Sustainable Agriculture

UNIT 5 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Agriculture: Traditional to Modern Farming Systems
5.3 Sustainable Agriculture
Concept of Sustainable Agriculture
Goals
5.4 Promotion Strategies
Appropriate Use of Natural Resources in Farming
Sustainable Plant Production Practices
Sustainable Animal Production Practices
The Socio-Economic and Political Contexts
5.5 Summary
5.6 Terminal Questions

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Sustainable agriculture is an important component in the scheme of integrated
management of environment in urban and rural areas. One may argue that most of the
agricultural activities are confined to the rural areas, so how do the urban areas come
in its purview. You have learnt about the reason in Unit 3: the urban and rural areas
are inseparably linked by way of inflow of off-farm inputs (to the latter), and outflow
of the agricultural produce (to the former). In addition, both the areas ar e subsumed in,
and form a continuum in the natural environment. These aspects have to be kept in
mind for devising strategies for effective management of environment.

This unit analyses the evolution of different models of agriculture, highlighting the
fact that its sustainability hinges on the balance between socio-economic realities and
a healthy environment. It looks at sustainable agriculture from socio-economic and
cultural perspectives. Its conceptual basis and practical aspects have been presented in
the Unit 5 entitled, Sustainability – the New Paradigm in the elective course on
Agricultural and Environment, (MED -007), of this programme. We suggest you
look at this reference along with the study this unit, to form a broader picture about
this topic. In case you have not opted for the MED-007 course, you can get the above
reference in your study centre library.

Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• compare traditional farming and modern farming;

• discuss the concept, goals, elements, practices and different perspectives of
sustainable agriculture;
• analyse why the resources like water, energy, air, soil and agrochemicals need to
be used judiciously for promotion of sustainable agriculture;
• highlight the importance of integrating good plant production practices with
livestock keeping practices to promote the sustainability of the farming system;
and
• sensitize the farming/non-farming communities including the stakeholders about
the socio-economic, political and environmental realities that need to be
considered for the promotion of sustainable agriculture.

