Panimalar Engineering College 1.

UNIT 1 INTORDUCTION TO OOP AND JAVA FUNDAMENTALS

Object Oriented Programming - Abstraction – Objects And Classes - Encapsulation- Inheritance -

Polymorphism- characteristics of Java-Java Environment- Java source File- compilation –
Fundamental Programming Structures In Java –Data types-variables-operators-control flow- Defining
Classes In Java – Constructors, Methods -Access Specifiers - Static Members - Arrays , Javadoc
Comments.

1.1: Object Oriented Programming

 PROCEDURE-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING [POP]:

Procedure-Oriented Programming is a conventional programming which consists of

writing a list of instructions for the computer to follow and organizing these
instructions into groups known as Functions (or) Procedures (or) subroutines (or)
Modules.

Example: A program may involve the following operations:

 Collecting data from user (Reading)
 Calculations on collected data (Calculation)
 Displaying the result to the user (Printing)

Main Program
Global Data

Procedure
Procedure Procedure
3(Printing)
1(Reading) 2(Calculation)
Local Data Local Data Local Data

Characteristics of Procedural oriented programming:-

1. It focuses on process rather than data.

2. It takes a problem as a sequence of things to be done such as reading,
calculating and printing. Hence, a number of functions are written to solve a
problem.
3. A program is divided into a number of functions and each function has clearly
defined purpose.
4. Most of the functions share global data.
5. Data moves openly around the system from function to function.

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6. Employs top-down approach in program design.

Drawback of POP

 Procedural languages are difficult to relate with the real world objects.
 Procedural codes are very difficult to maintain, if the code grows larger.
 Procedural languages do not have automatic memory management as like in Java.
Hence, it makes the programmer to concern more about the memory management
of the program.
 The data, which is used in procedural languages, are exposed to the whole program.
So, there is no security for the data.
 Examples of Procedural languages :
 BASIC
 C
 Pascal
 FORTRAN

 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING (OOP):

Object-Oriented Programming System (OOPs) is a programming paradigm based on

the concept of ―objects‖ that contain data and methods, instead of just functions and
procedures.

 The primary purpose of object-oriented programming is to increase the

flexibility and maintainability of programs.
 Object oriented programming brings together data and its behavior (methods) in
to a single entity (object) which makes it easier to understand how a program
works.

 Features / advantages of Object Oriented Programming :-

1. It emphasis in own data rather than procedure.
2. It is based on the principles of inheritance, polymorphism, encapsulation and data
abstraction.

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3. Programs are divided into objects.

4. Data and the functions are wrapped into a single unit called class so that data is
hidden and is safe from accidental alternation.
5. Objects communicate with each other through functions.
6. New data and functions can be easily added whenever necessary.
7. Employs bottom-up approach in program design.

 Difference between POP and OOP:

Procedure Oriented Programming Object Oriented Programming

In POP, program is divided into small In OOP, program is divided into parts
Divided Into
parts called functions. called objects.
In POP, Importance is not given to In OOP, Importance is given to the data
Importance data but to functions as well as rather than procedures or functions
sequence of actions to be done. because it works as a real world.
Approach POP follows Top Down approach. OOP follows Bottom Up approach.
Access POP does not have any access OOP has access specifiers named
Specifiers specifier. Public, Private, Protected, etc.
In OOP, objects can move and
In POP, Data can move freely from
Data Moving communicate with each other through
function to function in the system.
member functions.
To add new data and function in POP OOP provides an easy way to add new
Expansion
is not so easy. data and function.
In POP, Most function uses Global In OOP, data cannot move easily from
data for sharing that can be accessed function to function, it can be kept
Data Access
freely from function to function in the public or private so we can control the
system. access of data.
POP does not have any proper way OOP provides Data Hiding so provides
Data Hiding
for hiding data so it is less secure. more security.
In OOP, overloading is possible in the
Overloading In POP, Overloading is not possible. form of Function Overloading and
Operator Overloading.
Examples of POP are: C, VB, Examples of OOP are: C++, JAVA,
Examples
FORTRAN, and Pascal. VB.NET, C#.NET.

 OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING CONCEPTS

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OOPs simplify the software development and maintenance by providing some concepts:

1. Class - Blue print of Object

2. Object - Instance of class
3. Encapsulation - Protecting our data
4. Polymorphism - Different behaviors at different instances
5. Abstraction - Hiding irrelevant data
6. Inheritance - An object acquiring the property of another object

1. Class:
A class is a collection of similar objects and it contains data and methods that operate
on that data. In other words ―Class is a blueprint or template for a set of objects
that share a common structure and a common behavior‖. It is a logical entity. It can't
be physical.
A class in Java can contain:
 fields
 methods
 constructors
 blocks
 nested class and interface

Syntax to declare a class:

class <class_name>
{
field;
method;
}

2. Object:
Any entity that has state and behavior is known as an object.

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For example: chair, pen, table, keyboard, bike etc. It can be physical and logical.
Object is an instance of a class. Class is a template or blueprint from which objects are
created. So object is the instance (result) of a class.
The object of a class can be created by using the new keyword in Java Programming
language.
Syntax to create Object in Java:
class_name object_name = new class_name;
(or)
class_name object_name;
object_name = new class_name();

An object has three characteristics:

 State: represents data (value) of an object.
 Behavior: represents the behavior (functionality) of an object such as deposit,
withdraw etc.
 Identity: Object identity is typically implemented via a unique ID. The value of the ID
is not visible to the external user. But, it is used internally by the JVM to identify each
object uniquely.
 For Example: Pen is an object. Its name is Reynolds, color is white etc. known as its
state. It is used to write, so writing is its behavior.

Difference between Object and Class

S.No. Object Class

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Class is a blueprint or template from which

1) Object is an instance of a class.
objects are created.
Object is a real world entity such as
2) pen, laptop, mobile, bed, keyboard, Class is a group of similar objects.
mouse, chair etc.
3) Object is a physical entity. Class is a logical entity.
Object is created through new keyword
Class is declared using class keyword e.g.
4) mainly e.g.
class Student{}
Student s1=new Student();
Object is created many times as per
5) Class is declared once.
requirement.
Object allocates memory when it is Class doesn't allocated memory when it is
6)
created. created.
There are many ways to create object
in java such as new keyword, There is only one way to define class in java
7)
newInstance() method, clone() method, using class keyword.
factory method and deserialization.

3. Encapsulation:
Wrapping of data and method together into a single unit is known as
Encapsulation.

For example: capsule, it is wrapped with different medicines.

 In OOP, data and methods operating on that data are combined together to
form a single unit, which is referred to as a Class.
 Encapsulation is the mechanism that binds together code and the data it manipulates
and keeps both safe from outside interference and misuse.
 The insulation of the data from direct access by the program is called ―data hiding‖.
Since the data stored in an object cannot be accessed directly, the data is safe i.e.,
the data is unknown to other methods and objects.

4. Polymorphism:
 Polymorphism means the ability of an object to take more than one form.
 An operation may exhibit different behaviors in different instances. The behavior
depends on the data types used in the operation.
 For Example:- Suppose if you are in a classroom that time you behave like a student,
when you are in the market at that time you behave like a customer, when you at your

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home at that time you behave like a son or daughter, Here one person present in
different-different behaviors.
 Two types of polymorphism:
1. Compile time polymorphism: - In this method, object is bound to the function
call at the compile time itself.
2. Runtime polymorphism: - In this method, object is bound to the function call
only at the run time.
 In java, we use method overloading and method overriding to achieve
polymorphism.
 Example:
1. draw(int x, int y, int z)
2. draw(int l, int b)
3. draw(int r)

5. Abstraction:
 Abstraction refers to the act of representing essential features without including the
background details or explanations. i.e., Abstraction means hiding lower-level
details and exposing only the essential and relevant details to the users.
 For Example: - Consider an ATM Machine; All are performing operations on the
ATM machine like cash withdrawal, money transfer, retrieve mini-statement…etc.
but we can't know internal details about ATM.
 Using abstraction one can simulate real world objects.
 Abstraction provides advantage of code reuse.
 Abstraction enables program open for extension.
 In java, abstract classes and interfaces are used to achieve Abstraction.

6. Inheritance:
 Inheritance in java is a mechanism in which one object acquires all the properties
and behaviors of another object.
 It is an important part of OOPs (Object Oriented Programming system).
 The idea behind inheritance in java is that we can create new classes that are built
upon existing classes. When we inherit from an existing class, we can reuse methods
and fields of parent class, and we can add new methods and fields also.

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 Inheritance represents the IS-A relationship, also known as parent-child

relationship.
 For example:- In a child and parent relationship, all the properties of a father are
inherited by his son.
 Why use inheritance in java
o For Method Overriding (so runtime polymorphism can be achieved).
o For Code Reusability.
 Terms used in Inheritance
o Class: A class is a group of objects which have common properties. It is a
template or blueprint from which objects are created.
o Sub Class/Child Class: Subclass is a class which inherits the other class. It is
also called a derived class, extended class, or child class.
o Super Class/Parent Class: Superclass is the class from where a subclass
inherits the features. It is also called a base class or a parent class.
o Reusability: As the name specifies, reusability is a mechanism which facilitates
us to reuse the fields and methods of the existing class when we create a new
class. We can use the same fields and methods already defined in previous
class.

 Syntax of Java Inheritance

class Subclass-name extends Superclass-name
{
//methods and fields
}
 The extends keyword indicates that we are making a new class that derives from an
existing class. The meaning of "extends" is to increase the functionality.
 In the terminology of Java, a class which is inherited is called parent or super class
and the new class is called child or subclass.
 Inheritance is further classified into 4 types:

7. Message Passing:
Message Communication:
 Objects interact and communicate with each other by sending messages to each
other. This information is passed along with the message as parameters.

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 The most important aspect of an object is its behavior. Behavior is initiated by

sending a message to the object.

 A message for an object is a request for execution of a procedure and therefore

will invoke a method (procedure) in the receiving object that generates the
desired result.
 Message passing involves specifying the name of the object, the name of the
method (message) and the information to be sent.
 Example:
Employee.getName(name);
Where,
Employee – object name
getName – method name (message)
name - information

1.2: Introduction to Java – Characteristics of Java

 JAVA
 Java programming language was originally developed by Sun Microsystems which was
initiated by James Gosling and released in 1995 as core component of Sun Microsystems'
Java platform (Java 1.0 [J2SE]).

Java is a high-level object-oriented programming language, which provides

developers with the means to create powerful applications, which are very small in
size, platform independent, secure and robust.

 Java runs on a variety of platforms, such as Windows, Mac OS, and the various versions of
UNIX.

