FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROGRAMME : BACHELOR OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (BCET5)

SUBMITTED TO : Eng. T. MSUKWA

SUBMITTED BY : BRIAN TRAPENCE

REG. NUMBER : BCET/17/SS/015

MODULE TITLE : HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE

ASSIGN. TITLE : MECHANICAL METHODS OF ASSESSING

PAVEMENT DEFECTS

DUE DATE : March 28th, 2023

 Mechanical Methods of Assessing Pavement Defects

Mechanical methods of assessing pavement defects are essential tools for identifying and
addressing issues on paved surfaces. These methods provide objective data that can be used to
prioritize maintenance and repair activities, and to develop long-term strategies for pavement
management. While they have their limitations, they remain an important part of any
comprehensive pavement management program. Pavement deflection tests are a non-
destructive approach to assess the structural health of an in-service pavement. Deflection tests
are primarily used to analyze a current pavement's structural suitability and its capacity to
withstand future traffic loads (Deflection testing guidelines, 2022). There is a significant
relationship between pavement deflection and the pavement's capacity to support traffic loads
at a specified minimum level of service. The general state of the pavement can be described
using deflection data, which can also reveal how the pavement reacts to external factors like
weather. the deflection tests described below include: deflection beam, Falling weight
deflectometer, Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test (DCP), Sand Patch test and the Roughness test
(Merlin cycle).

1. Deflection beam

The simplest method of measuring the deflection of a road pavement is to use a loaded lorry
and the deflection beam.

Description of the deflection beam

The beam consists of a slender pivoted beam, approximately 3.7m long, supported in a low
frame which rests on the road. The frame is fitted with a dial gauge for registering the
movement at one end of the pivoted beam, the other end of which rests on the surface of the
road .

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Figure 1 Deflection beam represented in a diagram

Deflection test procedure using the deflection beam

a. The test point shall be preselected and marked. For highway pavements, test
points shall be located at the distances from the edge of the lane given in Table
1.

Table 1

Lane Width Distance from lane Edge

(Metres) (Metres)

2.8 or less 0.5

0.6
3.0
0.7
3.2
0.8
3.4
0.9
3.6 or more

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 b. The tyre pressure should be checked before the first test and then at intervals
not exceeding three hours.
c. The truck shall initially be positioned with the test wheel between 100 and
150mm to the rear of the test spot, ie position A.
d. The probe of the beam shall be inserted between the dual tyres of the test
wheel with the toe located on the test spot.
e. The locking device shall be released and the rear of the beam adjusted so that
the plunger is in contact with the dial gauge.
f. The dial gauge shall be set to read between 9 and 11mm (the actual reading
need not be recorded) and the vibrator set in operation.
g. The truck shall be moved forward at creep speed so that the test wheel passes
over the test spot and continues advancing to position 8 which is 2.7 ± 0.1
metres beyond the test spot.
h. The START READING, S, is the maximum dial gauge reading occurring
during this movement of the truck from position A to position B, and will
normally occur as the wheel passes over the test spot. This reading shall be
recorded.
i. The truck shall be moved forward until the test wheel is in position V which is
not less than 10 metres from position B.
j. The FINAL READING, F, is that figure indicated by the dial gauge when the
truck has stopped in position C. This figure shall be recorded.

Factors affecting deflection tests

Deflection readings can be affected by a number of factors which should be taken into
account before the results can be interpreted. These are the temperature of the road, plastic
flow of the surfacing between the loading wheels, seasonal effects and the size of the
deflection bowl.

Road temperature
The stiffness of asphalt surfacing will change with temperature and therefore the magnitude
of deflection can also change. The temperature of the bituminous surfacing is recorded when
the deflection measurement is taken, thus allowing the value of deflection to be corrected to a

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standard temperature. It is recommended that 35°C, measured at a depth of 40mm in the
surfacing, is a suitable standard temperature for roads in tropical climates. The relation
between temperature and deflection for a particular pavement is obtained by studying the
change in
deflection on a number of test points as the temperature rises from early morning to midday.
It is not possible to produce general correction curves to cover all roads found in tropical
countries so it is necessary to establish the deflection/temperature relationship for each
project. Fortunately, it is often found that little or no correction is required when the road
surfacing is either old and age hardened or relatively thin (Jones, Rolt, Smith, & Parkman,
1999)

Plastic flow
Plastic flow of new bituminous surfacing can occur during deflection testing. As the
surfacing is squeezed up between the twin wheels the transient deflection obtained will be
less than the true value. Plastic flow can easily be identified by high negative final readings
being recorded during the transient test. Alternative test procedures such as the `rebound'
deflection test do not identify when plastic flow is occurring (Jones, Rolt, Smith, & Parkman,
1999).

