Introduction of laboratory science

Question:01
▪ Define behavioural science and mention the types and components of it.
▪ Define health and health behaviour. What are the socio-economic indications related to health.
▪ what is culture? Enumerate the components of culture.
▪ How culture impacts on health and disease.
▪ What is the impact of culture factors in health and disease?
▪ What is the socio-culture factors in health and disease?
▪ What is health economics? Write down the importance of health economics.
▪ What is mental health? What are the criteria of mentally healthy person?
▪ Define sociology. Scopes and branches of sociology.
▪ Define health insurance and classify it with example. Enumerate the obligations an insured
person has to take on.
▪ Enumerate the selection criteria for mental state exam-MSE of a person.
Prepare a MMSE table.
▪ Define emotion and state the role of emotion on health and sickness.

Behavioral science: It is the branch of science that deals primarily with human and offer seeks
to generalize about human behavior in society.
Health: Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.
Health behavior: Health behavior refers to a person belife and action regarding their health
and well-being.
Components of behavioural science:
✓ Sociology ✓ Political science ✓ Philosophy
✓ Social psychology ✓ History ✓ Art/Music
✓ Social anthropology ✓ Law ✓ Religion
✓ Economics
Types of behaviour:
1) Health behaviour: Answer above.
2) Illness behaviour: It refers to how people react to disease.
3) Treatment behaviour: It refers to those activities used to cure disease and restore health.
Socio-economic indicators related to health:
✓ Population growth rate ✓ Family size
✓ Per capita gross national product (GNP) ✓ Housing: The number of persons per room
✓ Level of unemployment ✓ Per capita ‘calorie’ availability
✓ Dependency ratio ✓ Literacy rates, especially female literacy rates.

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Culture: Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, jaw,
customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.
Components of culture:
✓ Survival ✓ Communication ✓ Social structure
✓ Education ✓ Economy ✓ Roles and regulation
✓ Transportation ✓ Technology ✓ Arts and recreation
Effect of cultural factors in health and disease:
1. Every culture has its own practices, which may have a big impact on health. Culture also
plays a big part in human society.
2. It is now fairly established that the cultural factors are deeply involved in the whole way of life.
3. Nutrition, vaccinations, family planning, and child rearing are all important aspects of life.
Socio-culture factors in health and disease:
1. Education: Your education level can have an effect on how healthy you are.
2. Income: The amount of money you make has an effect on your health.
3. Housing: Where you live has a significant impact on your health.
4. Access to health care.
5. Social factors in physical and mental health.
6. Psychological factors: Stress and health behaviours.
7. Cultural factors and lay health beliefs.
8. Family relationships and social support.
Health Economics: Health economics is used to promote healthy lifestyles and positive health
outcomes through the study of health care providers, hospitals and clinics, managed care and
public health promotion activities.
IMPORTANCE OF HEALTH ECONOMICS
✓ To formulate various health services needed for the people.
✓ To establish the true costs of delivering health care for the public welfare.
✓ To evaluate the relative costs and benefits of particular policy options.
✓ To estimate the effects of few economic variables on the utilization of health services.
Health insurance: Health insurance or medical insurance is a type of insurance that covers the
whole or a part of the risk of a person incurring medical expenses.
Classification of health insurance:
1. Health maintenance organizations (HMOS)
2. Exclusive provider organizations (EPOS)
3. Point-of-service (POS) plans.
4. Preferred provider organizations (PPOs)
5. High-deductible health plans (HDHPs).
Obligations an insured person has to take on: Health Insurance companies must act in good
faith when handling a claim; thoroughly investigate claims; respond to claims promptly; pay or

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deny claims within a reasonable time; and if denying a claim, provide a written explanation of
the reasons for the denial.
When a policyholder files a claim under his or her own insurance policy, the insurer has certain
obligations to the insured and has a duty to act with good faith in handling that claim. This is a
very different situation from when a person files a personal injury lawsuit (for example, in a case
involving medical malpractice or a car accident) and there is an insurance company for the
defendant involved.
Mental health: Mental health refers to cognitive, behavioral, and emotional well-being. It
affects how we think, feel, and act.
Criteria / characteristics of mentally healthy person:
1. Is free from internal conflict. 5. Knows himself, his needs, problems and goal.
2. Is well adjusted. 6. Has good self-control.
3. Searches for identity. 7. Faces problems and tries to solve them intelligently.
4. Has a strong sense of self-esteem.