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 Java is mainly used for Internet Programming.

 Java is related to the languages C and C++. From C, Java inherits its syntax and from C++,
Java inherits its OOP concepts.
 Ancestors of Java: - C, C++, B, BCPL.

 Five primary goals in the creation of the Java language:

1. It should use the object-oriented programming methodology.

2. It should allow the same program to be executed on multiple operating systems.
3. It should contain built-in support for using computer networks.
4. It should be designed to execute code from remote sources securely.
5. It should be easy to use.

 CHARACTERISTICS / FEATURES OF JAVA (JAVA BUZZWORDS):

The following are the features of the Java language:

1. Object Oriented 4. Platform Independent
2. Simple 5. Robust
3. Secure 6. Portable

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7. Architecture Neutral 10. High Performance

8. Dynamic 11. Multithreaded
9. Interpreted 12. Distributed

1. Object Oriented:

 Java programming is pure object-oriented programming language. Like C++, Java

provides most of the object oriented features.
 Though C++ is also an object oriented language, we can write programs in C++ without a
class but it is not possible to write a Java program without classes.

 Example: Printing “Hello” Message.

C++ ( can be without class) Java – No programs without classes and
objects

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With Class: With class:

#include<iostream.h> Import java.io.*;
class display { class Hello {
public:
public static void main(String args[]) {
void disp()
{ cout<<‖Hello!‖; } System.out.println(―Hello!‖); }
}; }
main() { display d; d.disp(); }

Without class:
#include<iostream.h> Without class is not possible
void main()
{
clrscr();
cout<<‖\n Hello!‖;
getch();
}

2. Simple:

 Java is Easy to write and more readable and eye catching.

 Java has a concise, cohesive set of features that makes it easy to learn and use.
 Most of the concepts are drew from C++ thus making Java learning simpler.

3. Secure :
 Since Java is intended to be used in networked/distributed environments, lot of emphasis
has been placed on security.
 Java provides a secure means of creating Internet applications and to access web
applications.
 Java enables the construction of secured, virus-free, tamper-free system.

4. Platform Independent:
 Unlike C, C++, when Java program is compiled, it is not compiled into platform-specific
machine code, rather it is converted into platform independent code called bytecode.
 The Java bytecodes are not specific to any processor. They can be executed in any
computer without any error.
 Because of the bytecode, Java is called as Platform Independent.

5. Robust:
 Java encourages error-free programming by being strictly typed and performing run-time
checks.

6. Portable:
 Java bytecode can be distributed over the web and interpreted by Java Virtual Machine
(JVM)
 Java programs can run on any platform (Linux, Window, Mac)
 Java programs can be transferred over world wide web (e.g applets)

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7. Architecture Neutral:
 Java is not tied to a specific machine or operating system architecture.
 Machine Independent i.e Java is independent of hardware.
 Bytecode instructions are designed to be both easy to interpret on any machine and easily
translated into native machine code.

8. Dynamic and Extensible:

 Java is a more dynamic language than C or C++. It was developed to adapt to an evolving
environment.
 Java programs carry with them substantial amounts of run-time information that are used
to verify and resolve accesses to objects at run time.

9. Interpreted:
 Java supports cross-platform code through the use of Java bytecode.
 The Java interpreter can execute Java Bytecodes directly on any machine to which the
interpreter has been ported.

10. High Performance:

 Bytecodes are highly optimized.
 JVM can execute the bytecodes much faster.
 With the use of Just-In-Time (JIT) compiler, it enables high performance.

11. Multithreaded:
 Java provides integrated support for multithreaded programming.
 Using multithreading capability, we can write programs that can do many tasks
simultaneously.
 The benefits of multithreading are better responsiveness and real-time behavior.

12. Distributed:
 Java is designed for the distributed environment for the Internet because it handles
TCP/IP protocols.
 Java programs can be transmit and run over internet.

 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN C AND JAVA :

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1.3: The Java Environment

 BASIC JAVA TERMINALOGIES:

1. BYTECODE:
 Byte code is an intermediate code generated from the source code by java
compiler and it is platform independent.
 It is a highly optimized set of instructions designed to be executed by the Java
run-time system, which is called Java Virtual Machine (JVM). JVM is an
interpreter for Byte Code.

2. JAVA DEVELOPMENT KIT (JDK):

 The Java Development Kit (JDK) is a software development environment used
for developing Java applications and applets.

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 It includes the Java Runtime Environment (JRE), an interpreter/loader (java), a

compiler (javac), an archiver (jar), a documentation generator (javadoc) and
other tools needed in Java development.

3. JAVA RUNTIME ENVIRONMENT (JRE):

JRE is used to provide runtime environment for JVM. It contains set of libraries +
other files that JVM uses at runtime.

4. JAVA VIRTUAL MACHINE (JVM):

 JVM is an interpreter that converts a program in Java bytecode (intermediate
language) into native machine code and executes it.
 It is a specification that provides runtime environment in which java bytecode
can be executed.
 JVM needs to be implemented for each platform because it will differ from
platform to platform.
 JVM, JRE and JDK are platform dependent because configuration of each OS
differs. But, Java is platform independent. There are three notions of the JVM:
specification, implementation, and instance.
 The JVM performs following main tasks:
 Loads code

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
Verifies code
 Executes code
 Provides runtime environment
 JVM provides definitions for the:
 Memory area
 Class file format
 Register set
 Garbage-collected heap
 Fatal error reporting etc.

5. JIT (JUST IN TIME) COMPILER:

It is used to improve the performance. JIT compiles parts of the byte code that
have similar functionality at the same time, and hence reduces the amount of time needed
for compilation. Here the term ?compiler? refers to a translator from the instruction set of
a Java virtual machine (JVM) to the instruction set of a specific CPU.

 Types of Java program:

In Java, there are two types of programs namely,
1. Application Program
2. Applet Program

1. Application Programs
Application programs are stand-alone programs that are written to carry out
certain tasks on local computer such as solving equations, reading and writing files etc.
The application programs can be executed using two steps:
1. Compile source code to generate Byte code using Javac compiler.
2. Execute the byte code program using Java interpreter.

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2. Applet programs:
Applets are small Java programs developed for Internet applications. An applet
located in distant computer can be downloaded via Internet and executed on a local
computer using Java capable browser. The Java applets can also be executed in the
command line using appletviewer, which is part of the JDK.

1.4: Java Source File - Structure – Compilation

 THE JAVA SOURCE FILE:

A Java source file is a plain text file containing Java source code and
having .java extension. The .java extension means that the file is the Java source file.
Java source code file contains source code for a class, interface, enumeration, or
annotation type. There are some rules associated to Java source file.

Java Program Structure:

Java program may contain many classes of which only one class defines the main
method.
A Java program may contain one or more sections.
Documentation Section
Package Statement
Import Statements
Interface Statements
Class Definitions
main Method Calss
{
Main Method Definition
}

Of the above Sections shown in the figure, the Main Method class is Essential part,
Documentation Section is a suggested part and all the other parts are optional.

Documentation Section
 It Comprises a Set of comment lines giving the name of the program, the author
and other details.
 Comments help in Maintaining the Program.
 Java uses a Style of comment called documentation comment.
/* * …… */
 This type of comment helps is generating the documentation automatically.
 Example:
/*
* Title: Conversion of Degrees
* Aim: To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa

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* Date: 31/08/2000
* Author: tim
*/
Package Statement
 The first statement allowed in a Java file is a package statement.
 It declares the package name and informs the compiler that the classes defined
belong to this package.
 Example :
package student;
package basepackage.subpackage.class;
 It is an optional declaration.
Import Statements
 The statement instructs the interpreter to load a class contained in a particular
package.
 Example :
import student.test;
Where, student is the package and test is the class.

Interface Statements
 An interface is similar to classes which consist of group of method declaration.
 Like classes, interfaces contain methods and variable.
 To link the interface to our program, the keyword implements is used.
 Example:
public class xx extends Applet implements ActionListener
where, xx – class name (subclass of Applet)
Applet – Base class name
ActionListener – interface
Extends & implements - keywords
 It is used when we want to implement the feature of Multiple Inheritance in Java
 It is an optional declaration.

Class Definitions
 A Java Program can have any number of class declarations.
 The number of classes depends on the complexity of the program.

Main Method Class

 Every Java Standalone program requires a main method as its starting point.
 A Simple Java Program will contain only the main method class.
 It creates objects of various classes and uses those objects for performing various
operations.
 When the end of main is reached the program terminates and the control
transferred back to the Operating system.
 Syntax for writing main:
public static void main(String arg[])
where,

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public – It is an access specifier to control the visibility of class members. main()

must be declared as public, since it must be called by code outside of its class
when the program is started.
static – this keyword allows main() method to be called without having to
instantiate the instance of the class.
void – this keyword tells the compiler that main() does not return any value.
main() – is the method called when a Java application begins.
String arg[] – arg is an string array which receives any command-line arguments
present when the program is executed.

 Rules to be followed to write Java Programs:

About Java programs, it is very important to keep in mind the following points.

 Case Sensitivity - Java is case sensitive, which means identifier Hello and hello
would have different meaning in Java.
 Class Names - For all class names the first letter should be in Upper Case.
If several words are used to form a name of the class, each inner word's first letter
should be in Upper Case.
Example class MyFirstJavaClass
 Method Names - All method names should start with a Lower Case letter.
If several words are used to form the name of the method, then each inner word's
first letter should be in Upper Case.
Example public void myMethodName()
 Program File Name - Name of the program file should exactly match the class
name.
When saving the file, you should save it using the class name (Remember Java is
case sensitive) and append '.java' to the end of the name (if the file name and the
class name do not match your program will not compile).
Example : Assume 'MyFirstJavaProgram' is the class name. Then the file should
be saved as 'MyFirstJavaProgram.java'
 public static void main(String args[]) - Java program processing starts from the
main() method which is a mandatory part of every Java program.

 Compiling and running a java program in command prompt

STEPS:
1. Set the path of the compiler as follows (type this in command prompt):
Set path=”C:\Program Files\Java\jdk1.6.0_20\bin”;
2. To create a Java program, ensure that the name of the class in the file is the same
as the name of the file.
3. Save the file with the extension .java (Example: HelloWorld.java)
4. To compile the java program use the command javac as follows:
javac HelloWorld.java

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This will take the source code in the file HelloWorld.java and create the java
bytecode in a file ―HelloWorld.class‖
5. To run the compiled program use the command java as follows:
java HelloWorld
(Note that you do not use any file extension in this command.)