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Sectoral Approaches
5.2 AGRICULTURE: TRADITIONAL TO MODERN
FARMING SYSTEMS
In this section, we present a brief overview of the evolution of traditional to modern
farming systems beginning with the post World War II period.
Agriculture after World War II
Since the end of World War II, agriculture has undergone dramatic changes. Food and
fibre productivity soared due to the use of new technologies, mechanization,
introduction of new and better seeds/varieties, increased use of chemical fertilizers
and pesticides, availability of specialists’ advice and supportive government policies
that favoured maximizing production. These changes allowed fewer farmers with
reduced labour demands to produce the majority of the food and fibre in the
developed countries of North America like the United States, in some of the European
states and to some extent in some parts of the Third World.
Although these changes have had many positive effects and reduced many risks in
farming, the costs have also been significantly high. Prominent among these are
depletion of topsoil, contamination of groundwater, decline in the size of family
farms, neglect of the living and working conditions for farm labourers, high costs of
production, and the disintegration of economic and social fabric of the rural
communities.
The changing agricultural approach that appeared to hold the promise of fulfilling the
increasing needs of the society took the form of the familiar Green Revolution. We
now describe it briefly.
Green Revolution Agriculture
The Green Revolution in agriculture was an attempt to solve world hunger problems
by boosting food production through an increase in the yield of grain crops. In the
1960s and 1970s, scientists working in agricultural research institutes, mostly funded
by public money, began to carry out research into ways in which the yield of the grain
crops, in particular, wheat, maize and rice could be improved. The new crops, known
as hybrids , were developed by selectively crossbreeding different plant varieties.
There were two distinctive categories of these new crops:
• Maize hybrids , developed from varieties grown in the USA and Zimbabwe,
spread across large parts of Central America and to a lesser extent East Africa.
• Fertilizer -responsive varieties of crops were introduced in East Asia (rice) ; and in
North Mexico, India and Pakistan (wheat).
However, these hybrid crops necessitated extensive chemical inputs like artificial
fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides and the use of machines such as tractors, combine
harvesters, pumps for irrigation and food processing technologies.
The Effects of the Green Revolution
In many areas the Green Revolution resulted in two-or-three-fold increase in food
production. In some areas, it enabled farmers to plant two or even three crops a year.
In some countries national food production increased remarkably as a result of Green
Revolution. For example, India, once a net importer of wheat, is now a major
exporter. In other countries, the Green Revolution has not resulted in such an
unprecedented increase in agricultural production. For example, it is generally
accepted that most African countries benefitted little from the Green Revolution.
Besides this, a variety of new issues have opened up with the onset of Green
Revolution. On the one hand, promoters of Green Revolution point to the fact that in
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the most benefitted areas such as the South and the South East Asia, the proportion of Sustainable Agriculture
the population that is undernourished declined rapidly between 1970 and 1990, while
in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa it has risen. On the other hand, many critics argue
that the agri-practices of Green Revolution have had serious consequences for the
poor. According to them:
• Green Revolution crops lend themselves to mechanised farming which is the most
efficient on large farms. This has led to many small farms and holdings being
subsumed into larger farms, displacing tenant farmers and sharecroppers and
resulting in increased landlessness.
• The increased prod uction of new crops has sometimes taken place at the expense
of crops traditionally grown and consumed by the poor. For example,
traditionally, pulses have been a source of protein for poor people in India and
Pakistan, yet in areas covered under Green Revolution, pulses have been replaced
by wheat, which is more expensive to be as much nutritious.
• Many farmers have become dependent on the chemical industries that supply the
agro-inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides for growing the Green
Revolution crops. In India alone, during the mid-1990s, fertilizer consumption
was 200 times higher than it was at the beginning of the 1960s.
• Traditionally, farmers have taken care not to over -utilize their resources such as
land, soil and water. However, the excessive use of artificial fertilizers and
pesticides has harmed the water quality in many areas, and has contributed to land
degradation.
• The heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides has had adverse effects on the health of
the farmers as well as the consumers.
The debates about the benefits of the Green Revolution still continue. The increase in
pests and diseases, coupled with declining soil and water quality, cast serious doubts
on whether the high crop yields can be sustained in the times to come!
Problems related to the Green Revolution
The following problems related to the Green Revolution vis-à-vis the conventional
agriculture practices, have also been observed.
• The various regions of the world under the Green Revolution have not exhibited
uniform and increased crop production trends. In some there has been
unprecedented increase whereas in others famine-like conditions prevailed.
• The new more productive methods have been found to have detrimental effects on
the environment, for example:
− Soil erosion (Fig. 5.1) for every ton of grain produced, approximately 20
tons of top soil is utilized;
− The lowering of the water table , as more crops are planted than the land
can sustain and new seed varieties often need large amounts of water;
− The salinisation and alkalization of soils through excessive irrigation and
removal of trees;
− Residues of pesticides and herbicides are found in other living beings, in
water supplies and various food items.
• Farm subsidies in industrialized nations affect the terms of trade in the Third
World countries.
• Third World debt leads to the use of land for large scale cash crop production,
pushing subsistence farmers onto marginal lands, thus contributing to further
degradation of soil. 7
Sectoral Approaches • Deforestation and the advance of desert ar eas through harmful farming methods.

Fig.5.1: Different forms of soil erosion

(Source: http://eusoils.jrc.it/ESDB_Archive/pesera/pesera_cd/images/img_h2.gif)

So far, we have familiarised you with some aspects of modern agriculture and the
Green Revolution. You may like to revise them before studying about sustainable
agriculture in the next section.

SAQ 1
a) Discuss the status of the agriculture since World War II focussing on the transition
from traditional to modern farming systems.
b) Discuss the features, development and effects of the Green Revolution on our
agriculture.

5.3 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

A growing movement has emerged during the past two decades (1980s and 1990s) to
question the role of the agricultural establishment, especially with reference to Green
Revolution in promoting practices that contribute to a variety of socio-economic and
other problems. This movement for sustainable agriculture is gradually garnering
increasing support and acceptance within mainstream agriculture throughout the
world. Not only does sustainable agriculture seen to address many environmental and
social concerns, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for
growers, labourers, consumers, policy makers and many others in the entire food
production system.

5.3.1 Concept of Sustainable Agriculture

The concept of sustainable agriculture is still evolving. However, it is important to

identify the basic ideas, practices and policies that constitute our concept of
sustainable agriculture. This will help in clarifying the research agenda and priorities
and suggesting practical steps that may be appropriate for moving towards sustainable
agriculture.

