following
attributes:
1) are the descendants of the original inhabitants of a territory which was
overcome by conquest;
2) are “ecosystem peoples”, such as shifting or permanent cultivators, herders,
hunters and gatherers, fishers and/or handicraft makers, who adopt a multi-
use strategy of appropriation of nature;
3) practice a small-scale, labour-intensive form of rural production which
produces little surplus and has low energy needs;
4) do not have centralised political institutions, organise their life at the level
of community, and make decisions on a consensus basis;
5) share a common language, religion, moral values, beliefs, clothing and other
identifying characteristics as well as a relationship to a particular territory;
6) have a different world-view, consisting of a custodial and non-materialist
attitude to land and natural resources, based on a symbolic interchange with
the natural universe;
7) are subjugated by a dominant culture and society; and
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8) consist of individuals who subjectively consider themselves to be Global Distribution of
indigenous. Indigenous Peoples

Indigenous peoples are characterised by their distinctively unique traditions.

They have their own social, cultural, economic and political institutions that
are distinct from those of the dominant and larger societies in which they live.
There are over 5,000 different languages and ethnic cultures of indigenous
peoples ranging from the forest peoples of the Amazon to the tribal peoples of
India and from the Inuits of the Arctic to the Aborigines of Australia (see Map
below).

Fig. 2.1: World Map of Indigenous Population

Source: http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/edumat/hreduseries/TB7/Chapter%202%20P7-P14.pdf

Activity
Write a few general criteria of the world’s indigenous peoples.
Even though today many indigenous peoples have moved from forest to urban
areas, due to loss of forest and agricultural land and poor living conditions,
many still live traditional lifestyles in their territories. We can distinguish the
following different lifestyles among the indigenous peoples:
Box: 1
• Pastoralists: who are mainly dependent on keeping cattle for own
consumption, clothing and shelter, also for trade and barter. These people
often lead nomadic or semi-nomadic life. Many nomadic peoples in
Africa, such as the Tuareg, and the Van Gujjars in India, are pastoralists.
• Hunter-gatherers: who hunt for game, fish and bird and gather fruits
and insects from the forest for own consumption, also for trade and barter.
Non-timber forest products are used as medicine, stimulants, poison and
pesticides. Many indigenous peoples of the Amazon, the Penan in Malaysia
and the Ogiek in Kenya, Chenchu and Birhor of India are hunter-gathers.
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Introduction to • Farmers: the so-called shifting cultivators, who farm on a small scale to
Indigenous Peoples provide for the basic needs of the family, with often nothing left to trade.
Farming is usually complemented with hunting, fishing and gathering. The
indigenous peoples of the highlands of South America, such as the
Aymara, and many of the tribal peasants in India are subsistence
farmers.
It is possible to find indigenous peoples carrying out many different useful
activities, at the same time managing the planet’s ecosystems:
• as forest-dwellers in the tropical lowlands or mountains,
• as pastoralists in Savannas and other grasslands, or
• as nomadic or semi-nomadic hunters and gatherers in forests, prairies and
deserts.
Fishing is the principal economic activity and source of food for several million
coastal and island dwellers, as well as many indigenous peoples inhabiting the
margins of rivers (Victor M. Toledo).
The above lifestyles of indigenous peoples make it possible for them to survive
in harsh conditions, sustainable living in diverse natural environments, using
their indigenous knowledge system. For indigenous peoples, land means life,
not only because they depend on it for their daily subsistence, but because their
whole cultural, social and spiritual identity is connected with it. It is widely
recognised that indigenous peoples, due to their ways of life, their attitude
towards nature and their ecological knowledge have played a crucial role in the
conservation of biological diversity on the globe.
For indigenous peoples, land and in general nature have a sacred quality that
is almost absent in Western thinking. The land is revered and respected and its
inalienability is reflected in virtually every indigenous cosmo vision. Indigenous
people do not consider the land as merely an economic resource. Under
indigenous cosmo visions, nature is the primary source of life that nourishes
supports and teaches. Nature is, therefore, not only a productive source but the
centre of the universe, the core of culture and the origin of ethnic identity. At
the heart of this deep bond is the perception that all living and non-living things
and natural and social worlds are intrinsically linked.
For indigenous peoples, spirituality and cultural identity cannot be separated
from the natural environment. Their ceremonies not only regulate and confirm the
relationship between individuals, clans, societies and nations but also between
all lives on earth. They are also practiced for the transmission of norms and
values and for educating the youth. Cultural objects, which play an important
role in these ceremonies, can be physical objects, but they can also be a part of
a landscape, such as a mountain or a waterfall. That is why the dispossession
of many of these objects, by private collectors or museums, or through loss of
land, has eroded indigenous cultures significantly.
Indigenous peoples have their administrative structures, customary laws and
justice systems that may differ completely from the often western-based systems
which now prevail in most countries. Some people were able to preserve these
34
structures and systems over time, but many have disappeared under the pressure Global Distribution of
of the now dominant structures and systems. In some countries, however, such Indigenous Peoples
as Ethiopia and Colombia, traditional justice systems are acknowledged. They
coexist with the national justice systems, which is referred to as legal pluralism.
In other situations, such as in Mindanao in the Southern part of the Philippines,
indigenous peoples are working to revive their legal structures and customary
laws.
According to a study from World Wildlife Fund (WWF) by Gonzalo Oviedo,
there is a strong correlation between areas with high biological diversity and
areas with high cultural diversity. Eighty percent of the Global 200 eco-regions
(areas identified as richest in biological diversity) are inhabited by one or
more indigenous people(s). In their long history of managing the environment,
indigenous peoples have accumulated vast amounts of indigenous ecological
knowledge, which is embodied in their culture and languages. Indigenous
knowledge is unique to a given culture or society, which is an important part
of the lives of the people. It is a social capital for them to sustain their life
in food security, human and animal health, education, and natural resource
management. According to the United Nations Environmental Programme,
up to eighty percent of the world’s indigenous populations rely on indigenous
knowledge systems for their sustenance (UN document UNEP/GC.23/INF/23,
p.18.).
A key characteristic for most of them is that the survival of their particular way
of life depends on access and rights to their traditional lands and the natural
resources thereon. They suffer from discrimination as they are regarded as
less developed and less advanced than other more dominant sectors of society.
They often live in inaccessible regions, often geographically isolated, and
suffer from various forms of marginalisation, both politically and socially.
They are subjected to domination and exploitation within national political
and economic structures that are commonly designed to reflect the interests
and activities of the national majority. This discrimination, domination and
marginalisation violates their human rights as peoples/communities, threatens
the continuation of their cultures and ways of life and prevents them from being
able to genuinely participate in decisions regarding their future and forms of
development (ACHPR and IWGIA:2006)
Activity
Briefly describe the traditional occupations of indigenous people.
Check Your Progress
1) Describe the criteria on which indigenous people are defined.
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35
Introduction to 2) Write briefly about the different lifestyles of indigenous people with
Indigenous Peoples examples.
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2.2 ESTIMATED POPULATION AND