At compile time, java file is compiled by Java Compiler (It does not interact with OS) and
converts the java code into bytecode.

Class Loader : is the subsystem of JVM that is used to load class files.
Bytecode Verifier : checks the code fragments for illegal code that can violate access right to
objects.
Interpreter : read bytecode stream then execute the instructions.

Example 1: A First Java Program:

/* simple
* Helloworld
* program
*/
public class HelloWorld
{
public static void main(String args[])
{

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System.out.println("Hello World");
}
}

Save: HelloWorld.java
Compile: javac HelloWorld.java
Run: java HelloWorld

Output: Hello World

Program Explanation:
public is the access specifier, class is a keyword and HelloWorld is the class name. {
indicates the start of program block and } indicates the end of the program block.
System.out.println() – is the output statement to print some message on the screen.
Here, System is a predefined class that provides access to the system, out is the output
stream that is connected to the console and println() is method to display the given
string.

Example 2: A Second Java Program:

import java,util.Scanner; // Scanner is a class which contains necessary methods to

provide a user an access to the i/p console.
public class Example2 // class declaration
{ // class definition starts
public static void main(String args[]) { //main() definition starts
int num=0,res; // declares two integer with initial value 0
Scanner in=new Scanner(System.in); //creating object of Scanner class to
access the i/p stream.
System.out.println(“Enter a Number : “);
num=in.nextInt(); // to read the next integer value from the i/p
stream
res=num*2; // manipulation of the data
System.out.println("The value of "+num+” * 2 = “+res); //displays
result
}
}
Save: Example2.java
Compile: javac Example2.java
Run: java Example2

Output:
Enter a Number: 25
The value of 25 * 2 = 50

1.5: DEFINING CLASSES

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 A class is a collection of similar objects and it contains data and methods that operate on
that data. In other words ―Class is a blueprint or template for a set of objects that
share a common structure and a common behavior‖.

 DEFINING A CLASS:

The keyword class is used to define a class.

Rules to be followed:
1. Classes must be enclosed in parentheses.
2. The class name, superclass name, instance variables and method names may be any valid
Java identifiers.
3. The instance variable declaration and the statements of the methods must end with ;
(semicolon).
4. The keyword extends means derived from i.e. the class to the left of the extends
(subclass) is derived from the class to the right of the extends (superclass).

Syntax to declare a class:

[public|abstract|final] class class_name [extends superclass_name implements interface_name]
{
data_type instance_variable1;
data_type instance_variable2;
.
.
data_type instance_variableN;

return_type method_name1(parameter list)

{
Body of the method
}
.
.
return_type method_nameN(parameter list)
{
Body of the method
}
}

 The data, or variables, defined within a class are called instance variables.
 The code to do operations is contained within methods.
 Collectively, the methods and variables defined within a class are called members of the
class.
 Variables defined within a class are called instance variables because each instance of the
class (that is, each object of the class) contains its own copy of these variables.
 Thus, the data for one object is separate and unique from the data for another.

 Example:

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class box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;
void volume()
{
System.out.println(―\n Volume is : ―);
Systme.out.println(width*height*depth);
}
}

Program Explanation:
Class : keyword that initiates a class definition
Box : class name
Double : primitive data type
Height, depth, width: Instance variables
Void : return type of the method
Volume() : method name that has no parameters

DEFINING OBJECTS

 An Object is an instance of a class. It is a blending of methods and data.

Object = Data + Methods

 It is a structured set of data with a set of operations for manipulating that data.

 The methods are the only gateway to access the data. In other words, the methods and data
are grouped together and placed in a container called Object.

Characteristics of an object:

An object has three characteristics:

1) State: represents data (value) of an object.
2) Behavior: represents the behavior (functionality) of an object such as deposit,
withdraw etc.
3) Identity: Object identity is typically implemented via a unique ID. The value of
the ID is not visible to the external user. But, it is used internally by the JVM to
identify each object uniquely.
For Example: Pen is an object. Its name is Reynolds, color is white etc. known as
its state. It is used to write, so writing is its behavior.

 CREATING OBJECTS:

Obtaining objects of a class is a two-step process:

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1. Declare a variable of the class type – this variable does not define an object. Instead,
it is simply a variable that can refer to an object.
2. Use new operator to create the physical copy of the object and assign the reference
to the declared variable.

NOTE: The new operator dynamically allocates memory for an object and returns a reference
to it. This reference is the address in memory of the object allocated by new.

Advantage of using new operator: A program can create as many as objects it needs during
the execution of the program.

Syntax:
class_name object_name = new class_name();
(or)
class_name object_name;
object_name = new class_name();

Example:
box b1=new box();
(or)
box b2;
b2=new box();

 ACCESSING CLASS MEMBERS:

 Accessing the class members means accessing instance variable and instance methods in
a class.
 To access these members, a dot (.) operator is used along with the objects.

Syntax for accessing the instance members and methods:

object_name.variable_name;
object_name.method_name(parameter_list);

Example:

class box
{
double width;
double height;
double depth;
void volume()
{
System.out.print("\n Box Volume is : ");
System.out.println(width*height*depth+" cu.cms");
}
}

public class BoxVolume {

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public static void main(String[] args) {

box b1=new box();// creating object of type box
b1.width=10.00;// Accessing instance variables through object
b1.height=10.00;
b1.depth=10.00;
b1.volume();// Accessing method through object
}
}
Output:

1.6: METHODS
 DEFINITION :
A Java method is a collection of statements that are grouped together to perform an
operation.

Syntax: Method:
modifier Return –type method_name(parameter_list) throws exception_list
{
// method body
}

The syntax shown above includes:

 modifier: It defines the access type of the method and it is optional to use.
 returnType: Method may return a value.
 Method_name: This is the method name. The method signature consists of the method
name and the parameter list.
 Parameter List: The list of parameters, it is the type, order, and number of parameters of
a method. These are optional, method may contain zero parameters.
 method body: The method body defines what the method does with statements.

Example:
This method takes two parameters num1 and num2 and returns the maximum between the two:

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/** the snippet returns the minimum between two numbers */

public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2) {
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;

return min;
}

Program Explanation:
public static: modifier
int: data type
minFunction: method name
int n1, int n2: list of parameters
int min;
if (n1 > n2) Method body which do the operation of identifying the minimum
min = n2; value between n1 and n2 & returns the min value to the main().
else
min = n1;

return min;

 METHOD CALLING (Example for Method that takes parameters and returning value):

 For using a method, it should be called.

 A method may take any no. of arguments.
 A parameter is a variable defined by a method that receives a value when the method is
called. For example, in square( ), i is a parameter.
 An argument is a value that is passed to a method when it is invoked. For example,
square(100) passes 100 as an argument. Inside square( ), the parameter i receives that
value.
 There are two ways in which a method is called.

 calling a method that returns a value or

 calling a method returning nothing (no return value).

 The process of method calling is simple. When a program invokes a method, the program
control gets transferred to the called method.
 This called method then returns control to the caller in two conditions, when:

1. return statement is executed.

2. reaches the method ending closing brace.

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 Example:

Following is the example to demonstrate how to define a method and how to call it:

public class ExampleMinNumber{

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a = 11;
int b = 6;
int c = minFunction(a, b);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + c);
}

/** returns the minimum of two numbers */

public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2) {
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;
return min;
}
}

This would produce the following result:

Minimum value = 6

 MEHTOD OVERLOADING:
Method Overloading means more than one methods shares the same name in the class
but having different signature. i.e., In Method Overloading, Methods of the same class
shares the same name but each method must have different number of parameters or
parameters having different types and order.

Example:
class Add
{
int sum(int a, int b)
{
return a + b;
}
int sum(int a)
{
return a + 10;
}
}

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Example: To find the Minimum of two numbers:

public class ExampleOverloading
{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
int a = 11;
int b = 6;
double c = 7.3;
double d = 9.4;
int result1 = minFunction(a, b);
// same function name with different parameters
double result2 = minFunction(c, d);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + result1);
System.out.println("Minimum Value = " + result2);
}

// for integer
public static int minFunction(int n1, int n2)
{
int min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;
return min;
}
// for double
public static double minFunction(double n1, double n2)
{
double min;
if (n1 > n2)
min = n2;
else
min = n1;

return min;
}
}

This would produce the following result:

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Minimum Value = 6
Minimum Value = 7.3

1.7: CONTRUCTORS
Definition:
Constructor is a special type of method that is used to initialize the object.
Constructor is invoked at the time of object creation. Once defined, the constructor is
automatically called immediately after the object is created, before the new operator
completes.

 Rules for creating constructor:

There are basically two rules defined for the constructor.

1. Constructor name must be same as its class name

2. Constructor must have no explicit return type
3. Constructors can be declared public or private (for a Singleton)
4. Constructors can have no-arguments, some arguments and var-args;
5. A constructor is always called with the new operator
6. The default constructor is a no-arguments one;
7. If you don‘t write ANY constructor, the compiler will generate the default one;
8. Constructors CAN‘T be static, final or abstract;
9. When overloading constructors (defining methods with the same name but with
different arguments lists) you must define them with different arguments lists (as
number or as type)

 What happens when a constructor is called?

1. All data fields are initialized to their default value (0, false or null).
2. All field initializers and initialization blocks are executed, in the order in which they
occur in the class declaration.
3. If the first line of the constructor calls a second constructor, then the body of the
second constructor is executed.
4. The body of the constructor is executed.

 Types of constructors
There are two types of constructors:
1. Default constructor (no-arg constructor)
2. Parameterized constructor

1) Default Constructor
Definition:

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 Constructor without parameters as default constructor and all of its class instance
variables are set to default values.
 Default constructor refers to a constructor that is automatically created by compiler
in the absence of explicit constructors.
Syntax of default constructor:

Example: <class_name>() { }

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// This is the constructor for Box

Box() {
System.out.println(―Constructing Box…‖);
width=10;
height=10;
depth=10;
}
// Compute and return volume
double volume() {
rturn width*height*depth;
}
}
class BoxDemo {
public static void main(String arg[])
{
// declare, allocate and initialize Box objects
Box mybox1=new Box();
Box mybox2=new Box();
double vol;
// Get volume of first box
vol=mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(―Volume is ―+vol);

// Get volume of first box

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(―Volume is ―+vol);
}
}
Output:
Constructing Box
Constructing Box
Volume is 1000.0
Volume is 1000.0
As you can see, both mybox1 and mybox2 were initialized by the Box( ) constructor when they
were created. Since the constructor gives all boxes the same dimensions, 10 by 10 by 10, both
mybox1 and mybox2 will have the same volume.

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2. Parameterized constructor
Definition:
A constructor that takes parameters is known as parameterized constructor.