FAO − An agency of United According to the FAO sources,

Nations, its full form is
Food and Agriculture
Organisation.
Agriculture is sustainable when it is ecologically sound, economically viable,
socially just, culturally appropriate and is based on a holistic scientific
approach.

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Reijntjes, Haverkort and Water -Bayers, in Farming for the Future (1992), define Sustainable Agriculture

Low External Inputs and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA) as the agriculture

which makes optimal use of locally available natural and human resources
such as soil, water, vegetation, local plants and animals, human labour,
knowledge and skills and which is economically feasible, ecologically sound,
culturally adapted and socially just.
Main Elements
The main elements of sustainable agriculture are as follows (also see Fig. 5.2):
• Appropriate land use for crop production as against monoculture, Monoculture − repeated production
• Working in harmony with natural systems, of one crop on the same piece of
• Harnessing the powers of nature for example, in pest control, land over a period of time.
• Soil protection using mulch and minimal tillage methods,
Mulch − a material applied to
• Organic matter build up through the use of manure and compost, the soil surface.
• Animals are important for making manure and, therefore, for maintaining soil
Manure − organic materials like
fertility, animal dung mixed with soil to
• Plant nutrient maintenance through crop rotation, make it fertile.
• Judicious use of artificial fertilizers or chemical pesticides,
Compost − organic materials after
• Local markets and decentralized systems of distribution, and decomposition, used for
• Biological diversity maintenance and conservation. maintaining fertility of soil.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig.5.2: Some elements of sustainable agriculture. a) Mulching with crop residues is highly
effective ; b) Natural pest control is very promising; and c) Manure is a valuable resource
for sustainable agriculture
[Sources: a) http://www.ipmthailand.org/images/Components/Organic_farm_egg_plant_
mulching_3.JPG. b) http://pested.unl.edu/pic18.gif. c) http://www.ipmthailand.org/images/
Components/Organic_farm_straw_manure_rice_husk_ash_1.JPG] 9
Sectoral Approaches 5.3.2 Goals
Sustainable agriculture integrates three main goals:
a) Environmental healt h,
b) Economic profitability, and
c) Social and economic equity.
A variety of philosophies, policies and practices have contributed to these goals.
People in many different capacities from farmers to consumers have shared this vision
and contributed to it. Despite the diversity of people and their perspectives, the
following themes commonly weave through the basic concepts and definitions of
sustainable agriculture.
Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore,
stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime importance.
Stewardship of human resources includes consideration of social responsibilities such
as working and living conditions of labourers, the needs of rural communities, and
consumer health and safety both in the present and in the future. Stewardship of land
and natural resources involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for
the long term usage.
A systems perspective is essential to achieve sustainability. The system is envisioned
in its broadest sense, from the individual farm to the local ecosystem, and to
communities affected by this farming system both locally and globally. An emphasis
on the system allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming
practices on both human communities and the environment. A systems approach helps
us to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our
environment.
A systems approach also implies interdisciplinary efforts in research and education .
This requires not only the input of researchers from various disciplines but also
farmers, farm workers, consumers, policy makers and all the stakeholders.
Remember: Making the transition to sustainable agriculture is a process. For farmers,
the transition to sustainable agriculture normally requires a series of small, realistic
steps . Family economics and personal goals influence how fast or how far participants
can go in the transition. It is important to realize that each small decision can make a
difference and contribute to advancing the entire system further on the “sustainable
agriculture continuum”. The key to moving forward is the will to take the next step.
Finally, it is important to point out that reaching towards the goal of sustainable
agriculture is the responsibility of all participants and stakeholders in the system,
including farmers, labourers, policy makers, researchers, retailers, and consumers.
Each group has its own part to play, its own unique contribution to make to strengthen
the sustainable agriculture community.

SAQ 2
a) What were the factors leading to transition towards sustainable agriculture?
b) Discuss the basic concept and practices of sustainable agricult ure.
c) Define sustainable agriculture and list its main elements.
d) What are the main goals of sustainable agriculture?
Let us now discuss the strategies needed for promoting sustainable agriculture.