Sociology:
Sociology is the study of social life, social change, and the social causes and consequences of
human behavior.
Scope of sociology:
Scope means the subject matter or the areas of study or the boundaries of a subject.
What we have to study in a particular subject is known as its scope.
The Specialistic or formalistic school and (2) the synthetic school.
There is a good deal of controversy about the scope of sociology between the two schools.
1. Specialistic school: The supporters of this school of thought are sociology is a specific, pure
and independent science and thus its scope should be limited.
2. Synthetic school: The supporters of Synthetic school are according to this school sociology is
closely related with other social sciences. It is a synthesis of social sciences. Thus its scope is very
vast.
Branches of sociology: Other branches of sociology:
1. Social morphology. 1. Rural sociology.
2. Social physiology. 2. Urban sociology.
3. General sociology. 3. Sociology of demography.
4. Historical sociology. 4. Economic sociology.
5. Sociology of knowledge. 5. Sociology of culture.
6. Criminology.
7. Political sociology
8. Human ecology.
Emotion: Emotion is a complex, subjective experience accompanied by biological &
Behavioural change.
It involves- Feeling, thinking, and activation of the nervous system physiological changes.
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Role of emotion in health & sickness / disease:
1. Emotional states determine human Behaviour anger can cause a person to be rude.
2. Disorders of emotion interfere with human efficiency — lack of concentration lack of
appetite, increased risk of accidents, lack of Sleep palpitation etc.
3. Emotional disorders in child may appear in the form of temper tantrums, abdominal pain,
spasms and anti-social behaviour such as aggressiveness.
Question:02
▪ Define IPR and classification/types it?
▪ State the factors related to interpersonal relationship.
▪ Define neurosis. Mention the symptoms and causes of neurosis. What is Sunday and Friday
neurosis?
▪ Describe OCD spectrum.
▪ What is personality? What are components of personality? How personality influence individual?
▪ What is family? What the role of family in health and disease?
▪ What is perception? What are the common disorders in perception?
▪ Define motivation. State the maslow’s hierarchy model pyramid of motivation with table.

Interpersonal relationship: Interpersonal relationship refers to a strong association among

individuals working together in the same organization. Employees working together ought to
share a special bond for them to deliver their level best.
Major types of interpersonal relationship:
1. Intimate relationship 4. Enemy 7. Official relationship
2. Family relationship 5. Neighbor
3. Platonic friend ship 6. Business relationship
Factor related to interpersonal relationship:
1. Mutual Respect: One of the finest/best ways to promote an environment of mutual respect is to
always act with respect.
2. Trust: Trust is a long-lasting mutual relationship that strengthens in difficult situations.
3. Honesty: Honesty is the foundation for trust in a relationship, and trust is necessary for a
relationship to function and thrive.
4. Understanding: As we learn the intricacies of one another in a relationship it is important to be
open, empathetic, and celebrate one another.
5. Appreciation: Healthy relationships bring joy and fulfillment to our lives.
6. Support: By building each other up, we deepen and strengthen our relationships rather than
criticize one another or put each other down.
7. Laughter: In a healthy relationship, laughter and fun should be shared regularly and each person
should seek ways to make the other person happy.
8. Open Communication: Communication is what allows us to connect, problem solve, and maintain
healthy relationships.
9. Healthy Boundaries: Boundaries are the expectations and limits we hold and are imperative to
discuss in every relationship.