Why use parameterized constructor?

Parameterized constructor is used to provide different values to the distinct objects.
Example:

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// This is the constructor for Box

Box(double w, double h, double d) {
width=w;
height=h;
depth=d;
}
// Compute and return volume
double volume() {
rturn width*height*depth;
}
}
class BoxDemo {
public static void main(String arg[])
{
// declare, allocate and initialize Box objects
Box mybox1=new Box(10,20,15);
Box mybox2=new Box(3,6,9);
double vol;
// Get volume of first box
vol=mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(―Volume is ―+vol);

// Get volume of second box

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(―Volume is ―+vol);
}
}

Output:
Volume is 3000.0
Volume is 162.0

As you can see, each object is initialized as specified in the parameters to its constructor. For
example, in the following line,
Box mybox1 = new Box(10, 20, 15);

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the values 10, 20, and 15 are passed to the Box( ) constructor when new creates the object. Thus,
mybox1‘s copy of width, height, and depth will contain the values 10, 20, and 15, respectively.

Difference between constructor and method:

There are many differences between constructors and methods. They are given
below
Constructor Method
Constructor is used to initialize the state of an Method is used to expose behaviour of an
object. object.
Constructor must not have return type. Method must have return type.
Constructor is invoked implicitly. Method is invoked explicitly.
The java compiler provides a default Method is not provided by compiler in any
constructor if you don't have any constructor. case.
Constructor name must be same as the class Method name may or may not be same as
name. class name.

1.7.1: “this” KEYWORD:

Definition:
In java, this is a reference variable that refers to the current object.

 Usage of this keyword

1. this keyword can be used to refer current class instance variable.

2. this() can be used to invoke current class constructor.
3. this keyword can be used to invoke current class method (implicitly)
4. this can be passed as an argument in the method call.
5. this can be passed as argument in the constructor call.
6. this keyword can also be used to return the current class instance.

To better understand what this refers to, consider the following version of Box( ):

Box(double w, double h, double d) {

this.width = w;
this.height = h;
this.depth = d;
}

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This version of Box( ) operates exactly like the earlier version. The use of this is redundant, but
perfectly correct. Inside Box( ), this will always refer to the invoking object.

Instance Variable Hiding:

It is illegal in Java to declare two local variables with the same name inside the same or
enclosing scopes. We can also have local variables, which overlap with the names of the class‘
instance variables.
However, when a local variable has the same name as an instance variable, the local variable
hides the instance variable.
We can use “this” keyword to to resolve any namespace collisions that might occur between
instance variables and local variables.

Example:
class Student
{
int rollno;
String name;
float fee;
Student(int rollno,String name,float fee)
{
this.rollno=rollno;
this.name=name;
this.fee=fee;
}
void display()
{
System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+fee);
}
}

class TestThis2
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
Student s1=new Student(111,"ankit",5000f);
Student s2=new Student(112,"sumit",6000f);
s1.display();
s2.display();
}
}
Output:

111 ankit 5000

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112 sumit 6000

1.7.2: CONSTRUCTOR OVERLOADING:

Definition:
Constructor overloading is a technique in Java in which a class can have any
number of constructors that differ in parameter lists. The compiler differentiates
these constructors by taking into account the number of parameters in the list and
their type.

Example of Constructor Overloading:

class Box {
double width;
double height;
double depth;

// constructor used when all the dimensions are specified

Box(double w, double h, double d) {
width=w;
height=h;
depth=d;
}

// constructor used when no dimensions are specified

Box() {
width=-1;
height=-1;
depth=-1;
}

// constructor used when cube is created

Box(double len) {
width = height = depth = len;
}

// Compute and return volume

double volume() {
return width*height*depth;
}
}

class ConsOverloadDemo {
public static void main(String arg[])
{
// declare, allocate and initialize Box objects
Box mybox1=new Box(10,20,15);
Box mybox2=new Box();
Box mybox3=new Box(7);
double vol;
// Get volume of first box

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vol=mybox1.volume();
System.out.println(―Volume of Box1 is ―+vol);

// Get volume of second box

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(―Volume of Box2 is ―+vol);

// Get volume of cube

vol=mybox2.volume();
System.out.println(―Volume of the cube is ―+vol);
}
}

Output:

Volume of Box1 is 3000.0

Volume of Box2 is -1.0
Volume of the cube is 343.0

As we can see, the proper overloaded constructor is called based upon the parameters specified
when new is executed.

1.8: ACCESS SPECIFIERS

Definition:
Access specifiers are used to specify the visibility and accessibility of a class
constructors, member variables and methods.

Java classes, fields, constructors and methods can have one of four different access
modifiers:
1. Public
2. Private
3. Protected
4. Default (package)

1. Public (anything declared as public can be accessed from anywhere):

A variable or method declared/defined with the public modifier can be accessed
anywhere in the program through its class objects, through its subclass objects and
through the objects of classes of other packages also.

2. Private (anything declared as private can’t be seen outside of the class):

The instance variable or instance methods declared/initialized as private can be accessed
only by its class. Even its subclass is not able to access the private members.

3. Protected (anything declared as protected can be accessed by classes in the same

package and subclasses in the other packages):

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The protected access specifier makes the instance variables and instance methods visible
to all the classes, subclasses of that package and subclasses of other packages.

4. Default (can be accessed only by the classes in the same package):

The default access modifier is friendly. This is similar to public modifier except only the
classes belonging to a particular package knows the variables and methods.

Example: Illustrating the visibility of access specifiers:

Super Class

package mypack;

public class FirstClass {

public int i;
protected int j;
private int k;
int r;
}

Sub Class

package mypack;

import mypack.FirstClass;

class SecondClass extends FirstClass {

void method() {
System.out.println(i); // i is public in super class can be accessed from anywhere.

// Here property j is accessed via Inheritance hence it will be accessible.

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System.out.println(j);

/* As k is private so it will not be accisible to subclass neither way. Neither it can be

accessed via Inheritance nor direct. */

System.out.println(k); // Compilation Error

FirstClass cls = new FirstClass();

/*
* Here you are trying to access protected variable directly. So it will
* not be accessible and compile will give an error.
*/
System.out.println(cls.j);

// Private variable will not be accessible here also.

System.out.println(cls.k); // Compilation error

System.out.println(r); // since r is default can be accessed from any class within the same
package.

}
}

1.9: ACCESS SPECIFIERS

“static” MEMBERS:

 There will be times when we will want to define a class member that will be used
independently of any object of that class. To create such a member, precede its
declaration with the keyword static.
 The static can be:
• variable (also known as class variable)
• method (also known as class method)
• block
• nested class

 Static Variable:

 When a member variable is declared with the static keyword, then it is called static
variable and it can be accessed before any objects of its class are created, and without
reference to any object.

 Syntax to declare a static variable:

Syntax: [access_spefier] static data_type instance_variable;

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 A static variable can be accessed outside of its class directly by the class name and
doesn‘t need any object.
Syntax : <class-name>.<variable-name>

Advantages of static variable

 It makes your program memory efficient (i.e., it saves memory).

Understanding the problem without static variable

1. class Student{
2. int rollno;
3. String name;
4. String college="ITS";
5. }

Suppose there are 500 students in my college, now all instance data members will get memory
each time when the object is created. All students have its unique rollno and name, so instance
data member is good in such case. Here, "college" refers to the common property of all objects.
If we make it static, this field will get the memory only once.

 Static Method:

 If we apply static keyword with any method, it is known as static method.

 A static method belongs to the class rather than the object of a class.
 A static method can be invoked without the need for creating an instance of a class.
 A static method can access static data member and can change the value of it.
 Syntax: (defining static method)
[access_specifier] static Return_type method_name(parameter_list)
{
// method body
}

 Syntax to access static method:

Syntax : <class-name>.<method-name>

 The most common example of a static member is main( ). main( ) is declared as static
because it must be called before any objects exist.

 Methods declared as static have several restrictions:

• They can only directly call other static methods.
• They can only directly access static data.
• They cannot refer to this or super in any way.

 Static Block:

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 If we need to do computation in order to initialize our static variables, we can declare a

static block that gets executed exactly once, when the class is first loaded.
 Static block is used to initialize the static data member like constructors helps to
initialize instance members.
 It is executed before main method at the time of class loading in JVM.
 Syntax:

class classname
{
Static { // block of statements }
}

The following example shows a class that has a static method, some static variables, and a static
initialization block:

// Demonstrate static variables, methods, and blocks.

1. class Student
2. {
3. int rollno;
4. String name;
5. static String college = "ITS";
6. //static method to change the value of static variable
7. static void change(){
8. college = "BBDIT";
9. }
10. //constructor to initialize the variable
11. Student(int r, String n){
12. rollno = r;
13. name = n;
14. }
15. //method to display values
16. void display()
17. {
18. System.out.println(rollno+" "+name+" "+college);
19. }
20. }
21. //Test class to create and display the values of object
22. public class TestStaticMembers
23. {
24. static
25. {
26. System.out.println(―*** STATIC MEMBERS – DEMO ***‖);
27. }

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28.
29. public static void main(String args[])
30. {
31. Student.change(); //calling change method
32. //creating objects
33. Student s1 = new Student(111,"Karan");
34. Student s2 = new Student(222,"Aryan");
35. Student s3 = new Student(333,"Sonoo");
36. //calling display method
37. s1.display();
38. s2.display();
39. s3.display();
40. }
41. }

Here is the output of this program:

*** STATIC MEMBERS – DEMO ***

111 Karan BBDIT
222 Aryan BBDIT
333 Sonoo BBDIT

1.10: JAVA – COMMENTS

 Java comments are either explanations of the source code or descriptions of classes,
interfaces, methods, and fields.
 They are usually a couple of lines written above or beside Java code to clarify what it
does.
 Comments in Java do not show up in the executable program.
 The Java language supports three kinds of comments:

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1. Line comment:
 When you want to make a one line comment type "//" and follow the two forward slashes
with your comment.
 Syntax: // text
 Example: // this is a single line comment
 The compiler ignores everything from // to the end of the line.
2. Block Comment:
 To start a block comment type "/*". Everything between the forward slash and asterisk,
even if it's on a different line, will be treated as comment until the characters "*/" end the
comment.
 Syntax: /* text */
 Example: /* it is a comment */ (or)
/* this
is
a
block
comment
*/
 The compiler ignores everything from /* to */.
3. Documentation Comment:
 This type of comment helps is generating the documentation automatically.
 Syntax: /** documentation */
The JDK javadoc tool uses doc comments when preparing automatically
generated documentation. For more information on javadoc, see the Java tool
documentation.
 Example:
/*
* Title: Conversion of Degrees
* Aim: To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa
* Date: 31/08/2000
* Author: Tim
*/

1.11: JAVA - CONSTANTS

 A constant is an identifier written in uppercase (convention and not a rule) that prevents
its contents form being modified by the program during the execution.
 If an attempt is made to change the value, the compiler will give an error message.
 In Java, the keyword final is used to declare constants.
 The value of a final variable cannot change after it has been initialized.
 Syntax:
final datatype variablename=value;

 Example:final float PI=3.14f;

1.12: JAVA - IDENTIFIERS

 Identifiers are names given to the variables, classes, methods, objects, labels, package
and interface in our program.
 The name we are giving must be meaningful and it may have random length.