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 Sustainable Agriculture
5.4 PROMOTION STRATEGIES
The strategies for realizing the goals of sustainable agriculture and to establish an
effective system need to incorporate the following four areas of concerns:
i) Appropriate use of natural resources in farming,
ii) Sustainable plant production practices,
iii) Sustainable animal production practices, and
iv) The socio-economic and political contexts.
These strategies represent a range of potential ideas for individuals committed to
translating the vision of sustainable agriculture within their own circumstances.

5.4.1 Appropriate Use of Natural Resources in Farming

Water, energy, soil are the chief natural resources used in agriculture and affected by
the farming practices. The air quality is also affected by these activities. Let us learn
about the issues involved in using these resources so as to minimise their
environmental impact.
Water: A Principal Resource
When the production of food and fibre degrades the natural resource base, the ability
of future generations to produce and flourish decreases. The decline of ancient
civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean region, Pre-Columbian Southwest
U.S. and Central America is believed to have been strongly influenced by natural
resource degradation from non-sustainable farming and forestry practices. Water is the
principal resource that has helped agriculture and society to prosper, and it has been a
major limiting factor when mismanaged.
Water supply and use: In drought hit areas, drought-resistant farming systems need to
be introduced. For this purpose, the following steps arehelpful:
1. Improving water conservation and storage measures,
2. Providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species,
3. Using reduced-volume irrigation systems, such as drip irrigation and sprinkler
irrigation (Fig. 5.3)
4. Managing crops to reduce water loss, or
5. Not planting at all.

(a) (b)

Fig.5.3: a) Drip; and b) sprinkler irrigation respectively

[Source s: a) http://www.florence.ars.usda.gov/research/water/dripirrb.jpg
b) http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/irrigation-moveable- sprinkler.jpg]

Water quality: The most important issues related to water quality involve salinization
and contamination of ground and surface waters due to excessive use of water for
irrigation, pesticides, nitrates and selenium. Salinity has become a problem wherever
water of even relatively low salt content is used on shallow soils in arid regions and/or
where the water table is near the root zone of crops. Tile drainage can remove the 11
Sectoral Approaches water and salts, but the disposal of the salts and other contaminants may negatively
affect the environment depending upon where they are deposited.
Temporary solutions include the use of salt-tolerant crops, low-volume irrigation, and
various management techniques to minimize the effects of salts on crops. In the long-
term, some farmlands may need to be removed from production circle or converted to
other uses. Other uses include conversion of row crop land to production of drought-
tolerant forages, the restoration of wildlife habitats or the use of agro-forestry to
minimize the impacts of salinity and high water tables. Pesticide and nitrate
contamination of water can be reduced using many of the practices discussed in the
sections on plant and animal production practices.
Wildlife: Another way in which agriculture affects water resources is through the
destruction of riparian habitats within watersheds. The conversion of wild habitat to
agricultural land reduces fish and wildlife through erosion and sedimentation, the
effects of pesticides, removal of riparian plants, and the diversion of water. The plant
diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas should be maintained in
order to support a diversity of wildlife. This diversity will enhance natural ecosystems
and could aid in agricultural pest management.
Energy: Non -Renewable versus Renewable Sources
Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially
petroleum. The continued use of these energy sources cannot be sustained indefinitely,
yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic.
However, a sudden cut-off in energy supply would be equally disruptive. In
sustainable agricultural systems, there is reduced reliance on non-renewable energy
sources and there is a substitution of renewable sources or labour to the extent that is
economically feasible.
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is a serious threat to our ability to produce adequate food. Numerous
practices have been developed to keep the soil in place. These include reducing or
eliminating tillage, managing irrigation to reduce runoff, and keeping the soil covered
with plants or mulch. More details about the enhancement of soil quality are given in
the next section.
Air Quality
Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from burning of
agricultural wastes; dust from tillage, traffic, harvest practices, pesticide drift from
spraying, and nitrous oxide emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizers. Options to
improve air quality include incorporating crop residue into the soil, using appropriate
Cover crop − a lower value levels of tillage, and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial
crop grown in a season that is grasses to reduce dust.
less favourable for cash crop
production. SAQ 3
Explain how appropriate use of natural resources in farming would help in mitigating
the negative environmental impacts of modern agriculture.