DISTRIBUTION
International Labour Organisation, Survival International and the International
Working Group on Indigenous Affairs have estimated that the overall
indigenous population ranges between 300 and 500 million, spread across
some 90 different countries worldwide, which represent the larger part of the
world’s cultural diversity. Given a global population of just under 6 billion in
early 2000, the indigenous population would make up about 5 per cent of the
total population. A more recent figure claims this number to be as high as 370
million indigenous people. The World Bank has widely disseminated a rough
estimate that 60 million of the 350 million people living inside or close to dense
forests, and largely dependent on forests for subsistence and income. Thus,
by considering characteristics other than language, it is possible to enlarge the
number of indigenous peoples in the contemporary world.
It is also estimated that up to 15 per cent of the world’s poor, and up to one-
third of the rural poor, are indigenous (UNPFII). Most of the indigenous people
live in remote areas of the world. Out of 370 million indigenous people, about
70% live in Asia. Based on studies it shows that more than half of the worlds
indigenous are in China and South Asia. They occupy only 20% of the world’s
land surface but consist of and nurture about 80% of the world’s cultural and
biological diversity.
Nations with a strong presence of indigenous peoples are:
• Papua New Guinea (77%),
• Bolivia (70),
• Guatemala (47),
• Peru (40),
• Ecuador (38),
• Myanmar (33),
• Laos (30),
• Mexico (12) and
• New Zealand (12).
On the other hand, considering the absolute number of people recognised as
36 indigenous, India and China can be identified as nations with a high indigenous
population.
 Table 2.1: Indigenous Population by region (IWGIA 2008) in millions Global Distribution of
Indigenous Peoples
China 105.23
South Asia 94.90
Former Soviet Union 0.40
Southeast Asia 29.84
South America 19.53
Africa 21.98
Central America/Mexico 19.07
Arabia 15.41
USA/Canada 3.29
Japan/ Pacific Islands 0.00
Australia/New Zealand 0.46
Green Land/Scandinavia 0.10
Total 310.21

Source: Compiled from IWAGIA 2008 by authors

Fig. 2.2: Indigenous Peoples World Map

Source: https://www.slideserve.com/china/indigenous-peoples-carlos-motta-2009 ppt free download-
ID1909791