Seasonal effects
In areas where the moisture content of the subgrade changes seasonally, the deflection will
also change. For overlay design purposes, it is usual to use values which are representative of
the most adverse seasonal conditions. It is therefore normal practice to carry out surveys just
after the rainy season. If this cannot be done, an attempt should be made to correct for the
seasonal effect. However, this requires a considerable data bank of deflection results and
rainfall records before reliable corrections can be made.

Size of deflection bowl

The size of the deflection bowl can occasionally be so large that the front feet of the
deflection beam lie within the bowl at the beginning of the deflection test. If this happens, the
loading and recovery deflection will differ. The simplest way to check whether the
differences in loading and

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recovery deflection are caused by the size of the bowl is to place the tip of another beam
close to the front feet of the measurement beam at the beginning of the transient test. This
second beam can be used to measure any subsequent movement of the feet of the first beam
as the lorry moves
forward. If feet movements larger than 0.06mm are observed only the recovery part of the
deflection cycle should be used for estimating the value of transient deflection (Jones, Rolt,
Smith, & Parkman, 1999)

2. Falling weight deflectometer

Test procedure
A safe working environment should be maintained at all times. Many organizations will have
on-site safety procedures which should be followed. The safety aspects of a FWD survey are
particularly difficult to manage, as it is a mobile operation, and the supervising engineer
should
ensure that satisfactory procedures are followed. Where short lengths of road are being
investigated, they should be coned off. If measurements are being carried out over
longer lengths of road, then the operator, driver and traffic control personnel should always
be extremely aware of both the movements of the testing equipment and other vehicles on the
road. In addition to static road signs, the towing vehicle should always be fitted with flashing
lights and direction signs and all personnel should wear high visibility safety jackets.

PROCEDURE

• Stop the vehicle and position (lower) the loading plate over the chosen location.
• Lower the sensors to the pavement surface.
• Drop weight.

NOTE: Multiple tests can be performed on the same location using different weight drop
heights.

During the FWD testing, the air and pavement surface temperatures are measured; these
factors can be taken into account later in the analysis.

The FWD test is typically performed at regular intervals along the length of a road or other
paved surface. The data obtained from each test point is used to create a deflection basin,

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which is a graph that shows the relationship between the applied load and the resulting
pavement deflection. By comparing the deflection basins from different test points, engineers
can identify areas of the pavement that are weaker or more damaged than others.

Interpretation of Results, Merits and Demerits

The FWD test can also be used to estimate the stiffness of the pavement, which is a measure
of its ability to resist deformation under load. The stiffness is calculated by dividing the load
by the deflection, and is typically reported in units of pounds per square inch (psi) or
megapascals (MPa). The stiffness data can be used to estimate the remaining life of the
pavement, and to determine the optimal timing for maintenance and rehabilitation activities.

One of the advantages of the FWD test is its ability to provide detailed information about the
condition of the pavement structure, including the depth and extent of damage. This
information can be used to develop targeted repair and maintenance strategies, and to prioritize
resources based on the severity of the pavement defects. The FWD test is also a cost-effective
method for assessing pavement condition, as it does not require the removal or destruction of
pavement samples.

However, the FWD test does have some limitations. For example, it may not be effective at
detecting defects that are located deep within the pavement structure. Additionally, the test
results may be affected by factors such as temperature, moisture, and surface texture.
Nevertheless, the FWD test remains a valuable tool for pavement management, and is widely
used by engineers and transportation agencies around the world.

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 3. Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test.

The Dynamic Cone Penetration Test provides a measure of a material’s in-situ resistance to
penetration. DCP uses an 8 kg hammer dropping through a height of 575mm and a 60° cone
having a maximum diameter of 20mm. The instrument is assembled as shown below. It is
supplied with two spanners and a tommy bar to ensure that the screwed joints are kept tight at
all times. To assist in this the following joints should be secured with a non-hardening
thread locking compound prior to use:
• Handle/hammer shaft
• Coupling/hammer shaft
• Standard shaft/cone
The instrument is usually split at the joint between the standard shaft and the coupling for
carriage and storage and therefore it is not usual to use locking compound at this joint.
However, it is important that this joint is checked regularly during use to ensure that it does
not become loose. Operating the DCP with any loose joints will significantly reduce the life
of the instrument.

Figure 2 DCP test

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 Figure 3 Dynamic Core penetrometer

Procedure
Before use the DCP equipment it is first assembled.

• After the instrument is set up, the zero reading of the apparatus is recorded. This is done
by placing the DCP on a hard surface, ensuring its verticality, and then noting down the
zero reading in the appropriate place on the proforma.
• The instrument is held vertical, and the weight is carefully raised to the handle. The
weight should not touch the handle before it is allowed to drop, and that the operator
should let it fall freely and does not lower it with his hands.