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10. Others factors:
✓ Cultural factors
✓ Situational factors, which include physical and social environments.
Neurosis: Neurosis is a mental condition which causes people to have unreasonable fears and worries
over a long period of time.
Symptoms of neurosis: Causes of neurosis:
1. Fear. 1. anxiety disorder.
2. Palpitations. 2. obsessive compulsive disorder.
3. Rapid heart rate. 3. post-traumatic stress disorder.
4. Hyperventilation. 4. Emotional stress.
5. Muscle pain. 5. Hysteria.
6. Abdominal pain.
Sunday or Friday neurosis:
A popular term for a constellation of symptoms in persons who function well in planned and
organized work setting as scheduled activities tend to bind their anxieties. When presented with on
unstructured weekend or holiday. The usually defense mechanism are offline and they may suffer
anxiety, conversions, reaction, dissociative states, obsessions compulsions or phobias.
Sunday neurosis, that kind of depression which afflicts people who become aware of the lack of
content in their lives when the rush of the busy week is over and the void within themselves becomes
manifest.
OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder) spectrum:
Obsessive compulsive spectrum is a model of medical classification where various psychoactive,
neurological or medical conditions are described as existing on a spectrum of conditions related to
obsessive compulsive disorder.
There is a grouping support for proposal to nan now down this spectrum to only include body
dysmonphil disorder hypochondriasis, tic disorder and trichotillomania.
Obsessive Compulsive Spectrum Disorders
We identify disorders on the Obsessive-compulsive spectrum because:
- They all share in common obsessions and/or compulsions.
- They have similar symptomatology, treatment response, and family history.
Personality: Personality can be defined as those inner psychological characteristics that both
determine and reflect how a person think and act in an environment.
Major components of personality:
1. Physical: These are the physical traits or features of an individual namely height, weight, colour,
facial expression etc.
2. Emotional: A person's emotions also go into the makeup of his personality. Emotions are the
feelings we have fear anger, love, jealousy, guilt, worries, this feeling affects an individual's
personality.
3. Intelligence: Personality also implies intellectual ability. An intelligent person will have a forceful
personality. A person with sub normal intelligence is described as a dull person.
4. Behaviour: Behaviour is a reflection of one's personality. It is partly dependent upon our feelings
and partly on the expectations of the society

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How personality influence: Personality factors relate to health by five
main links-
1. Personality may influence stress perception.
2. Personality may affect coping mechanism option and effectiveness.
3. Personality may influence the amount of social support and social relationships.
4. Personality may affect individual health habit preventing step to modify behavior and adherence to
medical regimes.
5. Personality may shape personal account of symptoms and pain and the expression of such
symptoms to others.
Motivation: Motivation is the word derived from the word 'motive' which means needs, desires,
wants or drives within the individuals.
Types of motivation:
1. Primary
2. Stimulus
3. Secondary

Perception: Perception is the sensory experience of the world. It involves both recognizing
environmental stimuli and actions in response to these stimuli. Through the perceptual
process, we gain information about the properties and elements of the environment that are
critical to our survival.
Perception - process by which we select, organize, and interpret sensory information to
recognize meaningful objects and events — Based on our prior experiences and expectations
Perception Disorder:
✓ Hallucination ✓ Hallucinogen ✓ Dementia
✓ Delusion ✓ Cognition
✓ Delirium ✓ Lysergide

