International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Vol. 2 No.

19 [Special Issue – October 2012]

The Hidden Meaning in Those Letters and Numbers

Chuck Higgins, Ph.D.

Dept. Finance/CIS
Loyola Marymount Univ.
1 LMU Drive
Los Angeles, CA 90045-8385
USA

We all find number and letter codes around us. Many of these are both relevant and often easy to decode.
Included herein are those most of us encounter: airport/ airline/airplane codes, alphabets, bonds, Braille,
broadcast call letters, radio AM/FM, television, checks, corporations, credit cards, dates, highways, internet,
license plates, measures, money, numbers, postal codes, postage stamps, railroads/trains, ships/boats, Social
Security, stocks, telephone, temperature, time, and universal product codes. Not included herein are those that are
field specific or important only to specialists. Thus not included are codes found in science, technology, special
fields, and commerce; examples excluded include chemistry and physics, model numbers, ham radio and hobbies,
expiration dates, and so on. All graphics herein are from Wikipedia or are mine. Thank you to Michelle Yeung
and Zbigniew Przasnyski for their suggestions.

Airports/Airlines/Airplanes
ABC
Airport codes are three letter mnemonics (four letters instead for pilots), some with historic references (ORD for
O’Hare Airport previously called Orchard Field and MSY for New Orleans’ Moisant Field); see
www.skygod.com for a full history. In the U.S. there are rarely airport codes starting with K, N, or W. The codes
for Canadian airports usually start with a Y, but the reverse may not be true (YUM for Yuma International for
example). A recommended website for flights is www.airfare.com. Here’s a map of Europe with some city-wide
codes shown for cities with multiple major airports (Berlin TXL SXF, London LHR LGW, Paris CDG ORY,
Rome FCO, and Stockholm ARN):

XXX/ABC/DE
Airline companies have a three digit ticket prefix, a three letter International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
internal commercial code, and a two letter International Air Transport Association (IATA) public code; see:
http://www.azworldairports.com/indexes/p-alwb0.cfm. Here are some common ones:
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Prefix ICAO IATA Airline

001 AAL AA American Airlines
005 COA CO Continental Airlines
006 DAL DL Delta Air Lines
014 ACA AC Air Canada
016 UAL UA United Airlines
020 GEC LH Lufthansa
027 ASA AS Alaska Airlines
037 USA US US Airways
042 VRG RG VARIG Brazilian Airlines
045 LAN LA LAN Airlines
047 TAP TP TAP-Air Portugal
052 RPA RW Republic Airlines
053 EIN EI Aer Lingus
055 AZA AZ Alitalia
057 AFR AF Air France
058 IAC IC Indian Airlines
074 KLM KL KLM
075 IBE IB Iberia
081 QFA QF Qantas Airways
082 BEL SN Brussels Airlines
086 ANZ NZ Air New Zealand
098 AIC AI Air India
105 FIN AY Finnair
114 ELY LY El Al Israel Airlines
117 SAS SK SAS Scandinavian Airlines Systems
125 BAW BA British Airways
131 JAL JL Japan Airlines
132 MXA MX Mexicana de Aviación
139 AMX AM Aeromexico
160 CPA CX Cathay Pacific Airways
173 HAL HA Hawaiian Airlines
180 KAL KE Korean Air
205 ANA NH All Nippon Airways
220 DLH LH Lufthansa
224 RYR FR Ryanair
235 THY TK Turkish Airlines
236 BMA BD bmi
257 AUA OS Austrian
268 AAY G4 Allegiant Air
297 CAL CI China Airlines
332 TRS FL AirTran
487 NKS NK Spirit Airlines
526 SWA WN Southwest Airlines
687 AAH KH Aloha Air
724 SWR LX Swiss World
932 VIR VS Virgin Atlantic
(X)A
The nationality of an airplane is determined by its registration number or its flag insignia if it has one (it appears
backward on the right side of the airplane consistent with the direction of flight). Airplanes have a registration
letter and number; see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_registration#List_of_countries.2Fregions_and_their_registration_prefixes_a
nd_patterns . Some common letter country codes follow:
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4U United Nations LX Luxembourg/NATO

4X Israel N United States
9M Malaysia OE Austria
A6 U. A. E. OO Belgium
B China (both) OY Denmark
C Canada PH Netherlands
CC Chile PP-PU Brazil
CR-CS Portugal RA/RF Russia
D Germany SE Sweden
EC Spain SU Egypt
EI Ireland TC Turkey
F France TF Iceland
G United Kingdom VH Australia
HB Switzerland VT India
HL S. Korea XA-XC Mexico
I Italy ZK New Zealand
JA Japan ZS-ZU South Africa

Alphabets
Alphabets differ among languages. Notable is that the modern usage of computers and English in the travel
industry has resurrected the original characters. Moreover, letters may be (or were) alphabetized separately in the
native language including: Æ, Ǻ, CH, IJ, LL, Ø, and RR. Often diacritical marks may be omitted for uppercase
(majuscule) characters, namely: Á, È, É, Î, Ï, and Ô; this is less so for: Ç, Č, and Ñ. The following letters are
equivalent:
Ǻ AA ß SS
Ä, Æ AE Ü UE
Ö, Ø OE Ÿ IJ
City names may differ from language to language especially in Europe; see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Names_of_European_cities_in_different_languages:_A