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 • It is advised that a reading should be taken at increments of penetration of about 10mm.
However, it is usually easier to take a scale reading after a set number of blows. It is,
therefore, necessary to change the number of blows between readings according to the
strength of the layer being penetrated. For good quality granular bases, readings after
every 5 or 10 blows are normally satisfactory, but for weaker sub-base layers and sub-
grades, readings after every 1 or 2 blows may be appropriate.
• After the completion of the test, DCP is removed by gently tapping the weight upwards
against the handle. It should be done with caution as if done vigorously, the life of the
instrument will be reduced.

NOTE: The DCP can be driven through surface dressings but it is recommended that thick
bituminous surfacing are cored prior to testing the lower layers. Little difficulty is normally
experienced with the penetration of most types of granular or lightly stabilised materials. It is
more difficult to penetrate strongly stabilised layers, granular materials with large particles
and very dense, high quality crushed stone. The TRL instrument has been designed for strong
materials and therefore the operator should persevere with the test. Penetration rates as low as
0.5mm/blow are acceptable but if there is no measurable penetration after 20 consecutive
blows it can be assumed that the DCP will not penetrate the material. Under these
circumstances a hole can be drilled through the layer using an electric or pneumatic drill, or
by coring. The lower pavement layers can then be tested in the normal way. If only
occasional difficulties are experienced in penetrating granular materials, it is worthwhile
repeating any failed tests a short distance away from the original test point.

If, during the test, the DCP leans away from the vertical no attempt should be made to correct
it because contact between the shaft and the sides of the hole can give rise to erroneous
results. Research (Livneh, 1995) has shown that there can be an overestimate of subgrade
strength as a result of friction on the rod caused by either tilted penetration through, or
collapse of, any upper granular pavement layers. Where there is a substantial thickness of
granular material, and when estimates of the actual subgrade strength are required (rather
than relative values) it is recommended that a hole is drilled through the granular layer prior
to testing the lower layers.

If the DCP is used extensively for hard materials, wear on the cone itself will be accelerated.
The cone is a replaceable part and it is recommended by other authorities that it should be

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replaced when its diameter is reduced by 10 per cent. However, other causes of wear can also
occur hence the cone should be inspected before every test.

Table 1 DCP test field sheet

Interpretation of results
The results of the DCP test are usually recorded on a field data sheet similar to that shown in
Figure F2. The results can then either be plotted by hand, as shown in Figure F4,
or processed by computer (laboratory, 1990). Relationships between DCP readings and CBR
have been obtained by several research authorities (see Figure F5). Agreement is generally
good over most of the range but differences are apparent at low values of CBR in fine grained
materials. It is expected that for such materials the relationship between DCP and CBR will
depend on material state and therefore, if more precise values are needed it is advisable to
calibrate the DCP for the material being evaluated.

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Figure 4 Typical DCP test result

Figure 5 DCP-CBR relationships

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 4. The Sand Patch Test

The Sand Patch Test is a simple and widely used method for determining the surface texture of
a pavement. The procedure involves spreading a thin layer of dry sand over the pavement
surface and measuring the area covered by the sand. This information can be used to calculate
the International Roughness Index (IRI), which is a measure of the pavement's roughness and
ride quality.

Procedure

The following is a general procedure for conducting the Sand Patch Test:

• Clean the test area: Before conducting the test, the pavement surface should be cleaned
to remove any loose debris or dirt that could affect the results.
• Prepare the sand: The sand used for the test should be dry and free of impurities. The
sand can be sieved to remove any particles larger than 1.18 mm.
• Apply the sand: Using a template with a known area (usually 225 square centimeters),
spread a thin layer of sand over the pavement surface within the template. The sand
should be evenly distributed and levelled with a straightedge.
• Measure the sand patch: Using a ruler or other measuring device, measure the area
covered by the sand within the template. The sand-covered area should be recorded in
square centimeters.
• Repeat the test: The Sand Patch Test should be conducted at multiple locations along
the pavement surface to ensure an accurate representation of the pavement's roughness.
• Calculate the IRI: Once the sand-covered area has been measured, the IRI can be
calculated using a formula that takes into account the sand-covered area, the length of
the template, and the wavelength of the pavement roughness. The formula for
calculating the IRI is:

• IRI = (12.5 * D^2) / L

Where D is the sand-covered area in square centimeters, and L is the length of the template in
meters.

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Interpretation of the results

The texture depth can be compared to standards to determine the roughness classification of
the pavement surface. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO) has established standards for texture depth for different types of
pavements.

Roughness classification: The texture depth value is used to classify the pavement surface into
a roughness category. AASHTO standards classify pavement surfaces as follows:

• Smooth: Texture depth less than or equal to 0.5 mm (0.02 in)

• Slightly rough: Texture depth between 0.5 mm (0.02 in) and 1.0 mm (0.04 in)
• Moderately rough: Texture depth between 1.0 mm (0.04 in) and 1.5 mm (0.06 in)
• Rough: Texture depth between 1.5 mm (0.06 in) and 2.0 mm (0.08 in)
• Very rough: Texture depth greater than 2.0 mm (0.08 in)

It is important to note that the interpretation of the texture depth values should take into account
the specific requirements of the project or application. For example, a higher texture depth
value may be acceptable for a low-traffic road, while a lower texture depth value may be
required for a high-speed highway.