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Family: "Family is the biological, social, unit, composed of husband, wife and with or without
children.
Role of family in health and disease:
1. A somatic symptom increases tension among the family member
2. Choric illness and complicated illness is related to the family functioning.
3. Family prestige is affected by mentally related child.
4. The family will after remedies and advice.
5. To take over the role of the ill person when he/she is no longer capable of performing.
6. It will provide are until recovery and long-term support.
Question:03
▪ What is good laboratory practice? State the professional code of medical technologist.
▪ Describe the duties and responsivities of medical technologist.
▪ Common laboratory hazards in laboratory and how can you manage it. Classification of laboratory
hazard.
▪ Draw and label the sign and symbols used in the laboratory and industry designed by WHO.
▪ Define sterilization.
▪ How can you design a diagnostic laboratory in PHC level – explain brief.
▪ Define quality control. How can you ensure the quality of tests in laboratory? What is TQM?
▪ What is PPE? How can you prevent biological hazard in your lab?
▪ What is QA and QC? How can you ensure QC and QA of medical investigations in laboratory.
▪ Define medical record. How can you maintain medical records in your laboratory?
▪ What WHO safety code stands for? How can you ensure GLP?
▪ Define communication and classify it. Define communication barriers.
▪ How can you maintain shock keeping and store management.
▪ What is acculturation? How it occurs? What is b.s.m.
▪ Collection of specimens, Safe transport of any laboratory specimen & Preservatives of different
samples.
Good Laboratory Practice (GLP): The principles of Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) define a set
of rules and criteria for a quality system concerned with the organizational process and the
conditions under which non-clinical health and environmental safety studies are planned,
performed, monitored, recorded, reported and archived.
Good Laboratory Practice Examples
Below are general Good Laboratory Practice examples:
• Wear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) at all times.
• Communicate with other members of the research lab.
• Participate in refresher training and safety exercises.
• Be aware of what you’re doing at all times.
• Pay attention to unfamiliar smells and substances.
• Use the right lab equipment for the task or activity.
• Regularly clean, calibrate, and maintain equipment.
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Professional code of medical technologist:
✓ Place the well - being and service of the sick above your own interests.
✓ Be loyal to your medical laboratory profession by maintaining high standards of work and by
improving your professional skills and knowledge.
✓ Work scientifically and with complete honesty.
✓ Do not misuse your professional skills or knowledge for personal gain.
✓ Never take anything from your place of work that does not belong to you.
✓ Do not disclose to a patient or any unauthorized person the results of your investigation.
✓ Treat your results and your patient's information with strict confidentiality.
Medical Technologist/ Clinical Laboratory Scientist Job Responsibilities:
— Examine and analyze tissues, cells, blood, and other body fluids.
— Analyze the chemical content of body fluids.
— Prepare blood for transfusion.
— Perform drug tests.
— Identify fungi, parasites, or bacteria.
— Report the sensitivity to antibiotics of identified microorganisms.

Quality Control (QC):

The principles of quality assurance, quality control, and quality management are bases for good
laboratory results and workings.
Every test in the laboratory gives a result. To be sure about the accuracy of the result is not
possible until it is verified by some means. It is the quality control that will give confidence about
the result.
This is the duty of the technicians to be sure about the accuracy of the test result.
Quality assurance:
It consists of plans, policies, and procedures that provide an administrative structure for a
laboratory’s efforts to achieve quality goals.
Quality assurance:
1. It has three components:
- Assessment and monitoring.
- Development of the program.
- Quality improvement (quality control).
2. Quality assurance is vital to the patients, and this will need:
- Quality can be assessed and monitored.
- Quality program development.
- Quality control improvement.
3. Quality control is one of the components of quality assurance. Quality assurance will check the
entire testing process and will check quality regularly.
4. Quality can be assessed, monitored, and it can be improved.