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 The following rule must be followed while giving a name:

1. The first character must not begin with a number.
2. The identifier is formed with alphabets, number, dollar sign ($) and underscore (_).
3. It should not be a reserved word.
4. Space is not allowed in between the identifier name.

 Example:
String name = "Homer Jay Simpson";
int weight = 300;
double height = 6;

1.13: JAVA – RESERVED WORDS (KEYWORDS)

 There are some words that you cannot use as object or variable names in a Java program.
These words are known as ―reserved‖ words; they are keywords that are already used by
the syntax of the Java programming language.
 For example, if you try and create a new class and name it using a reserved word:
// you can't use finally as it's a reserved word!
class finally {
public static void main(String[] args) {
//class code..
}
}
 It will not compile, instead you will get the following error: <identifier> expected
 The table below lists all the words that are reserved:

abstract assert boolean break byte case

catch char class const* continue default

double do else enum extends false

final finally float for goto* if

implements import instanceof int interface long

native new null package private protected

public return short static strictfp super

switch synchronized this throw throws transient

true try void volatile while

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1.14: JAVA – DATA TYPES

 Java is a strongly Typed Language.

Definition: strongly Typed Language:

Java is a strongly typed programming language because every variable must be declared
with a data type. A variable cannot start off life without knowing the range of values it can hold,
and once it is declared, the data type of the variable cannot change.
Example:

The following declaration is allowed because the variable has "hasDataType" is declared
to be a boolean data type:
boolean hasDataType;

For the rest of its life, hasDataType can only ever have a value of true or false.
 Every variable must have a data type. A variable's data type determines the values that
the variable can contain and the operations that can be performed on it.
 Data types in Java are of two types:
1. Primitive Types( Intrinsic or built-in types )
2. Derived Types (Reference Types).
1. Primitive Types:
There are eight primitive types in Java:
Integer Types: 1. int
2. short
3. long
4. byte
Floating-point Types: 5. float
6. double
Others: 7. char
8. Boolean

 Integer Types:
The integer types are form numbers without fractional parts. Negative values are allowed.
Java provides the four integer types shown below:

Type Storage Range Example Default Value

Requirement
int 4 bytes -2,147,483,648(-2^31) to 2,147,483,647 int a = 100000, 0
(2^31-1) int b = -200000
short 2 bytes -32,768 (-2^15) to 32,767 (2^15-1) short s = 10000, 0
short r = -20000
long 8 bytes -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 (-2^63) to long a = 100000L, 0L
9,223,372,036,854,775,808 (2^63-1) int b = -200000L
byte 1 byte -128 (-2^7) to 127 (2^7-1) byte a = 100 , 0
byte b = -50

 Floating-point Types:

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The floating-point types denote numbers with fractional parts. The two floating-point
types are shown below:
Type Storage Range Example Default
Requirement Value
float 4 bytes Approximately ±3.40282347E+38F float f1 = 0.0f
(6-7 significant decimal digits) 234.5f
double 8 bytes Approximately double d1 = 0.0d
±1.79769313486231570E+308 123.4
(15 significant decimal digits)

 char:

 char data type is a single 16-bit Unicode character.

 Minimum value is '\u0000' (or 0).
 Maximum value is '\uffff' (or 65,535 inclusive).
 Char data type is used to store any character.
 Example: char letterA ='A'

 boolean:

 boolean data type represents one bit of information.

 There are only two possible values: true and false.
 This data type is used for simple flags that track true/false conditions.
 Default value is false.
 Example: boolean one = true

2. Derived Types (Reference Types):

 Reference variables are created using defined constructors of the classes. They are used
to access objects. These variables are declared to be of a specific type that cannot be
changed. For example, Employee, Puppy etc.
 Class objects, interfaces and various types of array variables come under reference data
type.
 The value of a reference type variable, in contrast to that of a primitive type, is a
reference to (an address of) the value or set of values represented by the variable.
 Default value of any reference variable is null.
 A reference variable can be used to refer to any object of the declared type or any
compatible type.
 Example: Animal animal = new Animal("giraffe");

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1.15: JAVA - VARIABLES

 A Variable is a named piece of memory that is used for storing data in java Program.
 A variable is an identifier used for storing a data value.

Definition: A variable is an item of data named by an identifier.

 A Variable may take different values at different times during the execution if the
program, unlike the constants.
 The variable's type determines what values it can hold and what operations can be
performed on it.
 Syntax to declare variables:

datatype identifier [=value][,identifier [ =value] …];

In addition to the name and type that you explicitly give a variable, a variable has scope.

 Example of Variable names:

int average=0.0, height, total height;

 Rules followed for variable names ( consist of alphabets, digits, underscore and
dollar characters)
1. A variable name must begin with a letter and must be a sequence of letter or digits.
2. They must not begin with digits.
2. Uppercase and lowercase variables are not the same.
Example: Total and total are two variables which are distinct.
3. It should not be a keyword.
4. Whitespace is not allowed.
5. Variable names can be of any length.

 Initializing Variables:
 After the declaration of a variable, it must be initialized by means of assignment
statement.
 It is not possible to use the values of uninitialized variables.
 Two ways to initialize a variable:
1. Initialize after declaration:
Syntax: variablename=value;
int months;
months=12;

2. Declare and initialize on the same line:

Syntax: Datatype variablename=value;
int months=12;

 Dynamic Inititalization of a Variable:

Java allows variables to be initialized dynamically using any valid expression at the time
the variable is declared.

Example: Program that computes the remainder of the division operation:

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class FindRemainer
{
public static void main(String arg[]) {
int num=5,den=2;
int rem=num%den;
System.out.println(―Remainder is ―+rem);
}
}

Output:
Remainder is 1

In the above program there are three variables num, den and rem. num and den ate initialized
by constants whereas rem is initialized dynamically by the modulo division operation on num
and den.

JAVA - VARIABLE TYPES

There are three kinds of variables in Java:
1. Local variables
2. Instance variables
3. Class/static variables

S.No Local Variables Instance Variable Class / Static Variables

Class variables also known
as static variables are
declared with the static
keyword in a class, but
Local variables are
outside a method,
declared in Instance variables are declared in
constructor or a block.
methods, a class, but outside a method,
1 There would only be one
constructors, or constructor or any block.
copy of each class variable
blocks.
per class, regardless of how
many objects are created
from it.

Local variables are

created when the
method,
constructor or Instance variables are created
Static variables are created
block is entered when an object is created with the
when the program starts and
and the variable use of the keyword 'new' and
2 destroyed when the program
will be destroyed destroyed when the object is
stops.
once it exits the destroyed.
method,
constructor or
block.

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Access modifiers
Access modifiers can be used for Access modifiers can be
3 cannot be used for
instance variables. used for class variables.
local variables.
Local variables are
visible only within The instance variables are visible
the declared for all methods, constructors and Visibility is similar to
4
method, block in the class. instance variables.
constructor or
block.
There is no default
value for local Instance variables have default
variables so local values. For numbers the default
variables should be value is 0, for Booleans it is false
Default values are same as
5 declared and an and for object references it is null.
instance variables.
initial value should Values can be assigned during the
be assigned before declaration or within the
the first use. constructor.

Instance variables can be accessed

directly by calling the variable
name inside the class. However Static variables can be
Local variables can
within static methods and accessed by calling with the
only be access
6 different class should be called class name.
inside the declared
using the fully qualified name as ClassName.VariableName.
block.
follows:
ObjectReference.VariableName.

Example program illustrating the use of all the above variables:

class area {
int length=20;
int breadth=30;
static int classvar=2500;
void calc() {
int areas=length*breadth;
System.out.println(―The area is ―+areas+‖ sq.cms‖);
}

public static void main(String args[]) {

area a=new area();
a.calc();
System.out.println(―Static Variable Value : +classvar);
}
}
Output:
The area is 600 sq.cms
Static Variable Value : 2500

Program Explanation:

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Class name: area

Method names: calc() and main()
Local variables: areas (accessed only in the particular method)
Instance variables: length and breadth (accessed only through the object‘s method)
Static variable: accessed anywhere in the program, without object reference

SCOPE AND LIFE TIME OF VARIABLES:

 Java allows variables to be declared in any block. A block defines a scope. Each time
when we start a new block we are starting a new scope.
 Scope determines what objects are visible to other parts of the program and also
determines the lifetime of those objects.
 Two major scopes in Java are
1. Defined by a class.
2. Defined by a method.

Example: Program to illustrate the variable scope and lifetime:

class Scope {
public static void main(String arg[])
{
int x;// x is known to all code within main
x=10;
if(x==10)
{// start new scope
int y=20;// y is known only to this block
System.out.println(―X and Y : ―+x+‖ , ―+y); // x and y both known here
x=y*2;
}
y=100;// Error! y not known here
System.out.println(―x is ―+x);// x is still know here
}
}

Important points about variable Scope and Lifetime:

 Within a block, variables can be declared at any point, but are valid only after they are
declared.
Example:
Count = 100;// Error! cannot use Count before it is declared
int Count;
 Variables are created when their scope is entered, and destroyed when their scope is left.
This means that a variable will not hold its value once it has gone out of scope.
 Variables declared within a method will not hold their values between calls to that method.
 A variable declared within a bloc will lose its value when the block is left. The lifetime of a
variable is confined to its scope.
 In nested block, we cannot declare a variable to have the same name as one in the outer
scope.
Example:
class ScopeErr {

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public static void main(String arg[])

{
int sum=1;
{// new scope starts
int sum=2; // Compile-time error – sum already defined
}
}
}

TYPE CONVERSIONS AND CASTING

Type Conversion is the task of converting one data type into another data type.