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In addition, the sand patch test only provides a measure of the macrotexture of the pavement
surface. Other tests, such as the laser profilometer or the Merlin bicycle roughness test, may be
needed to provide a more complete picture of the pavement's condition.

Merits and Demerits

Overall, the Sand Patch Test is a simple and cost-effective method for assessing pavement
surface texture, and is widely used by engineers and transportation agencies around the world.
It is important to note, however, that the Sand Patch Test only measures the surface texture of
the pavement, and may not provide a complete picture of the pavement's condition. Other tests,
such as the FWD test or GPR, may be needed to assess the structural integrity of the pavement.

5. Roughness test (Merlin Bicycle)

The longitudinal unevenness of a road's surface (normally termed its roughness) is both a
good measure of the road's condition and an important determinant of vehicle operating costs
and ride quality. A simple roughness measuring machine has been designed especially for use
in developing countries. It is called MERLIN (Machine for Evaluating Roughness using
Low-cost Instrumentation).

Figure 6 Sketch of the MERLIN

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Procedure

200 measurements are made at regular intervals.

a. The machine is placed on the road with the wheel in its normal position and
the rear foot, probe and stabilizer in contact with the road surface.
b. The position of the pointer on the chart is marked by a cross in the next box
with the pointer and to keep account of the total number of measurements
made a cross is also put in the tally box as shown below.
c. The process is repeated for 200 measurements
d. The spacing between the two marks, D, is then measured in millimeters. This
result is the roughness on the MERLIN scale. Road roughness, in terms of IRI
or as measured by a towed fifth wheel bump integrator, can then determine
using one of the equations presented in the Table below.

Interpretation of Results

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The results of the Merlin Bicycle Roughness Test can be interpreted by analyzing the IRI value
calculated from the data collected during the test. The IRI value provides an indication of the
roughness and ride quality of the pavement surface. Generally, a lower IRI value indicates a
smoother pavement surface with better ride quality, while a higher IRI value indicates a rougher
surface with poorer ride quality. The following IRI values are used to classify the roughness
and ride quality of pavement surfaces:

IRI less than or equal to 1.0 m/km - Very Good ride quality

IRI between 1.0 and 2.5 m/km - Good ride quality

IRI between 2.5 and 4.0 m/km - Fair ride quality

IRI greater than 4.0 m/km - Poor ride quality

It is important to note that the interpretation of the IRI values should take into account the
specific requirements of the project or application. For example, a higher IRI value may be
acceptable for a low-traffic road, while a lower IRI value may be required for a high-speed
highway.

In addition to the IRI value, the raw data from the Merlin Bicycle Roughness Test can be
analyzed to provide additional information about the pavement surface, such as the frequency
and magnitude of the vibrations experienced by the rider. This information can be useful in
identifying specific areas of the pavement surface that may require maintenance or repair.

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Merits and Demerits

The Merlin Bicycle Roughness Test is a relatively simple and cost-effective method for
assessing pavement roughness and ride quality, particularly for small-scale projects or where
the availability of specialized equipment is limited. However, it is important to note that this
test may not provide a complete picture of the pavement's condition, particularly for larger
projects or where the structural integrity of the pavement needs to be assessed. In those cases,
more advanced tests such as the FWD test or GPR may be needed.

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 References

(2022, April 16). Deflection testing guidelines. Washington DC: Federal Highway
Administation. Retrieved from
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/pavements/16011/002.
ofm

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer. (2022, April 17). Retrieved from Pavement interactive:
https://pavementinteractive.org/reference-desk/pavement-management/pavement-
evaluation/dynamic-cone-penetration-test/

Jones, C. R., Rolt, J., Smith, H. R., & Parkman, C. (1999). Overseas road note 18: Aguide to
the pavement evaluation and maintenance of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and
sub-tropical countries. Berkshire: Transport research laboratory.

laboratory, T. a. (1990). A user manuall for a program to analyse dynamic cone penetrometer
data. Crowthorne: Transport researcg laboratory.

laboratory, T. a. (1993). Falling weight defectometer relative calibration analysis .

Washington DC: National research council.

Livneh , M., Ishai, I., & Livneh, N. A. (1995). The effects of vertical confinement on the DCP
strength values in pavement and subgrade evaluation. Washington DC: Transport
research board 74th meeting.

Smith, H. R., & Jones, C. R. (1980). Measurement of pavement defections ill tropical and sub
tropical climates. Crowthorne: Transport research laboratory.

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