Bonds
A.XX/A(s or X/X) BC
U.S. bonds are debt instruments and are issued usually in principal face amounts of $1,000 for corporate bonds
and $10,000 for government bonds with both priced in percentage points of face value so that 1 point is worth $10
for a corporate bond and $100 for a government bond. A basis point is 1/100th of 1 point or $1 for a government
bond. Corporate bonds trade in 1/8ths or $1.25 multiples; government bonds trade in 1/32nds or $3.125 multiples.
The stated rate of interest may be expressed as a decimal (8.25 as A.XX) or fraction (8¼ as A X/X) followed by
the last two digits of the year of maturity (BC); an s may precede the year if the interest rate is an integer (8s17
would be an 8 percent bond maturing in 2017). Bonds pay interest twice a year of one-half of the stated interest
rate. Corporate bond interest is calculated in monthly then daily fractions with the 31st day (if extant) unpaid; the
usage of a 360-day year is appropriate here. Short term notes generally do not pay interest and are instead sold at
a discount from face value and are calculated with a 365-day year.
Braille
Braille is a tactile alphabet for the blind:

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Broadcast Call Letters

KABC WABC CABC XEABC

North American broadcasters are required to have call letters starting with a K or W in the United States, C in
Canada, and X in Mexico. In the U.S. and Canada broadcasting stations originally had three letter call signs and
thus, if still existing, are older. Now they have four letters. Mexican stations usually are five letters starting with
XE. In the U.S. the F.C.C. assigns K west of the Mississippi River and W to the east save: KDKA Pittsburgh,
KYW Philadelphia, WACO Waco, WBAP & WFAA Dallas, WHB Kansas City, WHO Des Moines, and WOAI
San Antonio. Here’s a map:

In the U.S., a station must identify itself every hour. It is the call sign immediately followed by the city of license
(one may insert licensee or frequency). Australian stations start with a number. Other countries follow other
conventions.
Broadcast Radio
(X)XX0 AM
AM radio frequencies in the United States are separated by 10 KHz, unlike some stations in other countries.
There are some AM stations in the U.S. with a “clear channel” designation namely a 50,000 watt (class A) radio
station with little interference from other class A radio stations operating at 1220 KHz and below or 1500 KHz
and above (see http://ac6v.com/clearam.htm); local stations are often at 1230, 1240, 1340, 1400, 1450, and 1490
KHz. The frequencies ranged from 540 to 1600 KHz then, and ranges up to 1800 KHz now. On older model
radio dials, the Civil Defense triangle can be seen at the 640 and 1240 KHz locations, but that usage has ceased.

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(X)XX.A FM (-HDX)
FM stations in the U.S. are separated by .2 MHz (A) ranging from 88.1 to 107.9 MHz such that the last digit (A)
is an odd number; this not always the case in other countries. The F.C.C. (Federal Communications Commission)
internally designated them by channel numbers ranging in the 200s. Stations which have frequencies below 92.1
MHz (or the first 20 channels) are assigned to noncommercial broadcasters. The F.C.C. spaced the more
powerful stations in the same city area by .8 MHz or by 4 channels, and spaced the less powerful stations in the
same city area by .4 MHz or by 2 channels. Spaced in between these channels are other channels for other nearby
cities in order to minimize interference. Digital FM is designated with HD or HD1/2/3 with usually two digital
channels per one FM channel.
Broadcast Television
(X)X.(A) TV (-DT/LP)
The television band in the U.S. had three sets of analog channels: lower VHF (Very High Frequency) channels 2
to 6 (just below the FM band), higher VHF channels 7 to 13 (above the FM band), and UHF (Ultra High
Frequency) channels 14 to 68 (which formerly ranged to 83). Channel 1 was supposedly allocated to the military,
but was of lower broadcast quality (lower channels require a longer length antenna) and is not used today.
Channel 69 turned out to be in the same frequency range as the research frequencies used in radio astronomy and
thus the F.C.C. decreased the UHF upper band range to channel 68. Digital TV used the same channel numbering
but with different frequencies. TV broadcasters actually broadcast on a frequency band either slightly above or
slightly below their assigned frequency so as not to interfere with same channels nearby, hence the fine tuning or
automatic frequency controls (AFC) on some analog TV receivers. Analog TV is generally no longer broadcast
in the U.S. Stations which broadcast digitally can broadcast up to 4 programs on one channel with a numeric
extension (A) after a period and with a DT after their call letters. Those TV stations which are designated low
power analog stations have a LP after their call sign (note that cable companies do not normally carry low power
television stations).
The TV standard in the U.S. is NTSC (National Television System Committee now ATSC for digital) and is also
used in Burma/Myanmar, Japan, Philippines, South Korea, and in the Americas save Argentina, Brazil, and
Uruguay which use PAL (Phase Alternating Line now DVB-T for digital). PAL is used elsewhere save French
speaking countries (except Algeria) and Russia and former Soviet republics (except Ukraine and Baltic countries)
which use SECAM (Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire). There may be a proprietary digital code for each
continent for DVD content.
Here’s a map of analog TV:

Here’s a map of digital TV:

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Checks
ABCDEFGHJ XXXXXXXXXXX (XXXXX)
The first nine digits on a check are the ABA (American Banker’s Association) routing number which is usually
bank branch specific followed by account number and maybe a check number. The numbers are printed in
magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) format on a check.