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Quality control:
1. It will ensure the accuracy and reproducibility of the lab’s various tests.
- QC checks the particular source of errors, estimates the magnitude of the errors, and alerts the
laboratory personnel that quality has deteriorated.
- Quality control results will be acceptable when these are in the acceptable range of the error
limits.
- Quality control (QC) results are unacceptable when these results show excessive errors and are
out of the range.
2. Quality control goals are:
- Accuracy.
- Precision.
- The total error of the chemical method.
Ideal properties of QC materials are:
- QC material should resemble human serum, plasma, blood, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid.
- QC material should be stable for prolonged periods without any interfering preservatives.
- QC material should be free of communicable diseases like bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
- QC material should have a known concentration of the analytes.
- QC material should be easy to store and dispense.
- QC material needs to be affordable and not too costly.
Quality control will be different for the different disciplines of pathology:
- Quality assurance for the blood transfusion.
- Quality assurance for microbiology.
- Quality assurance for biochemistry.
- Quality assurance for surgical pathology.
- Quality control for hematology.
The fundamental requirements of good quality control laboratory practice are:
1. Testing in a Compliant and Timely Manner:
The laboratory has adequate accommodation, facilities, trained personal and approved
procedures to perform the testing in a compliant and timely manner.
2. Approved Procedures:
Sampling of raw materials, active pharmaceutical ingredients, intermediates, finished products
and packaging materials are performed according to approved procedures by trained personal.
3. Quality Assurance Program:
The laboratory maintains a quality assurance program, that is managed by staff that are free of
undue influence that may affect their judgement and the proper discharge of their duties. The
person in charge of the quality assurance program shall have direct access to the highest levels
of management at which laboratory policy and resourcing decisions are made.
4. Education, Training and Experience:
All staff should be demonstrably competent, and qualified by a suitable combination of
education, training and experience to perform their assigned roles; and also be free of any
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undue management, financial, commercial or other pressures that may compromise the
integrity of their judgement and the proper discharge of their duties.
5. Pre-Approved Testing Plan:
All testing is performed according to a pre-approved testing plan.
6. Validated:
All analytical testing methods are suitably validated.
7. Documented:
All analytical testing is documented and demonstrated that testing was actually carried out
according to written approved procedures.
8. Maintained and Calibrated:
All instruments used for testing are suitable for their purpose, perform to appropriate
performance specifications, are maintained and calibrated at regular intervals according to a
written schedule. Any instrument not performing to established specifications shall not be
used.
9. Documented:
Any deviations are fully documented and investigated.
10. Established Specifications:
All finished pharmaceutical products conform to established specifications of identity,
potency, purity and performance and that they are packaged in the appropriate containers
and are correctly labelled.
11. Results of Inspection:
The results of inspection and testing of raw materials, APIs, intermediates, bulk and finished
products are reviewed and assessed against established specifications, and such review and
assessment is documented.
12. Product Assessment:
Product assessment includes reviewing and evaluating of product production records and an
assessment of any deviations from established procedures.
13. Prior to Certification:
No batch of product is released for distribution prior to certification that is conforms to
established specifications.
14. Retention Samples:
Adequate retention samples of raw materials, active pharmaceutical ingredients,
intermediates, and finished products are maintained to permit future inspection and testing
should this be required, and that finished products should be kept in their final packaging.
Laboratory hazards in laboratory:
1. Chemical Burns:
- Many laboratory chemicals are classed as corrosive substances, which have the potential to
break down or degrade common objects such as equipment, instruments and containers.

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- Corrosive substances also pose a serious risk to your health. If a corrosive substance comes in
contact with your skin, it will dissolve your flesh and cause severe damage to your body tissue.
2. Heat Burns:
- Bunsen burners and other heating devices are commonly used in the lab to speed up
chemical processes and reactions.
- If your skin is exposed to temperatures exceeding 70 °C - you will suffer a burn — even if your
skin is exposed for as little as one second.
3. Eye Injuries:
- It’s important to be aware of hazardous chemicals that are harmful to your eyes when
working in the laboratory.
- Chemical exposure can occur if liquids or gases are accidentally released, damaging the eyes
of workers. To avoid eye injuries in the laboratory, staff must wear the appropriate protective
eyewear.
4. Cuts from Glassware:
- Many laboratories rely on glassware for holding and mixing dangerous chemicals. However,
there is always the chance that laboratory glassware can break.
- This broken glass can cause serious damage to the eyes and skin.
5. Inhaling Dangerous Gases:
- Many dangerous chemicals and gases that are dangerous to human health.
- The health effects can be either acute or chronic.
Manage laboratory hazard:
Personal Safety:
- Always use extracted wet benches for chemical work.
- Always wear safety glasses or goggles at all times in the laboratory.
- Always wear laboratory coat/apron in the laboratory.
- Appropriate gloves should be worn as needed.
- Appropriate shoes should be worn in the laboratory.
- Wear breathing mask as and when appropriate.
- Only trained personnel may use breathing apparatus.
Personal Hygiene:
- Wash hands before leaving the laboratory.
- Never mouth suck anything in a pipette in the laboratory.
- No food or drink is allowed in laboratories or areas where chemicals are used or stored.
- No food should be stored in a laboratory refrigerator.
- Never eat or drink from the laboratory glassware.
- Keep exposed skin covered in the laboratory.
Aprons:
- It is usually made of plastic or rubber to protect the wearer against corrosive or irritating
chemicals hazard.
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- It is important you keep the protective clothing in good condition. Dirty protective clothing is
a hazard in itself.