Two types of type conversion:

1. Implicit Type Conversion (or) Automatic Conversion
2. Explicit Type Conversion (or) Casitng

1. Implicit Type Conversion (or) Automatic Conversion;

If the two types are compatible, then Java will perform the conversion automatically. When one
type of data is assigned to another type of variable, an Automatic type conversion (or) Widening
Conversion will take place if the following two conditions are met:
 Two types are compatible
 The destination type is larger than the source type
. Example:
byte a=100;
int b=a;// b is larger than a

long d=b;// d is large than b

float e=b;// e is larger than b

float sum=10;
int s=sum;// s is smaller than sum, So we need to go for explicit conversion.

1. Explicit Type Conversion (or) Casting:

If the two types are compatible, a forced conversion of one type into another type is performed
This forced conversion is called as Explicit Type Conversion. Casting (or) narrowing
conversion is an operation which performs an explicit conversion between incompatible types.

Example:converting int to byte.

Syntax to perform “Cast”:

(target-type) value;
Here,
Target-type = specifies the desired type to convert the specified value.

Example:
class conversion {
public static void main(String arg[]) {
byte b;
int i=257;

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double d=323.142;

System.out.println(“\nConversion of int to byte: “);

b=(byte) i;
System.out.println(“i and b : “+i+” , “+b);

System.out.println(“\nConversion of double to int: “);

i=(int) d;
System.out.println(“d and i : “+d+” , “+i);

System.out.println(“\nConversion of double to byte: “);

b=(byte) d;
System.out.println(“d and b : “+d+” , “+b);

// Automatic Type promotions in expressions

byte r=40;
byte s=50;
byte t=100;
int p=r * s / t;// r*s exceeds the range of byte, so automatic type promotion take place.
System.out.println(“Value of P = “+p);

s=s*2; //Error! cannot assign int to a byte.

s=(byte)(s*2);// Possible.
}
}

Output:
Conversion of int to byte:
i and b : 257 , 1

Conversion of int to byte:

d and i : 323.142 , 323

Conversion of int to byte:

d and b : 323.142 , 67

Value of P = 20

Type Promotions rules:

1. All byte, short and char values are promoted to int.
2. If one operand is long, the whole expression is promoted to long.
3. If one operand is float, the whole expression is promoted to float.
4. If any of the operand is double, the result is double.

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1.16: OPERATORS

They are used to manipulate primitive data types. Java operators can be classified as unary,
binary, or ternary—meaning taking one, two, or three arguments, respectively.

Java Unary Operator

The Java unary operators require only one operand. Unary operators are used to perform
various operations i.e.:

o incrementing/decrementing a value by one

o negating an expression
o inverting the value of a boolean

Java Unary Operator Example: ++ and –

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String args[]){
3. int x=10;
4. System.out.println(x++);//10 (11)
5. System.out.println(++x);//12
6. System.out.println(x--);//12 (11)
7. System.out.println(--x);//10
8. }}

Output:

10
12
12
10

Java Unary Operator Example 2: ++ and –

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String args[]){
3. int a=10;
4. int b=10;
5. System.out.println(a++ + ++a);//10+12=22
6. System.out.println(b++ + b++);//10+11=21
7. }}

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Output:

22
21

Java Unary Operator Example: ~ and !

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String args[]){
3. int a=10;
4. int b=-10;
5. boolean c=true;
6. boolean d=false;
7. System.out.println(~a);//-11 (minus of total positive value which starts from 0)
8. System.out.println(~b);//9 (positive of total minus, positive starts from 0)
9. System.out.println(!c);//false (opposite of boolean value)
10. System.out.println(!d);//true
11. }}

Output:

-11
9
false
true

A binary or ternary operator appears between its arguments.

Java operators fall into eight different categories:
1. Assignment
2. Arithmetic
3. Relational
4. Logical
5. Bitwise
6. Compound assignment
7. Conditional
8. Type.
Assignment Operators =
Arithmetic Operators - + * / % ++ --
Relational Operators > < >= <= == !=
Logical Operators && || & | ! ^
Bit wise Operator & | ^ >> >>>

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Compound Assignment += -= *= /= %= <<= >>= >>>=

Operators
Conditional Operator ?:

1. Java Assignment Operator

The java assignment operator statement has the following syntax:

<variable> = <expression>

If the value already exists in the variable it is overwritten by the assignment operator (=).

Java Assignment Operator Example

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String args[]){
3. int a=10;
4. int b=20;
5. a+=4;//a=a+4 (a=10+4)
6. b-=4;//b=b-4 (b=20-4)
7. System.out.println(a);
8. System.out.println(b);
9. }}
Output:

14
16

2. Java Arithmetic Operators

Java arithmetic operators are used to perform addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
They act as basic mathematical operations.

Assume integer variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example
+ Addition - Adds values on either side of the operator A + B will give 30
A - B will give -
- Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand
10
A * B will give
* Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side of the operator
200
/ Division - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand B / A will give 2
% Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and B % A will give 0

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returns remainder
++ Increment - Increases the value of operand by 1 B++ gives 21
-- Decrement - Decreases the value of operand by 1 B-- gives 19

Java Arithmetic Operator Example: Expression

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String args[]){
3. System.out.println(10*10/5+3-1*4/2);
4. }}

Output:

21

3. Relational Operators

Relational operators in Java are used to compare 2 or more objects. Java provides six
relational operators: Assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then:

Operator Description Example

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if yes (A == B) is not
==
then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, if
!= (A != B) is true.
values are not equal then condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the value (A > B) is not
>
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value of
< (A < B) is true.
right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or equal to
(A >= B) is not
>= the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes
true.
true.
Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal to
<= the value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes (A <= B) is true.
true.

Example:

public class RelationalOperatorsDemo {

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public RelationalOperatorsDemo( ) {

int x = 10, y = 5;
System.out.println("x > y : "+(x > y));
System.out.println("x < y : "+(x < y));
System.out.println("x >= y : "+(x >= y));
System.out.println("x <= y : "+(x <= y));
System.out.println("x == y : "+(x == y));
System.out.println("x != y : "+(x != y));
}

public static void main(String args[]){

new RelationalOperatorsDemo();
}
}

Output:
$java RelationalOperatorsDemo
x > y : true
x < y : false
x >= y : true
x <= y : false
x == y : false
x != y : true

4. Logical Operators

Logical operators return a true or false value based on the state of the Variables. Given
that x and y represent boolean expressions, the boolean logical operators are defined in
the Table below.

x&y x|y
x y !x x^y
x && y x || y

true true false true true false

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true false false false true true

false true true false true true

false false true false false false

Example:

public class LogicalOperatorsDemo {

public LogicalOperatorsDemo() {
boolean x = true;
boolean y = false;
System.out.println("x & y : " + (x & y));
System.out.println("x && y : " + (x && y));
System.out.println("x | y : " + (x | y));
System.out.println("x || y: " + (x || y));
System.out.println("x ^ y : " + (x ^ y));
System.out.println("!x : " + (!x));
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
new LogicalOperatorsDemo();
}
}

Output:
$java LogicalOperatorsDemo
x & y : false
x && y : false
x | y : true
x || y: true
x ^ y : true
!x : false

5. Bitwise Operators

Java provides Bit wise operators to manipulate the contents of variables at the bit level.

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The result of applying bitwise operators between two corresponding bits in the operands
is shown in the Table below.

A B ~A A&B A|B A^B

1 1 0 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 1

0 0 1 0 0 0

public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]) {

int a = 60; /* 60 = 0011 1100 */
int b = 13; /* 13 = 0000 1101 */
int c = 0;

c = a & b; /* 12 = 0000 1100 */

System.out.println("a & b = " + c );

c = a | b; /* 61 = 0011 1101 */
System.out.println("a | b = " + c );

c = a ^ b; /* 49 = 0011 0001 */
System.out.println("a ^ b = " + c );

c = ~a; /*-61 = 1100 0011 */

System.out.println("~a = " + c );

c = a << 2; /* 240 = 1111 0000 */

System.out.println("a << 2 = " + c );

c = a >> 2; /* 215 = 1111 */

System.out.println("a >> 2 = " + c );

c = a >>> 2; /* 215 = 0000 1111 */

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System.out.println("a >>> 2 = " + c );

}
}

Output:
$java Test

a & b = 12
a | b = 61
a ^ b = 49
~a = -61
a << 2 = 240
a >> 2 = 15
a >>> 2 = 15

6. Compound Assignment operators

The compound operators perform shortcuts in common programming operations. Java

has eleven compound assignment operators.

Syntax: argument1 operator = argument2.

Java Assignment Operator Example

1. class OperatorExample{
2. public static void main(String[] args){
3. int a=10;
4. a+=3;//10+3
5. System.out.println(a);
6. a-=4;//13-4
7. System.out.println(a);
8. a*=2;//9*2
9. System.out.println(a);
10. a/=2;//18/2
11. System.out.println(a);
12. }}
Output:

13
9
18
9

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7. Conditional Operators

The Conditional operator is the only ternary (operator takes three arguments) operator in
Java. The operator evaluates the first argument and, if true, evaluates the second
argument.

If the first argument evaluates to false, then the third argument is evaluated. The
conditional operator is the expression equivalent of the if-else statement.

The conditional expression can be nested and the conditional operator associates from
right to left: (a?b?c?d:e:f:g) evaluates as (a?(b?(c?d:e):f):g)

Example:

public class TernaryOperatorsDemo {

public TernaryOperatorsDemo() {
int x = 10, y = 12, z = 0;
z = x > y ? x : y;
System.out.println("z : " + z);
}
public static void main(String args[]) {
new TernaryOperatorsDemo();
}
}

Output:
$java TernaryOperatorsDemo
z : 12

8. instanceof Operator:
This operator is used only for object reference variables. The operator checks whether the
object is of a particular type(class type or interface type). instanceof operator is written
as:
( Object reference variable ) instanceof (class/interface type)

If the object referred by the variable on the left side of the operator passes the IS-A check
for the class/interface type on the right side, then the result will be true. Following is the

Example:
public class Test {

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public static void main(String args[]){

String name = "James";
// following will return true since name is type of String
boolean result = name instanceof String;
System.out.println( result );
}
}
This would produce the following result:
True

OPERATOR PRECEDENCE:
The order in which operators are applied is known as precedence. Operators with a higher
precedence are applied before operators with a lower precedence.

The operator precedence order of Java is shown below. Operators at the top of the table
are applied before operators lower down in the table.

If two operators have the same precedence, they are applied in the order they appear in a
statement. That is, from left to right. You can use parentheses to override the default
precedence.