The sum of the routing number’s digits must agree with the following formula: the first, fourth, and seventh
digits are added and multiplied by 3; the second, fifth, and eight digits are added and multiplied by 7; and are
added to the third, sixth, and ninth digits, or:
3(A+D+G) + 7(B+E+H) + (C+F+J) = 10X.
This sum must equal a multiple of 10, or it is invalid (like the example shown).
The second number is the account number and like other sequential account numbering finds the first digit more
likely to be a lower number per Benford’s Law:

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Corporations
The appellation after a corporate name (or before in the case of Oy for Finnish corporations) can indicate the type
and country of the business or corporation:
AB Swedish Aktiebolag
AG German Aktiengesellschaft (a larger business)
BV Belgian Dutch Bekende Vlaming
GmbH German Gesellschaft mit Beschränkter Haftung
Inc. American Incorporated
LLC British Limited Liability Company
Ltd. British, Japanese Limited
NV Dutch Naamloze Vennootschap
PLC British Public Limited Company
Oy Finnish Osakeyhtio
SpA Italian Società Per Azioni
S.A. French Société Anonyme
Portuguese Sociedade Anónima
Spanish Sociedad Anónima

Credit Cards
AXXX XXXX XXXX XXXB
A sixteen digit credit card number is allocated to issuing firms by the first (A) digit: 3 for American Express (37)
and Diners (38), 4 for Visa, 5 for Master Card, 6 for Discover, and 7 for Federal usage. The last digit is a check
digit (B) which checks the internal validity of the number itself by a formula used by the issuing entity. There
may a secondary three digit number for authentication.
In the U.S. there’re three major credit rating agencies: Equifax, Experian, and TransUnion; for consumer credit
there is a scoring algorithm FICO (Fair Isaac Corporation). Generally scores range from 500 to 850.
Dates
11/17/08 = 17.11.08
Dates are generally in day, month, then year order internationally instead of the month, day, then year order as in
the U.S. We use the Gregorian calendar adopted in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII which dropped 10 days from the
previous Julian calendar. It was adopted in England in 1752 dropping 11 days. The new calendar adopted the
leap year every 4 years with an extra day on February 29, except for century change years save 1600 and 2000.
Calendars in some countries start on Monday instead of Sunday.
Highways
(A)BB
The U.S. Interstate highway number system is organized with even numbers (BB) running east and west, and odd
numbers running north and south. The lower numbers are in the west and south, and higher numbers in the east
and north. The older U.S. Federal highway system used a similar system with the lower numbers instead in the
east and north. The first digit (A) of a 3 digit Interstate highway indicates that, if even, that it is a loop (it returns
to the highway system) or, if odd, that it is a spur (it does not return to the system). Exceptions include the I-238
connecting I-580 to I-680 in San Leandro and I-495 in New York (to eventually connect back to I-95 at the end of
Long Island to Connecticut via a bridge).
XX(X)
In Europe, the E and number designation indicates a trans-European highway as opposed to those starting with an
A (autoroute, autobahn, autostrada, autopista) or those starting with other letters (such as an N, a national
highway). The European system is similar to the U.S. Interstate system, save that lower numbers are in the north
and that the three digit loops and spurs vary by the last or third digit instead of the first digit.
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Internet
WWW.ABC.COM/-AB ABC@DEF.COM/-AB
An internet address is recognized correctly as three mnemonics separated by two periods with usually the first
comprised of www and the third as either a two letter ISO 3166 country code (there’re 249 of them; see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_3166-1) or three letter firm type of: com, gov, mil, net, or org with newer ones
to come.

Two letter codes are also used in Canada, U.S., Italy, and Mexico:
AG Antigua & Barbuda/Aguascaliente MT Malta/Montana/Matera
AL Albania/Alabama NA Nambia/Nayrit
AR Argentina/Arkansas/Arezzo NE Niger/Nebraska
AZ Azerbaijan/Arizona NL Netherlands/Newfoundland/Nuevo León
BC -/British Columbia/Baja Calif. (Norte) NU Niue/Nunavut/Nuoro
BS Bahamas/Baja Calif. Sur OR -/Oregon/Oristano
CA Canada/California/Cagliari PA Panama/Pennsylvania/Palermo
CH Switzerland/Chieti/Chihuahua PE Peru/Prince Edward Is./Pescara
CL Chile/Colima PR -/Puerto Rico/Parma
CM Cameroun/Campeche PT Portugal/Pistoia
CO Colombia/Colorado/Como/Coahuila RI -/Rhode Island/Rieti
CT -/Connecticut/Catania RO Romania/Rovigo
FR France/Frosinone SI Slovenia/Sinaloa
GA Gabon/Georgia [U.S. state] SK Slovakia/Saskatchewan
GE Georgia [nation]/Genoa SL Sierra Leone/San Luis Potosi
GR Greece/Grosseto/Guerrero SO Somalia/Sondrio/Sonora
GT Guatemala/Guanajuato SR Suriname/Syracuse[Siracusa]
IL Israel/Illinois TL Timor-Leste/Tlaxcala
IN India/Indiana TM Turkmenistan/Tamaulipas
KY Cayman Islands/Kentucky TN -/Tennessee/Trento
LA Laos/Louisiana TO Tonga/Turin[-o]
MA Morocco/Massachusetts TR Turkey/Terni
MC Monaco/Macerata TV Tuvalu/Treviso
ME Montenegro/Maine/Messina VA Vatican/Virginia/Varese
MI -/Michigan/Milan[-o]/Michoacán VE Venezuela/Venice[Venezia]/Veracruz
MN Mongolia/Minnesota/Mantua VI -/Virgin Islands/Vicenza
MO Macao/Missouri/Modena/Morelos VT -/Vermont/Viterbo
MS Montserrat/Mississippi/Massa

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An internet email address is correctly three mnemonics separated by @ then a period. The ISP (Internet Service
Provider) address which is unique to each sender was recently expanded to a 32-bit code. It is a more accurate
descriptor of the sender in that the internet address can be masked (either for continuity and/or fraud).