Measured by spoken language, the entire world’s people belong to anywhere

between 5,000 to 7,000 cultures. It is estimated that 4,000 to 5,000 of these are
indigenous cultures. Thus, indigenous peoples account for as much as 80 to
90 per cent of the world’s cultural diversity. Based on the inventories done by
linguists, we can draw up a list of the regions and countries with the greatest
degree of cultural diversity in the world.
According to Ethnologue, the best existing catalogue of the world’s languages,
of the 6,703 languages (mostly oral), the percentage of languages found by
regions are:
• 32% in Asia,
• 30% in Africa,
• 19% in the Pacific,
37
Introduction to • 15% in the Americas and
Indigenous Peoples
• 3% in Europe (Grimes, 1996).
Only twelve countries account for 54 per cent of human languages. These
countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Nigeria, India, Australia, Mexico,
Cameroon Brazil, Zaire, Philippines, USA and Vanuatu.
Indigenous peoples occupy a substantial share of the world’s little disturbed
tropical and boreal forests, mountains, grasslands, tundra and desert, along with
large areas of the world’s coasts and near-shore waters, including mangroves
and coral reefs (Durning, 1993). The importance of indigenous territories to
biodiversity conservation is therefore evident.
In fact, indigenous peoples control, legally or not, immense areas of natural
resources. Among the most remarkable examples are the cases of:
• the Inuit people (formerly known as Eskimo) who govern a region covering
one-fifth of the territory of Canada (222 million hectares),
• the indigenous communities of Papua New Guinea whose lands represent
97% of the national territory, and
• the tribes of Australia with nearly 90 million hectares area.
Although numbering just above 250,000 only, the Indians of Brazil possess an
area of over 100 million hectares, mainly in the Amazon basin, distributed in
565 territories. Nearly 60% of the priority areas in central and southern Mexico
recommended for protection are also inhabited by indigenous peoples and half
of the 30,000 rural communities are distributed in the ten most biologically rich
states of the Mexican territory. In summary, on the global scale, it is estimated
that the total area under indigenous control probably reaches between 12 and 20
percent of the earth’s land surface.
The best example of notable overlaps between indigenous peoples and
biologically rich areas is the case of tropical humid forests. In fact, there is
a clear correspondence between areas of remaining tropical forests and the
presence of indigenous peoples in Latin America, the Congo Basin in Africa,
and several countries of tropical Asia, such as the Philippines, Indonesia and
New Guinea. The strong presence of indigenous peoples in Brazil, Indonesia
and Zaire alone, which account for 60 per cent of all the tropical forest of the
world, is remarkable.
In Latin America, this geographical relationship has been strikingly verified for
the Central American countries by a National Geographic Society map produced
by a project headed by Mac Chapin in 1992. The same pattern can be found in
the tropical humid areas of Mexico inhabited by 1.6 million indigenous people,
and in many regions of the Amazonian basin. It has been estimated that in
Amazonian, over 1 million indigenous people of eight countries possess over
135 million hectares of tropical forests (Davis & Wall, 1994).
Many temperate forests of the world also overlap with indigenous territories,
for example, in India, Myanmar, Nepal, Guatemala, the Andean countries
(Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia) and Canada. Similarly, over two million islanders
38
of the South Pacific, most of who are indigenous peoples, continue fishing and Global Distribution of
harvesting marine resources in high biodiversity areas (as coral reefs). Indigenous Peoples

Activity:
Identify and name the top five countries according to the population of
indigenous peoples.

2.3 GLOBAL OVERVIEW OF INDIGENOUS

PEOPLES
In this section, we will outline the indigenous peoples and communities of the
world with regard to their identity of rights. More than 70% of people in Asia
identify themselves as belonging to indigenous people.

2.3.1 Asia
Asia has the highest concentration of indigenous and tribal peoples in the world.
United Nations has estimated that two-thirds of the world’s indigenous peoples
live in Asia, which is home to more than 2,000 civilizations and languages.
There are 260 million indigenous peoples in Asia with India alone accounting
for over 90 million, making it the most culturally diverse region in the world.
Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal also have substantial indigenous and tribal
populations living within their borders. They are the “aboriginal” or “native”
people of the lands in which they live. Most of the indigenous people in Asia are
small in numbers. Some have populations of just a few thousand, or even just
a few hundred. Even though they are in small numbers, they have their distinct
language, culture, customary laws and social and political institutions that are
very different from those of the dominant ethnic groups in their countries. While
there exists an enormous diversity among indigenous peoples, some aspects
common to them are the strong cultural attachment to and the dependence of
their livelihoods on land, forests or the sea, and the natural resources therein.

Fig. 2.3: Images of Asian Indigenous Peoples

Source: https://www.landcoalition.org/en/explore/our-work/indigenous-peoples/

In the Asian context, people with indigenous attributes are known by different
names, such as:
• ‘scheduled tribes’ or ‘janajati’ in India,
• ‘tribes’ in Bangladesh, Nepal and Malaysia,
39
Introduction to • ‘nationalities’ in China, and
Indigenous Peoples
• ‘cultural communities’ in the Philippines.
For the indigenous people of Asia, the above names are foreign and it is difficult
for them to translate these into their own languages. Traditionally, they used
names given to them by their ancestors. In many cases, the indigenous people
feel that the names given to them by other people are derogatory, and resent
them, since they often imply notions of cultural inferiority, being “primitive” or
“backward”. Some of these names are:
• Chuncheat (meaning “ethnicity”, or literally “national people” in
Cambodia),
• upajati (“tribal”) in Bangladesh,
• sakai (literally meaning “slave”) used in Thailand for some hunter-gatherer
groups, or
• fan (“primitive people”) introduced by the Han Chinese settlers when they
came to the island of Taiwan.
However, in some countries, the popular or official terms have come to be
accepted and are now often used (like “tribal” in India).
Since it has been said that almost two-thirds of the world’s indigenous peoples
live in Asia with high cultural diversity, generalizations about these peoples are
likely to result in over-simplifying the situations of these complex and diverse
peoples (See IWGIA). Irrespective of their legal status or the terminology used,
many indigenous peoples of Asia experience non-recognition of their cultural
identity, exclusion and marginalisation.
Table 2.2: Common external designations of ethnic groups