5.4.2 Sustainable Plant Production Practices

Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. These strategies
must take into account the topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local
availability of inputs and the individual grower's goals. Despite the site-specific and
individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several general principles can be applied
to help growers select appropriate management practices (also see Fig. 5.4):

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• Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to the Sustainable Agriculture
conditions on the farm;

• Diversification of crops including livestock rearing and cultural practices to

enhance the biological and economic stability of the farm;
• Management of the soil to enhance and protect its quality;
• Judicious use of inputs; and
• Consideration of farmers’ goals and lifestyle choices.

Fig.5.4: Sustainable plant production practices

Selection of Site, Species and Variety

Preventive strategies if adopted early can reduce inputs and help establish a
sustainable production system. When possible, pest-resistant crops should be selected
which are tolerant of existing soil or site conditions. When site selection is an option,
factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history, and location (e.g., climate,
topography) should be taken into account before planting.
Diversity
Diversified farms are usually more resilient economically and ecologically. While
monoculture farming has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of management,
the loss of the crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and/or seriously
disrupt the stability of a community dependent on that crop. By growing a variety of
crops, farmers spread economic risk and are less susceptible to the radical price
fluctuations associated with changes in supply and demand.
Properly managed diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. For example,
in annual cropping systems, crop rotation can be used to suppress proliferation of
weeds, pathogens and insect pests. Also, cover crops can have stabilizing effects on
the agro-ecosystem by holding soil and nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture
with mowed or standing dead mulches, and by increasing the water infiltration rate
and soil water holding capacity. Cover crops in orchards and vineyards can buffer the
system against pest infestations by increasing beneficial arthropod populations and
can therefore reduce the need for chemical inputs. Using a variety of cover crops is
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Sectoral Approaches also important in order to protect against the failure of a particular cover crop species
to grow and to attract and sustain a wide range of beneficial arthropods.
Optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the
same farming operation. This was the common practice for centuries until the mid-
19th century, when technology, government policies and economics compelled farms
to become more specialized.
Mixed crop and livestock operations have several advantages:
• First, growing row crops only on more level land and pasture or forages on
steeper slopes reduce soil erosion.
• Second, pasture and forage crops in rotation enhance soil quality and reduce
erosion; livestock manure, in turn, contributes to soil fertility.
• Third, livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall by consuming crop
residues that in “plant only” systems would have been considered crop failures.
• Finally, feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems. This can
help cushion farmers against trade and price fluctuations and in conjunction with
cropping operations, make more efficient use of farm labour.
Soil Management
A common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a ‘healthy’
soil is a key component of sustainability, that is, a healthy soil will produce healthy
crop plants that have high vigour and are less susceptible to pests. While many crops
have pests that attack even the healthiest of plants, proper soil, water and nutrient
management can help control some pest problems along with those caused by crop
stress or nutrient imbalance. Furthermore, crop management systems that impair soil
quality often result in greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides, and/or energy for
tillage to maintain yields.
In sustainable farming systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and living medium that
must be protected and nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity and stability.
Methods to protect and enhance the productivity of the soil include:
• Using cover crops,
• Addition of compost and/or manures,
• Reducing tillage,
• Avoiding traffic on wet soils, and
• Maintaining soil cover with plants and/or mulches.
Conditions in the soils, which are warm, irrigated, and tilled, do not favour the build-
up of organic matter. Regular additions of organic matter or the use of cover crops can
increase soil aggregate stability, soil tilth, and diversity of soil microbial life.
Efficient use of inputs

Many inputs and practices used by conventional farmers are also used in sustainable
agriculture. Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable,
and on-farm inputs. Equally important are the environmental, social, and economic
impacts of a particular strategy. Converting to sustainable practices does not mean
simple input substitution. Frequently, it substitutes enhanced management and
scientific knowledge for conventional inputs, especially chemical inputs that harm the
environment on farms and in rural communities. The goal is to develop efficient,
biological systems, which do not need high levels of material inputs.