One should note here that the last telegram was sent in 2006 and that while Morse code did add a character for the
@ sign in 2000, it is no longer used. Interestingly Samuel Morse originally had a code book which numbered
each word instead of a code for each letter. Regardless, SOS (Save Our Ship per some) is ● ● ● ▬ ▬ ▬ ● ● ● .
License Plates
U.S. state license plates vary greatly. The California plate with six alphanumeric characters is older, and with
seven characters is newer. If it has only one alphabetic character then it is a commercial plate, if three alphabetic
characters then a personal plate. The oldest had the three alphabetic characters first (on a yellow background),
then later stating with three numbers (on a blue background), and now currently with one number first followed
by three alphabetic characters then three numbers (on a white or special background). Florida and Georgia plates
show the county. Many states may require a front plate as well; some use tags keeping the same plate for a
number of years.
In Europe, each country has its own system, some of which are quite easy to understand. In Spain, Italy, and
Germany the first letter is an abbreviation of the location of automobile’s province or town. The Germans extend
the system by having one letter for large cities (with consequently more numbers on a license plate) to having
three letters for smaller towns (with fewer numbers on a license plate). In France the last two digits used to
indicate the French governmental department so that Parisians often had plates which end with a 92 or a 95, the
Niçois (inhabitants of Nice) with a 06, Corsicans with a letter, and so on.
Measures
U.S. measurement (as opposed to no longer used Imperial measurement) differs from metric measurement. Here
are common conversions:
39.4 inches = 1 meter
.62 miles = 1 kilometer
2.2 pounds = 1 kilogram
1.05 quarts = 1 liter
2.47 acres = 1 hectare
While fuel consumption in the U.S. is measured by miles per gallon (mpg), liters per 100 kilometers is used
elsewhere and equals inversely 236/mpg (4 quarts equals 1 gallon).

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Here are commonly reported measurements:

Type Name Range Increment
Earthquake Richter 1 to 10 1000^½ = 31.6
Hurricane Saffir-Simpson 1 to 5 approx. 20 mph
Sound Decibel 1 to 191 10 log(power); 20 log(amplitude)
Star bright Magnitude 6 to 1 100^.2 or 10^.4 = 2.51
Tornado Enhanced Fujita 0 to 5 20 mph to 30 mph
Wind Beaufort 0 to 12 .836x10^3/2 m/s

Money
(A)B 123456789 A B2
U.S. coins have the date minted, often with a mintmark. Currently the mintmark, if blank or a P, designates
Philadelphia, D for Denver, and S for San Francisco. However, for some coins in 1965, 1966, and 1967 there
were no mintmarks regardless of where the coin was minted; the U.S. Congress sought to minimize hoarding.
Commemorative U.S. coins are currently issued in quarter ($.25) denominations (first for states, then territories,
and now for national parks) and one dollar denominations (U.S. presidents). For currency, the older bills have a
Federal Reserve Bank district number and corresponding alphabetic character on each bill and in the serial
number of the bill:
1A Boston 7G Chicago
2B New York 8H St. Louis
3C Philadelphia 9I Minneapolis
4D Cleveland 10 J Kansas City, MO
5E Richmond 11 K Dallas
6F Atlanta 12 L San Francisco
There are also tinier plate numbers, on both sides of the bill, which must correspond to each other and to the bill’s
serial number by a secret formula:

AXXXXXXXXXXX
European coins are separately issued by each country in the monetary union; Finland (and soon the Netherlands)
does not issue 1 or 2 cent euro coins. Euro commemorative coins are issued in 2€ dominations. Euro bank notes
bear a serial letter and number with the letter designating the country. The entire serial number must conform to a
check digit of 8. This is determined by the letter (numeric equivalent base 26) added to the sum of the digits; this
sum’s digits are added repeatedly and equals 8.

A+X1+X2+X3+X4+X5+X6+X7+X8+X9+X10+X11 = SS: S1+S2 = 8

An equivalent method is that the numeric sum’s digits must add to the country’s check sum code; see:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_banknotes#Serial_number and
http://www.ibiblio.org/theeuro/InformationWebsite.htm?http://www.ibiblio.org/theeuro/bnk.serialnumbers.htm .

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Here are the country serial code letters, check sum codes, and their countries:

Code Check Country Code Check Country

D 4 Estonia P 1 Netherlands
E 3 Slovakia R 8 Luxembourg*
F 2 Malta S 7 Italy
G 1 Cyprus T 6 Ireland
H 9 Slovenia U 5 France
J 7 United Kingdom* V 4 Spain
K 6 Sweden* W 3 Denmark*
L 5 Finland X 2 Germany
M 4 Portugal Y 1 Greece
N 3 Austria Z 9 Belgium/Luxembourg
* Reserved for future use; Luxembourg used the Belgian franc

AAB

Exchange rates to another currency can be expressed as either per the foreign or domestic currency; they are
reciprocals of each other. The following is a stylized cross rate table where the horizontal column headings are in
ISO monetary codes and represent the cost of a foreign currency and the vertical row names are the countries and
represent the per unit basis of computation.

For money transfers and credit card purchases, the currency is designated by an ISO 4217 three letter code with
the first two letters (AA) for the country (using the same ISO country codes as on the internet) and the last letter
(B) for the name of the currency (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_4217 ). Thus AUD, CAD, HKD, and
USD represent Australian, Canadian, Hong Kong, and U.S. dollars ($ noting that the U.S. version may be doubled
stroked per the U over the S), GBP for the Great Britain pound (₤), CHF for the Swiss (from the Latin
Confederatio Helvetica) franc (SFr), MXP then MXN for the Mexican peso replaced by the neuvo (new) peso ($
after the amount), TRL then TRY for Turkish lira later yeni (new) lira, and EUR for the euro (€).
The transfer of money may require a SWIFT (Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication [vs.
Society for Wire Intercommunication Funds Transfer]) or BIC (Bank Identifier Code) code in addition to an
IBAN (International Bank Account Number which is used outside Canada and the U.S.).