Country Common external Number of ethnic Estimated total

designations groups population
Bangladesh Pahari, Jumma, 45 1.7 - 3.7 m
Adivasi,Tribal 1.2 - 2.5%

Burma/Myanmar Ethnic Minorities 135 14.4 - 19.2 m

30 - 40%
Cambodia Indigenous Minori- 19-21 101,000 - 190,000
ties 0.9 - 1.4%
China Ethnic Minorities 400 (grouped into 55 105 m
officially recognised 8.5%
“ethnic minorities”)
India Scheduled Tribes, 622-635 84.32 m
Adivasi, Janajati (622 recognised 8.3%
“Scheduled Tribes”)
Indonesia Masyarakat Adat over 700 50 - 70 m
20 - 29%
Japan Indigenous Peoples 2 Ainu: 50,000-100,000
(now officially ap- (0.04 - 0.08%)
plied to the Ainu) Ryukans: 1.3 m (1%)

40
 Country Common external Number of ethnic Estimated total Global Distribution of
designations groups population Indigenous Peoples

Laos Ethnic Minorities ca. 200 (49 officially 2.4 - 4.8 m

recognised 35-70%
“ethnic minorities”)
Malaysia Orang Asli, Natives, 97 3.4 m
Orang 12%
Asal
Nepal Adivasi, Janajati, over 80 (59 recognised 10.6 m
Indigenous “Indigenous Nationali- 37.1%
Nationalities ties”)

Pakistan Adi vaas, Tribal 20 35 - 42 m

People 21 - 25%

Philippines Indigenous Cultural 110 officially recog- 6.9-12 m

Communities/ nised 10-15%
Indigenous Indigenous Peoples
Peoples
Thailand Ethnic Minorities, over 25(10 officially over 900,000
HillTribes, Hill/ recognised “hilltribes”) 1.5%
MountainPeople

Vietnam Ethnic Minorities over 90 (53 officially 10 m

recognised“ethnic 13.8%
minorities”)

Source: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact (AIPP) and the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs
(IWGIA) Chiang Mai 2010