PPE: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is specialized clothing or equipment worn by an

employee for protection against infectious materials.
Prevention of biological hazard:
1. All specimens received in the laboratory should be considered as infectious.
2. Practice of personal hygiene ay laboratory staff.
- Wash hands with soap-water before and after investigation.
- Cover any cuts, insect bites, wounds with water-proof dressing.
- Use personal protective wares.
Examples: Apron, Hand gloves, Mask, Goggles/ Safety glasses.
3. No eating, drinking or smoking in the laboratory.
4. No mouth pipetting.
5. Vaccination.
6. Safe test procedure.
7. Safe disposal of specimen.

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Collection of specimens:
1. Aseptic procedure should be maintained.
Examples: Disinfection with spirit before blood collection.
2. Sterile instruments should be used.
3. Clean, dry, oil free, sterilized containers should be used.
4. Collection of samples should be done on right time.
Examples: Fasting blood sample, First morning sample etc.
5. Specimen should be collected from right site.
6. Sufficient amount of specimen should be collected.
7. Preservatives should be used properly.
Safe transport of any laboratory specimen:
(i) Specimen should be transported as early as possible after collection
(ii) The specimen should be placed in a box.
(iii) Place the box in another box.
(iv) Maintain space between boxes.
(v) Label as biomedical material.
(vi) Proper laboratory request form:
(a) Name of patient. (e) Name of specimen.
(b) Age of patient. (f) Time and date of specimen
(c) Sex of patient. collection.
(d) Address of patient. (g) Name of investigation.
Preservatives of different samples:
A. Urine:
1. Toluene: 10-15 ml
2. Formaldehyde: 1.5 ml 3. Thymol: 1 piece
4. Chloroform: 50 drops
5. Boric acid.
B. Stool: 10% formalin.
C. Sputum: 10% formalin.
Communication: Communication is a two-way process of exchanging sharing ideas, feelings
and information.
Classification of communication:
1. One-way communication.
2. Two-way communication.
3. Verbal communication.
4. Non-verbal communication.
5. Formal and informal communication.
6. Visual communication
7. Telecommunication and internet.
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Ways of effective communication:
There are three ways of effective communication in the laboratory-
1. By writing (written)
2. By speaking (spoken / oral/verbal)
3. By action.
Barriers of communication: Communication barriers are something that prevents us from
correctly getting and accepting the messages others use to communicate their information,
thoughts and ideas.
they are -
1. Physical barrier. 4. Cultural barrier.
e.g.: Hearing problems, speech difficulties. 5. Language barrier.
2. Perceptual barrier. 6. Gender barrier.
3. Emotional barrier. 7. Interpersonal barrier.
e.g.: Fear, anxiety etc. 8. Environmental barrier.
Store management system:
Store management is the activity of running and monitoring all operations in a store. Its main
responsibilities include working with employees, creating work schedules, communicating with
suppliers, and dealing with customer complaints. Proper management will maintain effective
control over your business and positively impact your overall productivity.
Store management is the actual handling of items received, held, and issued from a store. For
small retailers, store administration will focus on inventory management. By maintaining
optimal inventory levels, you can meet customer needs while minimizing unnecessary costs
and achieving sales goals. However, this work becomes more complex with larger stores and
includes:
- Receiving items and materials
- Returning defective or damaged stocks
- Keeping records of incoming and outgoing items
- Maintaining inventory levels precisely to avoid overstocking or overstocking.
TQM (Total quality management):
TOM is to implement a process that is long term to bring about continuous improvement
initiatives throughout the organization.
TOM of tools:
1. Scatter plots 4. Histogram
2. Control charts 5. Check list
3. Flow charts 6. Check sheet
Acculturation:
Acculturation is the process through which an individual or group becomes part of a new
culture

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Acculturation involves the process of change in customs, belief base, and artifacts from
contact by two or more cultures.
Business service management (BSM) is an approach to overseeing information technology
that emphasizes treating IT offerings as part of the larger enterprise strategy, and provisioning
IT resources based on an understanding of the business' most pressing needs.