Numbers
U.S. and international nomenclature for large numbers may differ (especially outside financial references); a
billion is a milliard and a trillion is a billion respectively. Often international counting starts with the thumb
instead of the first finger whereas the ground floor is 1 in the U.S. and zero internationally. Notation may differ
with the usage of commas instead of decimal points and vice versa (or blanks) so that 1,234.56 in U.S. is 1.234,56
or 1 234,56 internationally. By convention, years omit such notation (1234).

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Scientific notation transforms 1.234x103 into 1,234; in computer notation it would be 1.234*10^3 or its equivalent
1.234 E+3. Percentages are 100 times the original value.
Numbering systems may use other bases. Hexadecimal uses a base of 16 with A as 10 through F as 15. While 2
+ 2 equals 4 in base 10, it would be 10 in base 4, 11 in base 3, and 100 in base 2 (binary). Real numbers are
found in the real world, whereas an imaginary number like i ([-1]^½) is found in complex numbers (a+bx…) and
the trigonometric algebra of electronics. The Greeks used to think that all real numbers were rational (a fraction),
but irrational numbers do exist such as 2^½, e (2.71828…), and π (3.14159…). Prime numbers have no other
factors and thus are useful for encryption; the SETI (Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelligence) used a message
which had a length that was a product of two prime numbers suggesting a rectangular reformulation.
Ordinal numbers can be mathematically manipulated whereas Roman numerals are cardinal numbers and are used
nominally where:
1=I 5=V
10 = X 50 = L
100 = C 500 = D
1000 = M
Often if the Roman numeral is one character less than the next numeral which is a multiple of 5 then it is placed
prior and subtracted. An example would be 1647 as MDCXLVII.
Travel reservations using a record locator may use six characters comprised of numbers and letters. These can be
thought of as a base 36 cardinal numbering system allowing some 2,176,782,336 combinations. However, the
letters I and O are often excluded per their similarity to the numbers 1 and 0 which would allow 34 characters and
some 1,544,804,416 combinations. Likewise, for a license plate of say three letters and three numbers, there
would be 13,824,000 combinations (20 times more if order is variable); for three letters and four numbers, there
would be 138,240,000 combinations (35 times more if order is variable). A three character 26 letter coding for
say airport codes, ICAO airline codes, broadcast stations in North America (after K, W, C, or XE), currency
codes, money market mutual funds, or stock symbols of three letters would allow 17,576 combinations; a two
character 26 letter code allows 676 combinations.
Arabic uses Hindu numerals while we ironically use Arabic numerals:

Albert Einstein observed that exponential compounding was the most powerful of equations. Growth at rate r
compounds such that a future value equals (1+r/p)^tp where t is time and p is the frequency of compounding. If
p is one (yearly), then the time to double will satisfy rt equals 72 if r is a percentage. As the frequency of
compounding p increases to infinity, then the future value will approach e^rt. In this instantaneous compounding
case, the time to double shrinks and is approximated by rt equaling about 69 with r as a percentage.
In financial transactions, present values become relevant and equal the reciprocal of future values. A stream of
like present values is called an annuity and if payments are at the end of the period equals (1-1/[1+r]^t)/r.
Annuity computations are used frequently as a reciprocal in financing loans. When an annuity continues
indefinitely, now called a perpetuity, it equals 1/r.
Postal Codes
AB
A U.S. state abbreviation is followed properly by two spaces and a postal code:

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Note these Mexican abbreviations: CO Coahuila, MI Michoacán, and MO Morelos.

Canadian province abbreviations are:
AB Alberta NU Nunavut
BC British Columbia ON Ontario
MB Manitoba PE Prince Edward Island
NB New Brunswick QC* Québec
NL* Newfoundland & Labrador. SE Saskatchewan
NS Nova Scotia YT Yukon
NT Northwest Terr * (changed from NF & PQ)
Note these Mexican abbreviations: BC Baja California (Norte) and NL Nuevo León.
AAABB(-CCCC)
U.S. postal codes or Zip codes (Zoning Improvement Program) are arranged geographically with lower numbers
in the east. A sorting center is associated with the first three digits (AAA). For those having differing place
names, the next two digits (BB) are often arranged alphabetically. Thus 90210 is Beverly Hills and 90291 is
Venice. For those postal Zip codes having the same place name, the next two digits often are the previous city
zone numbers often issued chronologically. Other countries may use fewer numbers; in Canada and the U.K.
they use six characters including letters.
The extra four numbers in Zip-plus (CCCC) are added to the five-digit Zip code and are for sorting down to
block level. The nine digit Zip plus code is meant to be machine readable. The machine readable code adds a
check digit(s). Each character is read in multiples of five strokes either a long or short. They are decoded by:
1 ...|| 6 .||..
2 ..|.| 7 |...|
3 ..||. 8 |..|.
4 .|..| 9 |.|..
5 .|.|. 0 ||...
Note that there are always two long and three short strokes for each digit. Thus a corrupted or illegitimate coded
digit would have either fewer or more strokes while noting that it is not a binary number.
There is no advantage (in fact a disadvantage) in a handwritten Zip-plus code (nine digits versus the five digit
code) given that the handwritten address will be sorted, separated, then encoded with a Zip-plus machine readable
bar code, and then sorted again!

