2.

LOADS ON
BRIDGES

University of Eastern Philippines

University Town, Catarman, Northern Samar
College of Engineering
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Baluarte, Dustin
Camacho, Keir Carlo
Davan, Ginalyn
Espinar Keith Angelo
Lim, Jake Jansen
Jatap, Oliver
Sape, Val Bryan
BSCE-4B
1
OVERVIEW

Bridges are always subjected to different types of loads, which can be divided into
three big categories: vertical loads, transversal loads, and longitudinal loads. The primary
function of a bridge is to have good performance under heavy loads represented by cars,
trucks, trains and sometimes tanks. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview
regarding types of loads that can appear on bridges with the main focus on loads generated
by vehicles. This description will contribute to our future studies. We aim to develop future
research and perform different types of stress calculations on the Octav Băncilă passage
from Iași (Romania). Finite element analysis will be conducted on vehicle loads generated
by trucks, which act on the bridge structure, simulating different loading scenarios. Based
on the values of the stress calculations, we will highlight dangerous sections and take
measures to enhance the reliability degree of the analyzed bridge.

1
INTRODUCTION
Bridges are commonly used in cities and highway systems because they provide
good efficiency for transport systems and travel between different cities and countries. They
can be classified based on several criteria, including the materials used for construction, the
purpose of construction, the intended duration of use, and the construction method
employed.

Bridges are constructed using a variety of materials such as steel, reinforced

concrete, stone, brick, wood, and others (Aziz, 2019). The primary reasons for bridge
failures are attributed to construction mistakes, hydraulic issues, design errors, overloads
and collisions. To minimize the risk of bridge failure caused by excessive loads, it is crucial
to ensure that bridges are equipped with adequate protection measures. These provisions
play a pivotal role in reducing the probability of structural failures when subjected to extreme
loads (Guojing et al., 2022).

Finite element methods (FEM) have gained significant popularity in recent times due
to their exceptional capability to simulate and evaluate the efficiency of structures. ANSYS,
along with other software applications, is widely employed to implement FEM, enabling
engineers to conduct comprehensive simulations and evaluations. By leveraging FEM and
software tools like ANSYS, engineers can gain valuable insights into the structural behavior
and performance, both during the design and construction phases, as well as throughout
the lifespan of the structure (Tirpathi and Talawali, 2018; Qassim and Ali, 2020; Icke and
Margheriti, 2010).

Different analysis on bridges like: vehicles weight influence, seismic vibrations

resistance, fire resistance and shear force resistance were conducted by other authors
using finite element methods (Gang et al., 2017; Zhan and Xiedong, 2010; Gang et al.,
2019; Xue et al., 2020; Zhen et al., 2021). The constructor can perform various stress
calculations to determine the reliability degree of the analyzed bridge, if all these types of
loads are known. Based on the correctness of these calculations, the bridge can be
exploited in safe conditions for a specified period of time. The ability of a bridge to withstand
these loads is crucial to ensure the safety of the users and the longevity of the structure.

2
2. LOADS ON BRIDGES
Bridges are always subjected to different types of loads, which can be divided into
three big categories: vertical loads, transversal loads, and longitudinal loads (Table 1). For
the first category, representative loads include dead loads, live loads, and impact. The
second category is described by loads such as earthquakes, wind, centrifugal force, and
lateral shock. Longitudinal loads are often described by loads like friction, wind, thermal,
earthquakes, and braking (Aziz, 2019).

The following loads are having an important influence on the bridge structure (Aziz, 2019):

2.1 DEAD LOAD

This would include the deck slab, primary members (beams or girders), secondary
members (including all bracing, connection plates, etc.), stiffeners, Diaphragms, floor beam,
cross frame.

Superimposed dead loads are those loads placed on the superstructure after the
deck has cured and began to work with the primary members in resisting loads. This would
include surfacing (asphalt pavement), sidewalks (foot path), median, guard rails, hand rail,
lighting poles, signing, water lines, cables, pipes and other utilities.

3
 Steel grid (open or filled) or wood; while the girders may be of different properties
reinforced, pre-stressed concrete, steel or wood. However, the dead load of components
can be determined from their section properties depending on the unit weight of their
materials that can be found in the AASHTO LRFD 2017 table 3.5.1-1.

The unit weight of reinforcement amount is generally taken as 0.005kcf plus the unit
weight of plain concrete which generally equals 0.145 kcf. So, in absence of more precise
information, take the unit weight of reinforced concrete (𝛾𝑐 )= 0.150 kcf.