Growers frequently ask if synthetic chemicals are appropriate in a sustainable farming

system. Sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least energy
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intensive, and yet maintain productivity and profitability. Preventive strategies and
other alternatives should be employed before using chemical inputs from any source. Sustainable Agriculture
However, there may be situations where the use of synthetic chemicals would be more
sustainable than a strictly non-chemical approach or an approach using toxic organic
chemicals. For example, one grape grower switched from tillage to a few applications
of a broad-spectrum contact herbicide in the vine row. This approach used less energy
and compacted the soil less than numerous passes with a cultivator or mower.

Consideration of the farmer's goals and lifestyle choices

Management decisions should reflect not only environmental and broad social
considerations, but also individual goals and lifestyle choices of the farmers and
farming communities. For example, adoption of some technologies or practices that
promise profitability may also require such intensive management that one’s lifestyle
actually deteriorates. Management decisions that promote sustainability should
nourish the environment, the community and the individual.

5.4.3 Sustainable Animal Production Practices

In the early part of the last century, most farms integrated both crop and livestock
operations. Indeed, the two were highly complementary both biologically and
economically. The picture has changed quite drastically since then. Crop and animal
producers now are still dependent on one another to some degree, but the integration
now most commonly takes place at a higher level − between farmers, through
intermediaries, rather than within the farm itself. This is the result of a trend towards
separation and specialization of crop and animal production systems. Despite this
trend, there are still many farmers, particularly in the developing countries in South
Asia, who integrate crop and animal systems either on dairy farms, or with range
cattle, sheep or hog operations.

Even with the growing specialization of livestock and crop producers, many of the
principles outlined in the crop production section apply to both the groups. The actual
management practices will, of course, be quite different. Some of the specific points
that livestock producers need to address are listed below (see also Fig. 5.5).

Fig.5.5: Sustainable animal production practices

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Sectoral Approaches Management Planning
Including livestock in the farming system increases the complexity of biological and
economic relationships. The mobility of the stock, daily feeding, health concerns,
breeding operations, seasonal feed and forage sources, and complex marketing are
sources of this complexity. Therefore, a successful ranch plan should include
enterprise calendars of operations, stock flows, forage flows, labour needs, herd
production records and land use plans to give the manager control and a means of
monitoring progress towards goals.
Animal Selection
The animal enterprise must be appropriate for the farm or ranch res ources. Farm
capabilities and constraints such as feed and forage sources, landscape, climate and
skill of the manager must be considered in selecting which animals to produce. For
example, ruminant animals can be raised on a variety of feed sources includ ing range
and pasture, cultivated forage, cover crops, shrubs, weeds, and crop residues. There is
a wide range of breeds available in each of the major ruminant species, i.e., cattle,
sheep and goats. Hardier breeds that, in general, have lower growth and milk
production potential are better adapted to less favourable environments with sparse or
highly seasonal forage growth.
Animal Nutrition
Feed costs are the largest single variable cost in any livestock operation. While most
of the feed may come from other enterprises on the ranch, some purchased feed is
usually imported from off the farm. Feed costs can be kept to a minimum by
monitoring animal condition and performance and understanding the seasonal
variations in feed and forage quality on the farm. Determining the optimal use of
farm-generated by-products is an important challenge of diversified farming.
Reproduction
Use of quality germplasm to improve herd performance is another key to
sustainability. In combination with good genetic stock, adapting the reproduction
season to fit the climate and sources of feed and forage reduce health problems and
feed costs.
Herd Health
Animal health greatly influences reproductive success and weight gains, two crucial
aspects of successful livestock production. Un healthy stock not only waste feed but
also require additional labour. A herd health programme is critical to sustainable
livestock production.
Grazing Management
Most of the adverse environmental impacts associated with grazing can be prevented
or mitigated with proper grazing management:
• First, the number of stock per unit area (stocking rate) must be correct for the
landscape and the forage sources. There will need to be compromises between the
convenience of tilling large, unfenced fields and the fencing needs of livestock
operations. Use of modern, temporary fencing may provide one practical solution
of this dilemma.
• Second, the long-term carrying capacity and the stocking rate must take into
account short and long-term droughts. Properly managed grazing significantly
reduces fire hazards by reducing fuel build-up in grasslands and bush lands.
• Finally, the manager must have sufficient control to reduce overuse in some areas
while other areas go unused. Prolonged concentration of stock that results in
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 permanent loss of vegetative cover on uplands or in riparian zones should be Sustainable Agriculture
avoided. However, small-scale loss of vegetative cover around water or feed
troughs may be tolerated if surrounding vegetative cover is adequate.
Confined Livestock Production
Animal health and waste management are key issues in confined livestock operations.
The moral and ethical debate taking place today regarding animal welfare is
particularly intense for confined livestock production systems. The issues raised in
this debate need to be addressed.
Confined livestock production is increasingly a source of surface and ground water
pollutants, particularly where there are large numbers of animals per unit area.
Expensive waste management facilities are now a necessary cost of confine d
production systems. Waste is a problem of almost all operations and must be managed
with respect to both the environment and the quality of life in nearby communities.
Livestock production systems that disperse stocks in pastures, their wastes are not
concentrated and do not overwhelm natural nutrient cycling processes have become a
subject of renewed interest.