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Postage Stamps
On sheets of postage stamps, there may be a number often in a corner of the sheet. These are highly collectible
and as a general rule, the perforations and edges of any stamp should/need not be separated. The stamps of the
U.K. do not carry the name of the country but do carry a symbol of their King or Queen.
Railroads/Trains
XX(XX)
U.S. Amtrak and Canadian Via passenger trains are numbered so that lower numbered trains travel a farther
distance. Acela trains are numbered in the 2000s. Even numbered trains travel east or south and odd numbered
trains travel west or north.
In Ireland and United Kingdom, passenger trains do not have train numbers. On the continent, train numbers vary
greatly with Dutch train numbers generally not being displayed. Internet guides are available at www.bahn.de
and www.oebb.at for most European rail travel (except Portugal and Spain; see www.cp.pt and www.renfe.es).
Lower train numbers are often (but not always) associated with major longer distant trains with the notable
exceptions of 6000s and 9000s for TGV and EuroStar trains. There are numerous InterCity(-é) national trains and
regional trains with the latter often having train numbers up to six or even eight digits.
AB(CD)
U.S. and Canadian equipment bear reporting marks of two to four letters. If it ends in X then the owner is not a
railroad, if it ends in U then it is a container, and if it ends in Z then it is a truck trailer.
Shown below are modern railroad reporting marks which now omit ampersands (&) with the prior acquired
railroads indented as the reporting marks may still be used:

AMTK Amtrak
BCR British Columbia (BC Rail)
BNSF Burlington Northern Santa Fe
ATSF Atchison, Topeka & (Santa Fe)
TP(&)W Toledo, Peoria, & Western
BN Burlington Northern
CB(&)Q Chicago, (Burlington) & Quincy
GN Great Northern
NP Northern Pacific
SP(&)S Spokane, Portland & Seattle
SLSF St. Louis-San Francisco (Frisco)
CN/-A Canadi(a/e)n National
CV Central Vermont
DWP Duluth, Winnipeg & Pacific
GTW (Grand Trunk) Western
AA Ann Arbor
DTI Detroit, Toledo & Ironton
DTS Detroit & Toledo Shore Line
ICG Illinois Central Gulf
GM(&)O Gulf, Mobile, & Ohio
IC Illinois Central
WC Wisconsin Central
GBW Green Bay & Western
CP Canadian Pacific
D(&)H Delaware & Hudson
DSA Duluth South Shore & Atlantic
SOO Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste. Marie (Soo Line)
MILW Chicago, (Milwaukee [Road]), St. Paul & Pacific
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MNS Minneapolis, Northfield & Southern

CSX/-T CSX Transportation
B&O/C&O Chessie System
B&O Baltimore & Ohio
C&O Chesapeake & Ohio
PM Pere Marquette
WM Western Maryland
P(&)LE Pittsburgh & Lake Erie
RF(&)P Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac
SBD Seaboard System
AWP Atlanta & West Point
CRR Clinchfield
GA Georgia
L(&)N Louisville & Nashville
MON Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville (Monon)
NC Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis
SCL Seaboard Coastline
ACL Atlantic Coast Line
P(&)N Piedmont & Northern
SAL Seaboard Air Line
FEC Florida East Coast
FXE Ferromex
GTIS Guilford (Pan Am)
B(&)M Boston & Maine
MEC Maine Central
KCS Kansas City Southern
MMA Montreal, Maine & Atlantic
BAR Bangor & Aroostook
NDM Nacionales de Mexico
NS Norfolk Southern
CR Consolidated Rail (Conrail)
CNJ Central of New Jersey
EL Erie Lackawanna
DL Delaware, (Lackawanna) & Western
ERIE Erie
LV Lehigh Valley
LIRR Long Island Railroad
MRY Monongahela
PC Penn Central
NH New York, (New Haven) & Hartford
NYC New York Central
P&E Peoria & Eastern
PRR Pennsylvania
PRSL Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines
RDG Reading
N(&)W Norfolk & Western
ACY Akron, Canton, & Youngstown
INT Interstate
IT Illinois Terminal
NKP New York, Chicago & St. Louis (Nickel Plate)
NS Norfolk Southern
PW(&)V Pittsburgh & West Virginia
VGN Virginian

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WAB Wabash
SOU Southern
CG Central of Georgia
S(&)A Savannah & Atlanta
UP/-Y Union Pacific
ARMN Armour (refrigerator)
UPFE/PFE Pacific Fruit Express
CNW Chicago & Northwestern
CGW Chicago Great Western
CMO Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & (Omaha [Road])
MSL Minneapolis & St. Louis
RI Chicago, (Rock Island) & Pacific
DRGW Denver & (Rio Grande) Western
LASL Los Angeles & Salt Lake
MKT Missouri-Kansas-Texas (Katy)
MP Missouri Pacific
C(&)EI Chicago & Eastern Illinois
T(&)P Texas & Pacific
SI Spokane International
SP Southern Pacific
SSW St. Louis Southwestern (Cotton Belt)
T(&)NO Texas & New Orleans
WP Western Pacific
SN Sacramento Northern
VTR Vermont Ry.
RUT Rutland

In Europe the rail country codes, rail reporting marks (UIC), and major trains are:
Code Country Major Railroad Major Trains
A Austria ŐBB RailJet, ICE
Belarus BŽD
B Belgium SNCB/NMBS EuroStar, Thalys, ICE, TGV
Bosnia-Herz. ŽBH
Bulgaria BDŽ
HR Croatia HŽ
CZ Czech ČD SuperCity
DK Denmark DSB Lyn, ICE, Snabbtåg
Estonia EVR
FIN Finland VR Pendolino
F France SNCF TGV, EuroStar, Thalys, ICE
D Germany DB ICE, Thalys, RailJet, TGV
GB Great Britain BR/NR EuroStar
Greece OSE/ΟΣΕ
H Hungary MAV RailJet
IE Ireland IE InterCity
I Italy FS Alta Velocitá,EuroStar Italia,Cisalpino,TGV
Latvia LDZ
Lithuania LG
L Luxembourg CFL TGV
Moldova CF
NL Netherlands NS Thalys, Fyra, ICE
N Norway NSB
PL Poland PKP XK
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P Portugal CP Alfa
RO Romania (SN)CFR
RUS Russia RŽD
Serbia JŽ
SK Slovakia ŽSR
SLO Slovenia SŽ ICS
E Spain RENFE Ave,Altaria,Alvia,Avant,Alaris,EuroMed
S Sweden SJ Snabbtåg (née X2000)
CH Switzerland SBB/CFF/FFS Cisalpino,ICE,TGV,RailJet
Ukraine UZ
NB: EuroCity international trains still exist across many countries.