India
India, the second-largest tribal-dominated area after Africa, is one of the most
fascinating nations from an anthropological point of view. India ratified the
ILO Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107) in 1958.
The term “indigenous peoples” is not officially recognized or used in India.
The position of the Government of India with regard to the usage of the term
as understood in the United Nations is that all Indians are indigenous to India
(Bijoy, C.R., and Tiplut Nongbri, 2013). For practical purposes, however, those
sections of people declared as falling within the administrative category of
“scheduled tribes” are often considered to be indigenous people (Bijoy, C.R.,
Shankar Gopalakrishnan, and Shomona Khanna, 2010). The total population
of those falling within the scheduled tribe category, as per the 2011 census, is
104.3 million, constituting 8.6 per cent of the total population of the country.
Scheduled tribes are recognized in 30 states and union territories of India and
a total of 705 distinct communities designated as scheduled tribes speaking a
plethora of different languages. As a legally recognised social group, they are
referred to as Scheduled Tribes (STs) and as such are accorded special status
in the Indian Constitution on account of their deprivation and centuries of
exclusion. While the government of India avoids the terminology ‘indigenous’
to refer to these communities, they are popularly known as Adivasis (meaning
original inhabitants). Along with being geographically and socially isolated, the
Adivasis have been historically politically under represented and the regions
41
Introduction to they inhabit, are economically underdeveloped. As different tribal groups are
Indigenous Peoples viewed by the Government as being at different stages of social, economic and
educational development, 75 groups within the scheduled tribes category have
further been categorized as “particularly vulnerable tribal groups”.
Bangladesh
Bangladesh is home to around 3 million indigenous people (Adivasis and
Jumma), from 45 different ethnic groups, who between them speak over 30
different languages. They are located predominantly in the North and South-
eastern parts of the country, with the majority found in the Chittagong Hill Tracts
(CHT), where there are 11 distinct groups of indigenous peoples. Indigenous
peoples in Bangladesh are among the most marginalized and excluded groups
in society. This fact is also reflected in the national Poverty Reduction Strategy
Paper (PRSP), which includes a section on Adivasi/ Ethnic Minority Groups.
Nepal
Nepal is home to 59 officially recognised groups of indigenous peoples (known
as Adivasi-Janajatis), with distinct cultures, languages and belief systems.
Collectively they comprise about 40 % of the population. Indigenous peoples
are found across the country, in the mountains, hills and plains; the largest
concentration is found in the east. Although indigenous peoples of Nepal range
from small hunter-gatherer communities to those with an advanced urban
culture, they are predominately concentrated in remote rural areas and mainly
rely on subsistence farming for their livelihood.
Pakistan
Estimates suggest that the population of indigenous/ tribal people in Pakistan is
about 15% of the total population of 126 million. As in other parts of the world,
indigenous and tribal peoples in Pakistan are among the most marginalized
and excluded groups in society, although considerable diversity exists between
the different groups. Pakistan is also home to a significant number of smaller
indigenous and tribal peoples, such as
• the Kihals and Mors, indigenous peoples of the Indus,
• the Buzdar from the Suleiman Mountains and
• the Kailasha people in Chitral.
These smaller groups, many of whom are semi-nomadic boat people or
pastoralists, are often not accounted for in National Census figures. In many
cases, their vulnerability is further exacerbated by mainstream development
processes.
Cambodia
Cambodia is a multi-ethnic society with a large majority of ethnic Khmer. The
National Population Census 1998 identified 17 indigenous groups in Cambodia
based on their spoken language. According to this source, the total number of
indigenous peoples was about 101,000 or 0.9% of the then total population
of 11.4 million. The indigenous populations constitute close to one percent
42
of the total population and are often called hill tribes or highlanders (Khmer Global Distribution of
Loeu) because most of these peoples live in the four north-eastern provinces of Indigenous Peoples
Mondulkiri, Ratanakiri, Stung Treng and Kratie, which are considered upland
areas.
Philippines
It is estimated that 12-15 million indigenous people inhabit the Philippines
(approximately 15-20% of the total population), speaking around 170 different
languages and belonging to 110 ethnic communities. According to the National
Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), the majority (61%) of indigenous
peoples in the country live in Mindanao, while a third (33%) are in Luzon, and
the remaining (6%) population are in the Visayas.
Activity
Write the names of a few indigenous peoples from each Asian country.
Check Your Progress
3) Short notes on Asian indigenous people.
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2.3.2 Africa
Africa is home to a large proportion of world indigenous peoples. These peoples
identify themselves and are identified by others, according to a range of criteria,
which may vary from country to country, as well as within countries. However,
despite the great diversity of situations and characteristics of indigenous peoples
in the Africa region, they also have many commonalities between themselves,
as well as with indigenous peoples the world over.
According to the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWAGIA),
it is estimated that there are around 50 million indigenous people in Africa. As
per the conceptualization of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’
Rights (ACHPR) and international mechanisms dealing with indigenous
peoples’ rights, many indigenous peoples in Africa are generally understood as
mostly nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists and hunter/gatherers as well as
small-scale farmers.
The indigenous people of Africa practice different cultures;they have different
social institutions and observe different religious systems. Some examples of
hunter-gatherer communities who identify themselves as indigenous peoples
are:
• The Pygmies of the Great Lakes Region,
• The San of southern Africa,

43
Introduction to • The Hadzabe of Tanzania and
Indigenous Peoples
• The Ogiek, Sengwer and Yakuu of Kenya
Examples of pastoralist communities are:
• The Pokot of Kenya and Uganda,
• The Barabaig of Tanzania,
• The Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania,
• The Samburu, Turkana, Rendille, Endorois and Borana of Kenya,
• The Karamojong of Uganda,
• The Himba of Namibia
• The Tuareg, Fulani and Toubou of Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger.
Additionally, the Amazigh of North Africa also identify themselves as
indigenous peoples. However, this is becoming increasingly difficult due to
pressure on their lands, non-recognition of their ways of life and traditional
occupations, and discrimination, among other things.
The concept of indigenous peoples in the African region is relatively
controversial. However, recently, a number of countries in Africa have begun
to address indigenous peoples as a specific group with specific needs and
rights, demonstrating that indigenous issues are highly relevant for the African
continent. While the debate on a definition is still ongoing, many consider that
it is neither necessary nor desirable, to attempt to define indigenous peoples
within the regional context.

Fig. 2.4: Images of African Indigenous Peoples

Source: https://www.africanbudgetsafaris.com/blog/african-tribes-african-culture-and-african-traditions/

In 1999-2001 The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights

(ACHPR or African Commission) established a Working Group of Experts
on Indigenous Populations (WGIP). The mandate of the Working Group is
primarily to examine the concept of indigenous peoples and debateabout the
human rights issues faced by these peoples.The Working Group published a
report on this subject in 2003, which paved the way for furthering the discussion
on indigenous issues in the African region.