SAQ 4
List the sustainable plant and animal production practices. How do they help in
improving the environment?

5.4.4 The Socio -Economic and Political Contexts

In addition to develop strategies for preserving natural resources with the changing
production practices, sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to change public
policies, economic policies and institutions, and social values. Strategies for change
must take into account the complex, reciprocal and ever -changing relationship
between agricultural production and the broader society.
The “food production system” extends far beyond the farm and involves the
interaction of individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals
including the farmers, researchers, input suppliers, farm workers, unions, farm
advisors, processors, retailers, consumers, and policy makers. Relationships among
these actors shift over time as new technologies spawn economic, social and political
changes.
A wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more
sustainable food production system. These will range from specific and concentrated
efforts to alter specific policies or practices, to the longer-term tasks of reforming key
institutions, rethinking economic priorities, and challenging widely -held social values.
Areas of concern where change is the most needed are discussed below.
Food and Agricultural Policy
In most of the Third World countries, existing federal, state and local government
policies often impede the goals of sustainable agriculture. New policies are needed to
simultaneously promote environmental health, economic profitability, and social and
economic equity. For example:

• Commodity and price support programmes could be restructured to allow farmers

to realize the full benefits of the productivity gains made possible through
alternative practices.
• Tax and credit policies could be modified to encourage a diverse and
decentralized system of family farms rather than corporate concentration and
absentee ownership.

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Sectoral Approaches • Government and land grant university research policies could be modified to
emphasize the development of sustainable alternatives.

• Marketing orders and cosmetic standards could be amended to encourage reduced

pesticide use.
• Coalitions must be created to address these policy concerns at the local, regional,
and national levels.
Land Use
Conversion of agricultural land for urban uses is of particular concern in both
developed and developing countries, as rapid growth and escalating land values
threaten farming on prime soils. Such farmland conversion trends often discourage
farmers from adopting sustainable practices in a long-term perspective on the valued
land. At the same time, the close proximity of newly developed residential areas to
farms is increasing the public demand for environmentally safe farming practices.
Comprehensive new policies to protect prime soils and regulate development, in
developed and developing countries should be introduced. By helping farmers to
adopt practices that reduce the use of chemicals and conserve scarce resources,
sustainable agriculture research and education can play a key role in building public
support for agricultural land preservation. Educating land use planners and decision-
makers about sustainable agriculture is an important priority.
Labour
In some of the developed and most of the developing countries, like India and
Pakistan, the conditions of the farmers and agricultural labour are generally far below
accepted social standards and likewise lesser legal protection in other forms of
employment. Policies and programmes are needed to address this problem, working
towards socially just and safe employment that prov ides adequate wages, amiable
working conditions, health benefits, and increased opportunities for economic
stability. The needs of migrant labour for year -around employment and adequate
housing are a particularly crucial problem needing immediate attention. To be more
sustainable over the long-term, labour must be acknowledged and supported by
government policies, and carefully considered when assessing the impacts of new
technologies and practices.
Rural Community Development
Rural communities in all South Asian countries are currently characterized by
economic and environmental deterioration. Many are among the poorest locations in
the nations. The reasons for the decline are complex, but changes in farm structure
have played a significant role. Sustainable agriculture presents an opportunity to
rethink the importance of family farms and rural communities. Economic
development policies are needed that encourage more diversified agricultural
production on family farms as a foundation for healthy economies in rural
communities. In combination with other strategies, sustainable agricultural practices
and policies can help foster community institutions that meet employment,
educational, health, cultural and spiritual needs.
Consumers and the Food Production Systems
Consumers can play a critical role in creating a sustainable food systems. Through
their purchases, they send strong messages to producers, retailers and others in the
system about what they think are important. Food cost and nutritional quality have
always influenced consumer choices. The challenge now is to find strategies that
broaden consumer perspectives, so that environmental quality, resource use, and
social equity issues are also considered in shopping decisions. At the same time, new
policies and institutions must be created to enable producers using sustainable
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practices to market their goods to a wider public. Coalitions organized around Sustainable Agriculture
improving the food systems are one specific method of creating a dialogue among
consumers, retailers, producers and others. These coalitions or other public forums
can be important vehicles for clarifying issues, suggesting new policies, increasing
mutual trust, and encouraging a long-term view of food production, distribution and
consumption.