Ships/Boats
AB(CD)
Many know that a ship bearing U.S.S. is a U.S. Ship, and that H.M.S. is Her/His Majesty’s Ship and is associated
with British Commonwealth countries (but see Sweden). However both of these may be expanded to denote the
type of ship and in the case of H.M.S. may include a reference to the country. Some significant ones include:
Australia HMAS Mexico ARM
Belgium BNS New Zealand HMNZS
Canada HMCS/NCSM Norway KNM/HNoMS
Denmark KDM Netherlands HNLMS
France FS Portugal NRP
Germany FGS Russia RFS/РФС
Greece HS Spain SPS
India INS Sweden HMS
Ireland LE U. K. HMS+
Italy ITS U. S. USS+
Others may be found at: http://forum.vc.igg.com/viewthread.php?tid=21789 .
Maritime flags are:

In the U.S., boats are required to display a registration state code and number. The state code is often the same as
the U.S. postal abbreviation with some exceptions (followed by their postal abbreviations):
CF/CA California MC/MI Michigan
CL/CO Colorado MI/MO Missouri
CM/MP Northern Mariana Islands NB/NE Nebraska
DL/DE Delaware WN/WA Washington
HA/HI Hawaii WS/WI Wisconsin
KA/KS Kansas

Social Security
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AAA BB CCCC
Social Security numbers are issued in the United States for tax collection purposes and for retirement. Many do
not know that if one is single and works one job that the person is entitled to 2 withholding exemptions; these are
associated with W2 and W4 forms that employers use for gathering and reporting tax information.
Until recently, the first three digits (AAA) of a U.S. social security number represented the state of issuance with
0 being in the east and 6 being in the west. Digits in the second grouping (BB) are issued in odd numbers to 10
then even thereafter, then even numbers to 10, then odd thereafter. If the number started with a 700-728, then the
number was formerly associated with a railroad worker. Social Security numbers are now being issued with other
numbers as some states have used up their original allotment. If a similar appearing number starts with a 95, or
other similar number with a 9, then it may be a California Board of Equalization number and/or a taxpayer
identification number for entities other than individuals. .
Here are the states of issuance per the Social Security Administration:
001-003 New Hampshire 449-467 Texas
004-007 Maine 627-645
008-009 Vermont 468-477 Minnesota
010-034 Massachusetts 478-485 Iowa
035-039 Rhode Island 486-500 Missouri
040-049 Connecticut 501-502 North Dakota
050-134 New York 503-504 South Dakota
135-158 New Jersey 505-508 Nebraska
159-211 Pennsylvania 509-515 Kansas
212-220 Maryland 516-517 Montana
221-222 Delaware 518-519 Idaho
223-231 Virginia 520 Wyoming
691-699 521-524 Colorado
232-236 West Virginia 650-653
232 North Carolina 525/585 New Mexico
237-246 648-649
681-690 526-527 Arizona
247-251 South Carolina 600-601
654-658 764-765
252-260 Georgia 528-529 Utah
667-675 646-647
261-267 Florida 531-539 Washington
589-595 540-544 Oregon
766-772 545-573 California
268-302 Ohio 602-626
303-317 Indiana 574 Alaska
318-361 Illinois 575-576 Hawaii
362-386 Michigan 750-751
387-399 Wisconsin 577-579 District of Columbia
400-407 Kentucky 580 Virgin Islands
408-415 Tennessee 580-584 Puerto Rico
756-763 596-599
416-424 Alabama 586 Guam
425-428 Mississippi 586 American Samoa
587-588 586 Philippine Islands
752-755 700-728 Railroad Board
429-432 Arkansas 729-733 Enumeration Entry
676-679
433-439 Louisiana
659-665
440-448 Oklahoma
530/680 Nevada