44
The Central African Republic ratified the ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Global Distribution of
Convention, 1989 (No. 169)to research the constitutional and legal protection Indigenous Peoples
of the rights of indigenous peoples in Africa, with specific reference to the
African Charter(for further information please see: http://www.ilo.org ; http://
www.ohchr.org ; http://www.ipacc.org.za).
Burundi
As with other countries in the Central African region, Burundi is home to
indigenous peoples, the so-called Pygmies, although most consider this term
to be pejorative, preferring to be referred to by the name of their ethnic group
(Batwa). As with other countries in the region, the number of indigenous peoples
in Burundi is unknown, although it is thought that they represent approximately
30,000-40,000 people, or 0.45% to 0.6% of the total population. The Batwa do
not reside in particular areas, but are scattered throughout the country, and are
primarily hunter-gatherers where local conditions still allow.
The situation of the Batwa of Burundi is very similar to that of their neighbours
in Rwanda. They share the same problems of marginalisation, prejudice,
discrimination, land rights and extreme poverty.
Cameroon
Cameroon is home to several groups who identify themselves as indigenous
peoples. The first groups are the so-called Pygmies (Baka, Bagyéli, Bedzang
and Bakola) who make up approximately 0.4% of the national population.
• The first and largest is the Baka. This group numbers close to 40,000 people,
occupies about 75,000 km² and is situated to the south-east of the country.
• The Bakola, number about 3,700 people and occupy about 12,000 km² in
the southern part of the coastal region, more precisely in the Subdivisions
of Akom II, Campo Bipindi, Kribi and Lolodorf.
• The Bedzang, with less than a thousand people, live to the north-west of
Mbam in the region of Ngambe-Tikar. They are traditionally semi-nomadic
hunters and gatherers, but with increasing insecurity of land tenure, they
are gradually being forced into a more sedentary lifestyle, although many
still practice the semi-nomadic lifestyle.
Other groups include the Mbororo, who belong to the group of Fulani, one of
the largest ethnic communities in Central Africa. The Mbororo population in
Cameroon is 1.85 million with about 120,000 to 130,000 living in the grass
field plateau of Bamenda in the North West Province. They are found in almost
all provinces of the country.
Congo
As with other countries in the Central African region, the Republic of Congo
is home to several groups of indigenous peoples, the so-called Pygmies, their
original ethnic groups being the Babenga, Baka, Babenjele and Bambendzele
and so on. The number of indigenous peoples in Congo is unknown, as is the
exact number of groups that could be considered “indigenous” in accordance