Category Operator Associativity

Postfix () [] . (dot operator) Left to right

Unary ++ - - ! ~ Right to left

Multiplicative */% Left to right

Additive +- Left to right

Shift >> >>> << Left to right

Relational > >= < <= Left to right

Equality == != Left to right

Bitwise AND & Left to right

Bitwise XOR ^ Left to right

Bitwise OR | Left to right

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Logical AND && Left to right

Logical OR || Left to right

Conditional ?: Right to left

Assignment = += -= *= /= %= >>= <<= &= ^= |= Right to left

Comma , Left to right

Example:

In an operation such as,

result = 4 + 5 * 3

First (5 * 3) is evaluated and the result is added to 4 giving the Final Result value as 19.
Note that ‗*‘ takes higher precedence than ‗+‘ according to chart shown above. This kind
of precedence of one operator over another applies to all the operators.

1.17: CONTROL-FLOW STATEMENTS

The statements inside your source files are generally executed from top to bottom, in the
order that they appear. Java Control statements control the order of execution in a java
program, based on data values and conditional logic.

There are three main categories of control flow statements;

· Selection statements: if, if-else and switch.
· Loop statements: while, do-while and for.
· Transfer statements: break, continue, return, try-catch-finally and assert.
We use control statements when we want to change the default sequential order of
execution
1. Selection statements (Decision Making Statement)
There are two types of decision making statements in Java. They are:

 if statements
 switch statements

if Statement:
An if statement consists of a Boolean expression followed by one or more statements.

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Syntax:

The syntax of an if statement is:

if(<conditional expression>)
{
< Statement Action>
}

If the Boolean expression evaluates to true then the block of code inside the if statement
will be executed. If not the first set of code after the end of the if statement (after the
closing curly brace) will be executed.

Example:

public class IfStatementDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b)
System.out.println("a > b");
if (a < b)
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}

Output:
$java IfStatementDemo
b > a

if-else Statement
The if/else statement is an extension of the if statement. If the statements in the if
statement fails, the statements in the else block are executed.
You can either have a single statement or a block of code within if-else blocks.
Note that the conditional expression must be a Boolean expression.

Syntax:
The if-else statement has the following syntax:

if (<conditional expression>)
{
<statement action 1>

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}
else
{
<statement action 2>
}

Below is an example that demonstrates conditional execution based on if else statement

condition.
public class IfElseStatementDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a = 10, b = 20;
if (a > b) {
System.out.println("a > b");
} else {
System.out.println("b > a");
}
}
}

Output:
$java IfElseStatementDemo
b>a

if...else if...else Statement:

An if statement can be followed by an optional else if...else statement, which is very
useful to test various conditions using single if...else if statement.
When using if , else if , else statements there are few points to keep in mind.
 An if can have zero or one else's and it must come after any else if's.
 An if can have zero to many else if's and they must come before the else.
 Once an else if succeeds, none of the remaining else if's or else's will be tested.

Syntax:
The syntax of an if...else is:

if(Boolean_expression 1){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 1 is true
}else if(Boolean_expression 2){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 2 is true
}else if(Boolean_expression 3){
//Executes when the Boolean expression 3 is true
}else {

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//Executes when the none of the above condition is true.

}

Example:
public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]){

int x = 30;

if( x == 10 ){
System.out.print("Value of X is 10");
}else if( x == 20 ){
System.out.print("Value of X is 20");
}else if( x == 30 ){
System.out.print("Value of X is 30");
}else{
System.out.print("This is else statement");
}
}
}
Output:
Value of X is 30

switch Statement:
The switch case statement, also called a case statement is a multi-way branch with
several choices. A switch is easier to implement than a series of if/else statements.
A switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. Each
value is called a case, and the variable being switched on is checked for each case.
The switch statement begins with a keyword, followed by an expression that equates to a
no long integral value. Following the controlling expression is a code block that contains
zero or more labeled cases. Each label must equate to an integer constant and each must
be unique.
When the switch statement executes, it compares the value of the controlling expression
to the values of each case label.
The program will select the value of the case label that equals the value of the
controlling expression and branch down that path to the end of the code block.
If none of the case label values match, then none of the codes within the switch statement
code block will be executed.
Java includes a default label to use in cases where there are no matches. We can have a
nested switch within a case block of an outer switch.

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Syntax:
Its general form is as follows:
switch (<expression>)
{
case label1: <statement1>
case label2: <statement2>
…
case labeln: <statementn>
default: <statement>
} // end switch

When executing a switch statement, the program falls through to the next case.
Therefore, if you want to exit in the middle of the switch statement code block, you must
insert a break statement, which causes the program to continue executing after the current
code block.
Below is a java example that demonstrates conditional execution based on nested if else
statement condition to find the greatest of 3 numbers.
public class SwitchCaseStatementDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a = 10, b = 20, c = 30;
int status = -1;
if (a > b && a > c) {
status = 1;
} else if (b > c) {
status = 2;
} else {
status = 3;
}
switch (status) {
case 1:
System.out.println("a is the greatest");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("b is the greatest");
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("c is the greatest");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Cannot be determined");
}
}
}

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Output:
c is the greatest

2. Looping Statements (Iteration Statements)

While Statement

The while statement is a looping construct control statement that executes a block of code
while a condition is true.
You can either have a single statement or a block of code within the while loop. The loop
will never be executed if the testing expression evaluates to false.
The loop condition must be a boolean expression.

Syntax:
The syntax of the while loop is

while (<loop condition>)

{
<statements>
}

Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely while loop used to
print numbers from 1 to 10.
public class WhileLoopDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
while (count <= 10) {
System.out.println(count++);
}
}
}

Output
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10

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6
7
8
9
10

do-while Loop Statement

The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, except that the test is performed at the end
of the loop instead of at the beginning.
This ensures that the loop will be executed at least once. A do-while loop begins with the
keyword do, followed by the statements that make up the body of the loop.
Finally, the keyword while and the test expression completes the do-while loop. When
the loop condition becomes false, the loop is terminated and execution continues with the
statement immediately following the loop.
You can either have a single statement or a block of code within the do-while loop.

Syntax:

The syntax of the do-while loop is

do
{
<loop body>
}while (<loop condition>);

Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely do-while loop used
to print numbers from 1 to 10.

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public class DoWhileLoopDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int count = 1;
System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
do {
System.out.println(count++);
} while (count <= 10);
}
}

Output:
Output
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

For Loops

The for loop is a looping construct which can execute a set of instructions a specified
number of times. It‘s a counter controlled loop.

Syntax:

The syntax of the loop is as follows:

for (<initialization>; <loop condition>; <increment expression>)

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{
<loop body>
}

 The first part of a for statement is a starting initialization, which executes once
before the loop begins. The <initialization> section can also be a comma-separated
list of expression statements.
 The second part of a for statement is a test expression. As long as the expression is
true, the loop will continue. If this expression is evaluated as false the first time,
the loop will never be executed.
 The third part of the for statement is the body of the loop. These are the
instructions that are repeated each time the program executes the loop.
 The final part of the for statement is an increment expression that automatically
executes after each repetition of the loop body. Typically, this statement changes
the value of the counter, which is then tested to see if the loop should continue.

All the sections in the for-header are optional. Any one of them can be left empty,
but the two semicolons are mandatory. In particular, leaving out the <loop
condition> signifies that the loop condition is true.

The (;;) form of for loop is commonly used to construct an infinite loop.

Below is an example that demonstrates the looping construct namely for loop used to
print numbers from 1 to 10.

public class ForLoopDemo {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Printing Numbers from 1 to 10");
for (int count = 1; count <= 10; count++) {
System.out.println(count);
}
}
}

Output:
Printing Numbers from 1 to 10
1

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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Enhanced for loop:

As of Java 5, the enhanced for loop was introduced. This is mainly used for Arrays.

Syntax:

The syntax of enhanced for loop is:

for(declaration : expression)
{
//Statements
}

 Declaration: The newly declared block variable, which is of a type compatible

with the elements of the array you are accessing. The variable will be available
within the for block and its value would be the same as the current array element.

 Expression: This evaluates to the array you need to loop through. The expression
can be an array variable or method call that returns an array.
Example:

public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]){

int [] numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

for(int x : numbers )
{
System.out.print( x );
System.out.print(",");
}

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System.out.print("\n\n");
String [] names ={"B", "C", "C++", "JAVA"};
for( String name : names )
{
System.out.print( name );
System.out.print(",");
}
}
}

Output:
10,20,30,40,50,

B,C,C++,JAVA,

3. Transfer Statements (Jump Statements)

1. break statement
2. continue statement

1. Using break Statement:

The break keyword is used to stop the entire loop. The break keyword must be used
inside any loop or a switch statement.

The break keyword will stop the execution of the innermost loop and start executing the
next line of code after the block.

Syntax:

The syntax of a break is a single statement inside any loop:

break;

Example:

public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]) {

int [] numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

for(int x : numbers ) {

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if( x == 30 ) {
break;
}
System.out.print( x );
System.out.print("\n");
}
}
}

Output:
10
20

2. Using continue Statement:

The continue keyword can be used in any of the loop control structures. It causes the loop
to immediately jump to the next iteration of the loop.

 In a for loop, the continue keyword causes flow of control to immediately jump to
the update statement.
 In a while loop or do/while loop, flow of control immediately jumps to the
Boolean expression.

Syntax:
The syntax of a continue is a single statement inside any loop:

continue;

Example:

public class Test {

public static void main(String args[]) {

int [] numbers = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};

for(int x : numbers ) {
if( x == 30 ) {
continue;
}
System.out.print( x );
System.out.print("\n");
}
}

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Output:
10
20
40
50

1.18: JAVA - ARRAYS

Definition:
Normally, an array is a collection of similar type of elements which has contiguous
memory location.
Java array is an object which contains elements of a similar data type. Additionally, The
elements of an array are stored in a contiguous memory location. It is a data structure
where we store similar elements. We can store only a fixed set of elements in a Java
array.
Array in Java is index-based, the first element of the array is stored at the 0th index, 2nd
element is stored on 1st index and so on.

Advantage of Array:

 Code Optimization: It makes the code optimized; we can retrieve or sort the data
easily.
 Random access: We can get any data located at any index position.

Disadvantage of Array:
 Size Limit: We can store only fixed size of elements in the array. It doesn't grow
its size at runtime.

Types of Array:

There are two types of array.

1. One-Dimensional Arrays
2. Multidimensional Arrays

1. One-Dimensional Array:

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Definition: One-dimensional array is an array in which the elements are stored in one
variable name by using only one subscript.

 Creating an array:
Three steps to create an array:
1. Declaration of the array
2. Instantiation of the array
3. Initialization of arrays
1. Declaration of the array:
Declaration of array means the specification of array variable, data_type and array_name.