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Stocks
A(BC)/-DE
U.S. common equity shares or stocks trade now in decimals (formerly 1/8ths) in multiples of one cent ($.01).
Stock options (now with a new quotation system) represent 100 shares and trade usually in nickels ($.05) and if
over $3 then dimes ($.10); a number of options trade instead in pennies ($.01) then nickels ($.05) if over $3; some
index options always trade in pennies. Options expire the Sunday after the third Friday of a given month save
those which expire after the end of a quarter.
Stocks have ticker symbols ranging from one to five characters. If stocks pay dividends then they generally pay
them quarterly. If the stock has three or less characters A(BC), then the shares are usually traded on the New
York or American Stock Exchanges. Among the various stock exchanges around the world, the Stock Exchange
in London does not properly include the name of the city of London in its title.
Here are U.S. securities which have a single letter stock symbol:
A Agilent Technologies N NetSuite
B Barnes Group O Realty Income Corp
C CitiGroup (formerly Chrysler) P Pandora Media
D Dominion Resources R Ryder System
E ENI ADR S Sprint Nextel (formerly Sears)
F Ford Motor T AT&T
G Genpact V Visa
H Hyatt Hotels W – (formerly Woolworth)
K Kellogg Company X United States Steel
L Loews Corp. Holding Y Allegheny Insurance
M Macy’s Inc. Z Zillow Cl A (formerly Zenith)
When the characters are four or five ABCD(E), then the shares are generally traded over the counter which may
be on the NASDAQ (National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotation) system.
Mutual funds trade in pennies ($.01) and have a five letter symbol ending in X; if the mutual fund is a money
market then the five letter symbol ends in XX. Mutual funds trade at the end of the trading day and are bought in
dollar amounts, but sold in unit amounts. An Exchange Traded Fund (ETF) usually has three letters and trades
like a stock. ETFs and mutual funds usually pay dividends monthly.
Telephone
(XX) XAB CCX DDXX
Except for Russia and North America, most countries have a two digit country code. While the country code for
Canada and U.S. is 1 and often precedes a telephone number in parenthesis as a reminder to dial 1 to make a long
distance call, it also serves as a country code reminder for foreign callers. If the country code is three digits, then
the country is new or small. Note that East Germany’s country code 37 was retired when Germany was unified
(and thus changed their city dialing codes and postal codes). Foreign telephone numbers often start with a zero
for their city access codes (otherwise similar to U.S. area codes in that they are internal to the same country), but
the leading zero often is not included when dialing from abroad and preceded by the country code.
Country codes are arranged geographically:
1 North America 6 Southeast Asia/Pacific
2 Africa 7 Russia
3 Europe 8 East Asia/Marisat (satellite)
4 Europe 9 Southwest Asia
5 Latin America

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A U.S. telephone number has a three digit area code which indicates a large city if the second digit (A) is a 1,
indicates a sparsely populated area if a 0, and indicates a newer area code if otherwise and/or if it is followed (B)
by 1 or 0. The old rotary dial associated pulses to a digit (with 0 as ten pulses); touch tone dialing associates two
tones with each number or # and * signs by the column and row of the touch pad. The # sign is called a number
or pound (weight) sign in the U.S. but a hash sign elsewhere noting the British usage of the monetary pound sign
(₤). The * sign, while properly an asterisk, is called a star sign. By the way, Danish telephones have the lower
numbers at the bottom of the number pad instead of the top.
The 809 area code had been assigned to the Caribbean and has been changed to various country codes (see
above). The WATS (toll free) codes include 800, and the series 822 through 888 in multiples of 11. The prefix
(the next three numbers after the area code) will be newer if either of the first two digits (CCX) contain a 1 or a 0
reflecting a previous time when letters (ABC through XYZ) were associated with the numbers 2 through 9. 700
and 900 area codes and 976 prefix numbers are CPC (toll) numbers. Here are some dial faces of old alphabetic
telephone prefix mnemonics starting with 39, 37, 45, 47, 67, and 83:

U.S. telephone numbers historically often went from four digits to six digits which then became seven digits, and
then became ten digits in some areas to include the area code. The dropping of the alphabetic mnemonics allowed
the additional usage of the numbers 1 and 0 where mnemonics previously could not exist. Contrary to popular
belief, the 555 prefix does exist, but only for billing and international access to the U.S and as an 800 type
number. The 520 prefix is for high volume calling (phone contests for example) and 976 is a toll prefix for
commercial use. There was a time when public phone booths used to start the last four digits (DDXX) with a 99.
In France, telephone numbers went from eight to ten digits now including the first two digits associated with five
regions in France plus another for cell phones.
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Temperature
20°C = 68°F
The Celsius (C) temperature scale sets freezing water at 0 degrees and boiling water at 100 degrees while the
Fahrenheit (F) scale sets these at 32 and 212 degrees respectively. To convert these use F = 32 + 9/5C or C = 5/9
(F-32). A shortcut is that 20 degrees Celsius equals 68 degrees Fahrenheit plus or minus 9 Fahrenheit degrees for
each 5 Celsius degrees.
Time
3:00pm = 15:00
International time often uses the 24-hour clock so that 3:00pm is 15:00 with the addition of 12 for pm. There are
32 time zones with six being 30 minutes different (Afghanistan, central Australia, Burma/Myanmar, India, Iran,
and Newfoundland), Nepal at 45 minutes, and noting that there are two sides of the International Date Line.
Russia recently eliminated time zone differences of 1 hour so that now time zone changes there are now in 2 hour
multiples. Some localities advance their time by one hour during their summer called Daylight (Saving) or
Summer time. The dates for these time changes were recently revised to lengthen the number of weeks with some
older electronics now making the changes on the wrong older dates.

Universal Product Codes (UPC)

ABABAB ABABAC
Universal Product Codes are comprised of twelve-digit number comprised of a six digit manufacturer’s code, a
five digit product code, and a check digit.

The check digit (C) equals the 3 times the sum of the odd digits (A’s) and the sum of the even digits (B‘s)
subtracted from the next multiple of ten, or:

C = 10X – 3 (A1+A3+A5+A7+A9+A11) – (B2+B4+B6+B8+B10).

If there is a leading zero in the manufacturer’s or product codes, then it is suppressed. The bars can be read in
either direction in that the second half of the bar code is up side down and is separated by a center separation bar.
The width of the bars corresponds to:
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Separator 1111 Start 11

0 3211 or 1123 5 1231 or 1321
1 2221 or 1222 6 1114 or 4111
2 2122 or 2212 7 1312 or 2131
3 1411 or 1141 8 1213 or 3121
4 1132 or 2311 9 3112 or 2113
Note that the sum of each of the encoded digit’s bar code equals seven.

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