45
Introduction to with generally accepted criteria, including that of self-identification. They do
Indigenous Peoples not reside in specific areas, and it is thought that indigenous peoples in Congo
live in most of the regions of the country, and are primarily semi-nomadic
hunter-gatherers, where local conditions still allow.
Kenya
Most indigenous peoples in Kenya live in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs)
which include almost the majority of wildlife parks and reserves and protected
forests. The indigenous peoples in the ASAL areas are predominantly pastoralists
and agro-pastoralists, as these areas are mainly suitable for livestock grazing
due to low and erratic rainfall. These areas present the highest incidences of
poverty (over 60 per cent of the population lives below the poverty line) and the
lowest level of access to basic services in the country. In Kenya, working under
the framework of a partnership between the ILO, the WIPO and the Maasai
Cultural Heritage Foundation (MCH), aim at improving the Maasai community’s
capacity to protect and increase ownership of their cultural heritage and natural
resources.
Morocco
The Amazigh people identify themselves as indigenous peoples in Morocco.
The Amazigh people may make up anything up to 60% of the population of
Morocco, although figures are regularly contested. They are otherwise known as
Berbers. Where it is still possible, the Amazigh people still practice a nomadic
way of life.
Namibia
As with other countries in the Southern Africa region, Namibia is home to the
San peoples. An estimated 38,000 San live in Namibia. Although linguistically
and culturally heterogeneous, the San are collectively distinguished from other
minorities by a shared history. Their traditional reliance on hunting and gathering
as the primary mode of subsistence, their socio-economic marginalisation in the
countries they live and the dispossession of their lands form the basis for an
emerging collective San identity in the region.
Activity
Write about the organisations which recognise the rights of indigenous
people.
Check Your Progress
4) Discuss the number and types of African indigenous people.
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46
2.3.3 Latin America Global Distribution of
Indigenous Peoples
There are approximately 40,000,000 people in Latin America and the Caribbean
that belong to the almost 600 to 642 indigenous peoples of the continent, with
a population fluctuating between 30 and 50 million and growing. Many of them
are in Mexico, Peru, Guatemala, Bolivia and Ecuador.
In Bolivia and Guatemala, the indigenous form a majority of the population. In
Mexico, there are approximately 11 million indigenous. According to World
Bank figures, 12.76% of the entire American population and approximately
40% of the rural population is indigenous. The circumstances of each people
are unique, but as indigenous peoples, they also face common problems and
challenges.
Indigenous peoples pre-date the States in which they live and, despite subjugation
policies aimed at their destruction, they are still managing to uphold and rebuild
their identity, language and culture, as well as their traditional social, legal
and political systems, or a large part thereof. The continent’s history and very
essence are rooted in the cultural and social foundations of these indigenous
peoples.
Throughout history, indigenous peoples have developed different forms of
resistance and currently, having gained strength, indigenous movements are
reclaiming their land rights, respect for their cultural values, languages, customs
and institutions and the right to decide their development priorities and how it
will take shape. Indigenous movements in Latin America have grown markedly
in recent decades and have increased their organisational capacity as political
actors, demanding increasingly higher levels of participation.
There have been significant changes in the recognition of their legal rights. After
the recent ratification of Convention 169 on the part of Chile and Nicaragua,
few countries in the region (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela) and
almost all party States have carried out constitutional and legislative reforms
that, in one way or another, include provisions on indigenous peoples. The
effective application of some of the rights that emanate from its provisions
is, however, postponed. The struggle between the indigenous peoples and
the governments regarding the right to be consulted in order to obtain their
free, prior and informed consent, another manifestation of the right to self-
determination, exhibits the gap between the recognition and enforcement of
indigenous rights.
In Peru, Brazil, Colombia, Nicaragua, Guatemala and other countries, the lack of
political will to carry out consultations before initiating large-scale projects with
expected impacts have led to a series of conflicts not only with the indigenous
peoples but also with the international institutions in charge of monitoring
compliance with human rights. Further more, public programmes and policies
to improve the situation of indigenous peoples have been developed and carried
out in many of these countries. Nonetheless, the region still faces major hurdles
in the implementation of the Convention, which guarantees the participation of
indigenous peoples and the effective enjoyment of the rights recognised in the
Convention.
47
Introduction to Argentina
Indigenous Peoples
It is estimated that there are a total of 600,329 native persons living in Argentina
(INDEC, 2007) from more than 30 different indigenous groups scattered across
the country’s provinces. These groups include the Mapuche, Kolla, Toba,
Wichí, Mocoví, Pilagá, Guaraní, Chiriguano, Chané, Chulupí, Chorote, Tapiete,
Tehuelche, Diaguita, Calchaquí, Huarpe and Ona, the majority of which live in
communities on rural settlements. They account for approximately 3% to 5% of
the country’s total population, but in some provinces, the indigenous population
is between 17% and 25%.
In 1994, Argentina modified its constitution written in 1853, introducing
important advances in the rights of indigenous peoples, such as
• recognition of the pre-existence of indigenous peoples,
• the right to consultation and participation in decisions that affect them,
• respect for identity,
• the right to bilingual and intercultural education,
• recognition of the legal status of indigenous communities, and
• communal possession and ownership of their traditional lands.
Bolivia
Bolivia has the highest percentage of indigenous peoples in Latin America
(62% according to UNDP, 2006). Of the indigenous peoples, it is estimated
that the majority are Quechua (50.3%) and Aymara (39.8%). To a lesser
degree, although distributed across extensive territories, are lowland peoples
such as the Chiquitano (3.6%) and Guaraní (2.5%). The departments of La
Paz, Cochabamba, Potosí, Oruro and Chuquisaca have the highest indigenous
concentration.
More recently, in 1938, the constitution began to formally recognise indigenous
communities. The agrarian reform of the 1950s was designed to put an end to
the system of large estates, or latifundios, in the Andean high plateau, but at
the same time encouraged the penetration into the territories and dispossession
of Eastern peoples. Bolivia ratified Convention No. 169 in 1991, and in 1994,
the constitution recognised the “multiethnic and multicultural” nature of the
Republic. The constitutional reforms of 2004 recognised indigenous peoples’
right to present candidates directly, recognising them as political and social
actors in their own right. Other national regulations recognise rights such as:
• indigenous rights to their native communal lands,
• rights to a share of natural resource profits,
• rights to be consulted.
Bolivia also made the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples binding as national law. The 2006-2007 constitutional process included
a high level of indigenous participation. Indigenous peoples have demanded
the inclusion of First Nations in the State’s new pact, defining Bolivia as a
48
multinational State.
Notwithstanding the legal changes, the political scene in Bolivia is highly Global Distribution of
complex, as certain sectors are staunchly resistant to the effective implementation Indigenous Peoples
of indigenous rights. This is why it is very important to initiate sweeping
intercultural dialogue so that together, society can reach democratic agreements
on plural coexistence.
Indigenous groups have gained strength in recent decades, reclaiming their
identity as indigenous peoples and First Nations, and increasing their levels of
organisation and participation. There are currently 5 major indigenous centres
grouping the lowland and highland peoples, landless peasants and women.
Guatemala
Guatemala’s population is comprised of 11.2 million (INE, 2003) people from
Mayan indigenous tribes, the Xinca people, the Garifunas and the Mestizos.
According to official statistics, the Maya account for 48.6% of the population,
comprised of 22 linguistic communities: Achi’, Akateko, Awakateko, Ch’orti’,
Chuj, Ixil, Itza’, Kaqchikel, K’iche’, Mam, Mopan, Poqomam, Poqomchi’,
Popti’, Q’anjob’al, Q’eqchi’, Sakapulteko, Sipakapense, Tektiteko, Tz’utujil
and Uspanteko.
Guatemala is notable for being mostly rural; almost two-thirds of its inhabitants
live in rural areas and a large majority of the indigenous work under exploitive
conditions on agro-export farms.
As far as a legal framework goes, the 1985 Constitution recognises, respects
and protects the cultural diversity, languages, culture and customs of ethnic
groups and indigenous communities, but does not, however, recognise them as
peoples. Nevertheless, from a peace process point of view, Guatemala ratified
Convention No. 169 in 1996 and subsequently made the Peace Accords legally
binding, among them the Accord on the Identity and Rights of Indigenous
Peoples (2005). The law recognises indigenous languages as national languages
and encourages their use publicly, and discrimination is now categorised as
a crime. To implement the Peace Accords, the following institutions, among
others, were created to protect indigenous rights:
• the Defensoría de la mujerindígena (DEMI),
• FondoIndígena,
• CODISRA, a presidential commission against discrimination and racism.
Although Guatemala’s years of conflict are behind it, serious social and economic
problems persist that mostly affect the indigenous population. There is a need
for policies reflected in the effective improvement of the situation of indigenous
peoples, particularly concerning access to land, social and labour rights, public
services and the effective recognition of the administration of indigenous justice.
Constructive social dialogue is also necessary among indigenous peoples, other
stakeholders and the government.
Activity
What activities have been undertaken by organisations in support of
indigenous people
49
Introduction to Check Your Progress
Indigenous Peoples
5) Explain about the various concerning international organisations and their
activities.
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2.4 SUMMARY
According to the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues it is
estimated that there are more than 370 million indigenous people spread across 90
different countries worldwide. Indigenous peoples, also called tribal, aboriginal
or autochthonous peoples, national minorities or first peoples, are best defined
by using several criteria applicable in different countries. Indigenous people are
characterized by their distinctly unique traditions. They have their own social,
cultural, economic and political institutions that are distinct from those of the
dominant and larger societies in which they live.
There are over 5,000 different languages and ethnic cultures of indigenous
peoples ranging from the forest peoples of the Amazon to the tribal peoples of
India and from the Inuits of the Arctic to the Aborigines of Australia.
Based on the total identified population of indigenous peoples the world over,
nations with a strong presence of these peoples are:
• Papua New Guinea (77%),
• Bolivia (70),
• Guatemala (47),
• Peru (40),
• Ecuador (38),
• Myanmar (33),
• Laos (30),
• Mexico (12) and
• New Zealand (12).
Within the international legal framework for the protection of the rights of
indigenous peoples, the ILO has adopted two legally binding international
instruments that specifically address indigenous and tribal peoples:
• The Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107), and
• ILO Convention, 1989 (No. 169), which outlines possible forms of action
to be taken to promote the rights of indigenous and tribal peoples.
50
The Indigenous and Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107) was the Global Distribution of
first attempt to codify international obligations of States in respect of indigenous Indigenous Peoples
and tribal populations and was the first international convention on the subject,
and was adopted by the ILO at the request of the UN-System. With the adoption
of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the UN
as a whole has taken a major step forward in the promotion and protection of
indigenous and tribal peoples’ rights throughout the world.
The provisions of the Declaration and Convention No. 169 are compatible and
mutually reinforcing. While the Declaration does not provide for a specific
mechanism to monitor its implementation, it provides for a specific role of UN
agencies to support the realization of its provisions (Articles 41 and 42).
In particular the ILO, as the agency responsible for the only legally binding
international instrument on the rights of indigenous and tribal peoples, has an
important role to play in this context.