Syntax to Declare an Array in java:

dataType[] arrayRefVar; (or)
dataType []arrayRefVar; (or)
dataType arrayRefVar[];

Example:
int[] floppy; (or) int []floppy (or) int floppy[];

2. Instantiation of the array:

Definition:
Allocating memory spaces for the declared array in memory (RAM) is called as
Instantiation of an array.
Syntax:
arrayRefVar=new datatype[size];

Example: floppy=new int[10];

3. Initialization of arrays:
Definition:
Storing the values in the array element is called as Initialization of arrays.

Syntax to initialize values to array element:

arrayRefVar[index value]=constant or value;

Example:
floppy[0]=20;
SHORTHAND TO CREATE AN ARRAY OBJECT:
Java has a shorthand to create an array object and supply initial values at the same time
when it is created.

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dataType[] arrayRefVar={list of values};

(or)
dataType []arrayRefVar={list of values};
(or)
dataType arrayRefVar[]={list of values};
(or)
dataType arrayRefVar[]=arrayVariable;

Example 1:
int regno[]={101,102,103,104,105,106};
int reg[]=regno;

Example 2: double[] myList = new double[10];

ARRAY LENGTH:
The variable length can identify the length of array in Java.

To find the number of elements of an array, use array.length.

Example1:
int regno[10];
len1=regno.length;

Example 2:
for(int i=0;i<reno.length;i++)
System.out.println(regno[i]);

Following picture represents array myList. Here, myList holds ten double values and the indices
are from 0 to 9.

Example: (One-Dimensional Array)

class Array
{

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public static void main(String[] args)

{
int month_days[];
month_days=new int[12];

month_days[0]=31;
month_days[1]=28;
month_days[2]=31;
month_days[3]=30;
month_days[4]=31;
month_days[5]=30;
month_days[6]=31;
month_days[7]=31;
month_days[8]=30;
month_days[9]=31;
month_days[10]=30;
month_days[11]=31;

System.out.println(―April has ―+month_days[3]+‖ days. ―);

}
}

Output:

April has 30 days.

Example 2: Finding sum of the array elements and maximum from the array:

public class TestArray

{
public static void main(String[] args)
{
double[] myList = {1.9, 2.9, 3.4, 3.5};
// Print all the array elements
for (double element: myList)
{
System.out.println(element);
}
// Summing all elements
double total = 0;

for (int i = 0; i < myList.length; i++)

{
total += myList[i];
}
System.out.println("Total is " + total);
// Finding the largest element
double max = myList[0];
for (int i = 1; i < myList.length; i++)

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{
if (myList[i] > max) max = myList[i];
}
System.out.println("Max is " + max);
}
}

Output:
1.9
2.9
3.4
3.5
Total is 11.7
Max is 3.5

2. Multidimensional Arrays:

Definition:
Multidimensional arrays are arrays of arrays. It is an array which uses more than one index
to access array elements. In multidimensional arrays, data is stored in row and column based
index (also known as matrix form).

Uses of Multidimensional Arrays:

 Used for table

 Used for more complex arrangements

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Syntax to Declare Multidimensional Array in java:

1. dataType[][] arrayRefVar; (or)

2. dataType [][]arrayRefVar; (or)
3. dataType arrayRefVar[][]; (or)
4. dataType []arrayRefVar[];

Example to instantiate Multidimensional Array in java:

int[][] arr=new int[3][3];//3 row and 3 column - internally this matrix is implemented as
arrays of arrays of int.

Example to initialize Multidimensional Array in java:

arr[0][0]=1;
arr[0][1]=2;
arr[0][2]=3;
arr[1][0]=4;
arr[1][1]=5;
arr[1][2]=6;
arr[2][0]=7;
arr[2][1]=8;
arr[2][2]=9;

Examples to declare, instantiate, initialize and print the 2Dimensional array:

class twoDarray
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int array1[][]=new int[4][5];// declares an 2D array.
int array2[][]={{1,2,3},{2,4,5},{4,4,5}}; //declaring and initializing 2D array
int i,j,k=0;

// Storing and printing the values of Array1

System.out.println(―----------Array1--------------―);
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<5;j++)
{
array1[i][j]=k;
k++;
System.out.print(array1[i][j]+‖ ―);
}
System.out.println();
}

// printing 2D array2

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System.out.println(―----------Array2--------------―);
for(int i=0;i<3;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<3;j++)
{
System.out.print(array2[i][j]+" ");
}
System.out.println();
}
}
}
Output:
-------------Array1------------
01234
56789
10 11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18 19

-------------Array2------------

123
245
445

In the above program, the statement int array1[][]=new int[4][5]; is interpreted automatically
as follows:
array1[0]=new int[5];
array1[1]=new int[5];
array1[2]=new int[5];
array1[3]=new int[5];

It means that, when we allocate memory for a multidimensional array, we need to only specify
the memory for the first (leftmost) dimension. We can allocate the remaining dimensions
separately with different sizes.

Example: Manually allocate differing size second dimensions:

class twoDarray
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
int array1[][]=new int[4][];// declares an 2D array.

array1[0]=new int[1];
array1[1]=new int[2];
array1[2]=new int[3];
array1[3]=new int[4];

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int i,j,k=0;

// Storing and printing the values of Array1

System.out.println(―----------Array1--------------―);
for(i=0;i<4;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<i+1;j++)
{
array1[i][j]=k;
k++;
System.out.print(array1[i][j]+‖ ―);
}
System.out.println();
}
}
}

Output:
0
12
345
6789

1.19: JavaDoc Comments

Definition:
Javadoc is a tool which comes with JDK and it is used for generating Java code
documentation in HTML format from Java source code. Java documentation can be
created as part of the source code.

The java comments are exactly statements which are never executed by the compiler and
interpreter. The comments can be used to give information or details about the variable, function,
class or any statement. It can also be used to wrap program code for exact time.

Types of Java Comments

There are 3 types of comments injava.
Single LineComment
Multi LineComment
DocumentationComment
1. Java Single LineComment
The single line comment is used to comment only one line.
Syntax:
//This is single line comment
Example:
public class CommentExample1 { public static void main(String[] args) {
int i=10;//Here, i is a variable (Single line comment)
System.out.println(i);
}
}

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Output:10

2. Java Multi LineComment

The multi line comment is used to comment many lines of code.
Syntax:
/* This is
multi line comment
*/
Example:
public class CommentExample2 { public static void main(String[] args) {
/* Let's declare and
print variable in java. */
inti=10;
System.out.println(i);
}
}
Output:
10

3. Java DocumentationComment
The documentation comment is used to make documentation API. To generate documentation
API, you want to use javadoc tool.
Syntax:
/** This is documentation comment
*/
Example:
/** The Calculator class provides
functions to get addition and subtraction of given 2 numbers.*/
public class Calculator {
/** The add() method returns addition of given numbers.*/
public static int add(int a, int b)
{return a+b;}
/** The sub() method returns subtraction of given numbers.*/
public static int sub(int a, int b){return a-b;}
}
Compile it by javac tool:
javac Calculator.java
Create Documentation API by javadoc tool:
javadoc Calculator.java
Now, there will be HTML files formed for your Calculator class in the present directory. Open
the HTML files and observe the details of Calculator class provided through documentation
comment.
JAVADOC COMMENTS TYPES
 ClassComments
 MethodComments
 FieldComments
 Package & OverviewComments
Sample tags of javadoc:
@author
@exception

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@deprecated
{@link}
@param
@return
Example:
/**
* <h1>Hello,World!</h1>
* The HelloWorld program implements an applicationthat
* simply displays "Hello World!" to the standardoutput.
* <p>
* Giving proper comments in your program makes itmore
* user friendly and it is assumed as a high qualitycode.
*
*
* @authorZaraAli
* @version1.0
*@since2014-03-31
*/
public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {

/* Prints Hello, World! on standard output. System.out.println("Hello World!");
}
}

1.20: Additional Content: Garbage Collection, Command Line Arguments

GARBAGE COLLECTION:
 Since objects are dynamically allocated by using the new operator, you might be
wondering how such objects are destroyed and their memory released for later
reallocation.
 In some languages, such as C++, dynamically allocated objects must be manually
released by use of a delete operator.

 Java takes a different approach;

Automatic Garbage Collection: The technique that accomplishes automatic deallocation of

memory occupied by an unused object is called garbage collection.

It works like this:

 When no references to an object exist, that object is assumed to be no longer needed, and
the memory occupied by the object can be reclaimed. There is no explicit need to destroy
objects as in C++.
 Garbage collection only occurs sporadically (if at all) during the execution of your
program.

 Finalization:

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 Sometimes an object will need to perform some action when it is destroyed. For example,
if an object is holding some non-Java resource such as a file handle or character font,
then you might want to make sure these resources are freed before an object is destroyed.
 To handle such situations, Java provides a mechanism called finalization. By using
finalization, you can define specific actions that will occur when an object is just about to
be reclaimed by the garbage collector.

 Finalize() method:
A finalize() method is a method that will be called by the garbage collector on an object
when garbage collection determines that there are no more references to the object.

Inside the finalize( ) method, we will specify those actions that must be performed before an
object is destroyed.

The finalize( ) method has this general form:

protected void finalize( )
{
// finalization code here
}
Here, the keyword protected is a specifier that prevents access to finalize( ) by code defined
outside its class.

Example:

public class TestGarbage1

{
public void finalize()
{
System.out.println("object is garbage collected");
}
public static void main(String args[]){
TestGarbage1 s1=new TestGarbage1();
TestGarbage1 s2=new TestGarbage1();
s1=null;
s2=null;
System.gc();
}
}

Output:
object is garbage collected
object is garbage collected

USING COMMAND LINE ARGUMENTS:

 Sometimes you will want to pass information into a program when you run it. This is
accomplished by passing command-line arguments to main( ).

 A command-line argument is the information passed to the main() method that

directly follows the program’s name on the command line when it is executed.

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 To access the command-line arguments inside a Java program is quite easy—they are
stored as strings in a String array passed to the args parameter of main( ).
 The first command-line argument is stored at args[0], the second at args[1], and so on.
 For example, the following program displays all of the command-line arguments that it is
called with:
// Display all command-line arguments.

class CommandLine {
public static void main(String args[]) {
for(int i=0; i<args.length; i++)
System.out.println("args[" + i + "]: " + args[i]);
}
}

Try executing this program, as shown here:

java CommandLine this is a test 100 -1

When you do, you will see the following output:

args[0]: this
args[1]: is
args[2]: a
args[3]: test
args[4]: 100
args[5]: -1

23IT1301 – Object Oriented Programming Unit - 1 III SEMESTER CSE