DEAD LOAD ON DECK SLAB

The deck slab has to support its own dead weight plus the live load. The dead weight
of deck slab depends on its thickness which is related to the span length in the slab bridges
type. Whereas in the case of typical slab-girder in beam type, the deck slab thickness
depends on the girder spacing.
The deck slab almost includes integral wearing surface which is nonstructural layer
with typical thickness of 0.5 in. thus, the total or overall thickness of the deck slab which
should be used for dead load calculations is greater than its structural thickness; while the
strength calculations are relating to the structural thickness.

DEAD LOAD on GIRDERS

A bridge girder has to support its own weight as well as the dead weight of the tributary
area of the deck slab it supports. Also, the girder has to support the dead weight of some
essential items that might not be obvious to the junior engineers. A typical designed girder
should support, in minimum, dead load from the following items:
4
 • Tributary area of the deck slab including the wearing surface
• Future wearing surface layer
• Girder own weight including the haunch
• Traffic barriers including parapet and railing
• Permanent or stay in place (SIP) deck forms to support concrete slab during
construction
• Diaphragms and as applicable cross frames
• Intermediate and bearing stiffeners if built-up steel girders are used.
• Construction loads.

DEAD LOADS ON BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE

Dead loads on highway bridge superstructure include the following:
• Weight of all structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC)
• Weight of all wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
Calculations of these loads are related to the weights of deck slab and its supporting
girders (if they are present). The deck may be of reinforced concrete, steel

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Compute the superimposed dead load for the bridge cross section given below. The
design has a beam spacing of 8.0 ft and deck thickness of 8 in are used. A half inch
wearing surface is assumed for the deck. An average haunch depth of 2 in is
specified. The haunch is a small layer of concrete between the stringer and concrete
slab. The span is simply supported (i.e., not continuous), so it may be analyzed as a
simple beam.

GIVEN:
Span length of 45 ft centerline to centerline of bearings.
Average haunch depth of 2 in.
Unshored construction. Span is simply supported.
Account for 25 psf future wearing surface.
Designed for HS-20 live load.
Overpass is a major highway with ADTT of 3,000

5
SOLUTION:

a. Effective Flange Width,

The effective flange width is define as, the minimum of the following:

¼ (Span Length) = (0.25)(45) = 11.25 𝑓𝑡

Center-to-center between stringers = 8 𝑓𝑡
12 (Min. slab thickness) = (12)(7.5 in)(1ft/12in) = 7.50 𝑓𝑡
𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 7.5 𝑓𝑡

b. Dead Load on Stringer,

𝐷𝐿𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏(𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)(𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒)

1𝑓𝑡 𝑘
= (8 𝑓𝑡)(8 𝑖𝑛) (12𝑖𝑛) (0.150 𝑓𝑡 3 )
= 0.800 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

𝐷𝐿𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + 𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐. 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙

𝑘 0.100𝑘
= (0.100 𝑓𝑡) + (5%) ( 𝑓𝑡 )
= 0.105 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

𝐷𝐿ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ
= ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ (ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠)(𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒)
= (1 𝑓𝑡)(2 𝑖𝑛)(1𝑓𝑡/12𝑖𝑛)(0.150 𝑘/〖𝑓𝑡〗^3 )
= 0.025 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 0.800 𝑘/𝑓𝑡 + 0.105𝑘/𝑓𝑡 + 0.025𝑘/𝑓𝑡

= 0.903 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

6
 c. Superimposed Dead Load on Stringer

Account for future wearing surface:

(𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦)(𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒)

𝑆𝐷𝐿𝑤𝑠 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑘
44 𝑓𝑡 (0.025 2 )
𝑓𝑡
= 6 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑆𝐷𝐿𝑤𝑠 = 0.183 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

Weight of parapet by computing the area of its cross section,

𝐴1 = (7 𝑖𝑛)( 21 𝑖𝑛) = 177 𝑖𝑛2
1
𝐴2 = ( ) (2.25 𝑖𝑛)( 21 𝑖𝑛) = 23.63 𝑖𝑛2
2
𝐴3 = (9.25 𝑖𝑛)( 10 𝑖𝑛) = 92.50 𝑖𝑛2
1
𝐴4 = ( ) (6 𝑖𝑛)(10 𝑖𝑛) = 30 𝑖𝑛2
2
𝐴5 = (15.25 𝑖𝑛)( 3 𝑖𝑛) = 45.75 𝑖𝑛2