5.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied that:
• Agriculture has undergone dramatic changes since the end of World War II.
These changes, confined largely to the developed countries, had many positive
effects and reduced risks in farming, but their social and economic costs were
very high.
• The Green Revolution ushered in the 1960s and 70s changed the national food
production status for the better in South and South-east Asia. But it did not
register similar success in the Sub-Saharan Africa region. The debate about the
pros and cons of Green Revolution still continues.
• The sustainable agriculture approach encompassing concern towards
environment and resource conservation has garnered immense support and
acceptance in the recent years. Environmental health, economic profitability,
social and economic equity are the main goals of sustainable agriculture. A
systems perspective is essential towards achieving the outlined goals.

• The strategies for realising the goals of sustainable agriculture and in establishing
sustainable agriculture system should include concerns such as judicious natural
resource use, sustainable plant and animal production practices, and the
consideration of the socio-economic and political dimensions.

5.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Mention the features characterising the traditional and modern farming systems.
2. a) Define sustainable agriculture and express its goals in measurable terms.
[Hint: While framing your definition keep in mind an agricultural area, its
geography and socio -economic conditions of communities, and express the
expected goals both in detectable and measurable terms].
b) Devise ways of monitoring and ascertaining the sustainability of agriculture.
3. In your view, what are the impediments to sustainable agriculture? Discus s.
[Hint: Some points for reflection are given below:
• realising the outlined goals with the existent practices.
• handling conflicting demands like growing more food on a given land yet
maintaining the biological diversity.
• balancing the ecological and economical viabilities of various agricultural
operations].
4. Visualise the future for sustainable agriculture in the next 25 and 50 years
focussing on the following aspects:
− technological developments,
− state of the environment,
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Sectoral Approaches − resource availability,
− population size, and
− food preferences of communities.
5. Why is it important to consider the systems perspective for attaining the goals of
sustainable agriculture?
6. What are the main elements that need to be taken into account in the sustainable
integrated management of agro-ecosystems? Mention also the responsibilities of
the different stakeholders involved in the process.

REFERENCES
1. Bell, G. (1992) The Permaculture Way, Thorsons Harper Collins, London.
2. Blake, F. (1987) Organic Farming and Growing. The Crowood Press, Swindon,
Wiltshire.
3. FAO, Development and Education Exchange Papers (DEEP) (1994) Sustainable
Agriculture and Rural Development: Part 1: Latin America and Asia, Rome.
4. Feenstra, Gail, et. al. (1997) What is sustainable agriculture? Sustainable
Agriculture Research and Education Program, University of California, Davis,
USA.
5. Ferreira, Jo-Anne (1995) Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Module
19, in Fien, John, Ed., Teaching for a Sustainable World, (International Edition),
UNESCO_UNEP .
6. Modern Agriculture (1992) (Urdu Edition), Allama Iqbal Open University,
Islamabad, Pakistan.
7. Norman, David & Douglas, Malcolm (1994) Farming Systems Development and
Soil Conservation, FAO, United Nations, Rome.
8. Ramphele, M. and McDowell, C. (1991) Restoring the Land: Environment and
Change in Post-Apartheid South Africa, Panos Publications, London.
9. Sandhu, G.R. (1993) Sustainable Agriculture: A Pakistan National Conservation
Strategy Sector Paper, IUCN and Government of Pakistan.
10. Simister, Nigel (1999) International Trade and Food security: An Introduction,
Action Aid, London.

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