Question:04
▪ Mention the route of transmission of STI. Enumerate the diseases to screen for foreign
going person.
▪ What are fates of misdiagnosis and late diagnosis?
▪ Make a diagnostic algorithm for common STI.
Common routes of transmission of STIs:
1. Unsafe sexual action.
2. Unsterilized drug needles.
3. Mother to fetus through placenta.
Diseases to screen for foreign going person:
1. HBs Ag — Hepatitis A&B.
2. VDRL - Syphilis.
3. Pulmonary TB - MT test.
4. HIV/AIDS - ICT.
5. Malaria - ICT.
6. Leprosy - ICT.
Misdiagnosis:
Misdiagnosis can lead to serious health issues or even death if the patient is not treated for
the illness they actually have. Often patients will undergo unnecessary and expensive
treatments, which cause pain and suffering, and the patient’s overall health will continue to
decline.
When a misdiagnosis occurs, the physician inaccurately diagnoses the patient’s condition, and
the patient will receive medical treatment and care for an illness they do not actually have. In
these types of cases, the patient can often seek compensation for the additional harm they
may have suffered, the medical costs associated with improper treatment, and the pain and
suffering the patient experienced before receiving the right treatment.
Delayed/ Late Diagnosis:
Delayed diagnosis occurs when the physician eventually finds the correct diagnosis, but in the
interim, the patient is subjected to unnecessary treatment (or improper treatment), pain,
suffering, and medical costs. In these cases, most patients are unaware they may have
grounds for a lawsuit because their doctor eventually discovers the right diagnosis.
Any delay in diagnosis can be detrimental to the patient’s overall health and even lead to
death.

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Question:05
▪ What is haemolysis of blood? How it occurs? How can you prevent? Name the biochemical
tests affected by haemolysis.
▪ Difference between titre and titration. How can you determine ASO titre
of enteric fever?
▪ Define Anticoagulant and classify. Uses in medical laboratory.
▪ Difference between anaphylaxia and anaphylactoid reaction. How can
you manage a case of anaphylactic of reaction.
▪ Different methods of collection of blood. Separate plasma and serum
from whole blood.
▪ State Beer’s and lambert’s law. Establish a relationship between them.
Give the principle of colorimeter.

Hemolysis:
"Hemo" means blood, of course; "lysis" means to rupture or the destruction of cells. Hemolysis
is the medical term used to describe the destruction of red blood cells.
Hemolysis is the breakdown of blood cells.
To prevent hemolysis: Causes of Hemolysis:
- Store tubes at room temperature 1. IMPROPER SAMPLE DRAWING:
- Allow alcohol to air dry completely - Improper selection of the venipuncture site
- Don’t use small gauge needles to collect - Prolonged tourniquet time
specimen - Continuous clenching of the fist
- Handle tubes carefully - Improper drying of the alcohol at
- Don’t shake or handle tubes venipuncture site
- Mix tubes with anticoagulant additives - Needle gauge
gently 5-10 times. - Tube under filling
- Avoid drawing the plunger back too - Syringe transfer
forcefully, if using a needle and syringe. - Catheter IV collection
- Make sure the venipuncture site is dry. - Traumatic draw
- Avoid a probing, traumatic venipuncture. - Capillary collection

2. SPECIMEN PROCESSING:
- Excessive mixing or vigorous shaking of the tube
- Not allowing clotting for sufficient time
- Applicator sticks
- Time delay before centrifugation
- Centrifuge condition, speed, time and temperature

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3. TRANSPORT:
- Mechanical trauma during transport
- Temperature, humidity at the time of transport
- Length, speed and number of times the sample is transported

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