2.5 REFERENCES
ACHPR (African Commission’s Work on Indigenous Peoples in Africa).
(2006). Indigenous Peoples in Africa: The forgotten Peoples? Copenhagen,
Denmark: African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and IWGIA
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.
Chao, S. (2012). FOREST PEOPLES: Numbers across the World. 1c
Fosseway Business Centre, Stratford Road, United Kingdom: Forest Peoples
Programme.
Davis, S.H., & Wali, A. (1994). Indigenous land tenure and tropical forest
management in Latin America, Ambio 23, 207-217
Grimes, B. (Ed.). (1992). Ethnologue: Languages of the World (12th ed.).
Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. http://www.ilo.org; http://www.ohchr.
org; http://www.ipacc.org.za
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWAGIA). (2008). The
Indigenous World 2008. Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.
iwgia.org/index.php
King. E., van de Walle, D. (2010). Catching up slowly: Ethnic and gender
inequalities. Lao PDR. World Bank, p. 1
Niezen, R. (2003). The origins of Indigenism: Human rights and the politics of
identity. University of California Press.
Pritchard, S. (2001). Indigenous peoples’ rights and self-determination. Retrieved
from http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/HRLRes/2001/8/ (04.05.05)
State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples Report. Retrieved from http://www.
un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/en/sowip.html.
UNFPII. (2012). Study on shifting cultivation and the socio-cultural integrity of
indigenous peoples. E/C.19/2012/8, p.3 & 12
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Introduction to UNICEF, UNFPA, UN Women, ILO, OSRSG/VAC. (2013). Breaking the
Indigenous Peoples silence on violence against indigenous girls, adolescents and young women, p.
7
United Nations. (2010). State of the World’s Indigenous Peoples. ST/ESA/328,
p. 89

2.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1) Refer to section 2.1
2) Refer to section 2.1
3) Refer to sub-section 2.3.1
4) Refer to sub-section 2.3.2
5) Refer to section 2.3

52