𝐴𝑃 = 338.88 𝑖𝑛2

𝑊𝑃 = (338.88 𝑖𝑛2 )(1𝑓𝑡 2 /𝑖𝑛2 )(0.150 𝑘/𝑓𝑡 3 )

= 0.353 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

Since, there are two parapets on the bridge which are distributed over all six
stringers:
𝑤𝑃
𝑆𝐷𝐿𝑃 = 2 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑠 ( )
𝑁𝑜. 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠
= 2 ((0.353 𝑘/𝑓𝑡)/(6 𝑡𝑠𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑠))
= 0.118𝑘/𝑓𝑡

𝑆𝐷𝐿 = 𝑆𝐷𝐿𝑤𝑠 + 𝑆𝐷𝐿𝑃

0.183𝑘 0.118𝑘
= 𝑓𝑡 + 𝑓𝑡
𝑺𝑫𝑳 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟏 𝒌/𝒇𝒕

REFERENCE: Tonias, Demetrio & Zhao, Jim. (2007). Concrete Deck Slabs. Bridge
Engineering: Design, Rehabilitation, and Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridges. 2nd
Edition. 153-157.

2. A 75 ft simple span beam bridge of concrete deck slab and four supporting steel
girders spaced at 10 ft on centers has the cross section shown below. The deck is
8½ in. thick cast from 4.5 ksi concrete and contains ½ in. thick integral wearing
surface. The steel girders are made of Gr. 50 [𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 50 ksi and 𝐹𝐹𝑢𝑢 = 60 ksi] steel
built to act compositely with deck using 4 in. long and ¾ in. diameter headed shear
studs welded to the girder. Calculate the unfactored gravity loads act on an interior
girder. Assume the following dead weights: 25 lb/ft2 of deck due to future wearing

7
 surface; 200 lb/ft of girder length due to SIP forms, cross frames and detailing; and
353 lb/ft due to traffic barrier.

SOLUTION:
COMPONENTS OF DEAD LOADS
• Deck slab
𝑾𝒅 = 𝒉𝒅 . 𝒃𝒇 . 𝜸𝒄
𝑏𝑓 = 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒 = 10 𝑓𝑡
𝟖. 𝟓 𝒌𝒊𝒑
𝑾𝒅 = ( ) (𝟏𝟎)(𝟎. 𝟏𝟓) = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟔𝟑
𝟏𝟐 𝒇𝒕
• Haunch
𝑾𝒉 = 𝒉𝒉 . 𝒃𝒉 . 𝜸𝒄
𝒉𝒉 = 𝟐 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝒊𝒏.
1.25 12 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊ℎ = ( 12 ) (12) (0.15) = 0.016 𝑓𝑡
• Steel girder:
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔 . 𝛾𝑠
𝐴𝑔 = 𝐴𝑓,𝑡𝑜𝑝 . 𝐴𝑤 . 𝐴𝑓,𝑏𝑜𝑡 = 0.75(12) + 0.4375(36) + 0.875(16)
= 38.75 𝑖𝑛2
38.75 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑔 = ( ) (0.49) = 0.132
144 𝑓𝑡
• Traffic barriers
𝑊𝑝 = 𝑊𝑏𝑎 . 𝑁𝑏𝑎 /𝑁𝑔
𝑊𝑏𝑎 = 0.353 𝑘𝑖𝑝/𝑓𝑡
0.353(2) 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑝 = = 0.177
4 𝑓𝑡
• Estimated dead weight of stay-in-place forms, stiffeners, cross frames, and detailing:
𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 0.200 𝑘𝑖𝑝/𝑓𝑡

• Future wearing surface

𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 𝑞𝑤𝑠 . 𝑏𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑞𝑤𝑠 = 0.025 2
𝑓𝑡
𝑏𝑤𝑠 = 𝑏𝑓 = 10 𝑓𝑡

8
 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 0.025(10) = 0.25
𝑓𝑡
Total dead weight due to DC and DW
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝑑 + 𝑊ℎ + 𝑊𝑔 + 𝑊𝑝 + 𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 1.063 + 0.016 + 0.132 + 0.177 + 0.200 = 1.588
𝑓𝑡
𝑊𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
= 0.25
𝑓𝑡
Dead Load shears in girders:
𝐿 1.588(75)
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝐷𝐶 . 2 = = 59.550 𝑘𝑖𝑝
2
𝐿 0.250(75)
𝑉𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝐷𝑊 . 2 = = 9.375 𝑘𝑖𝑝
2

Dead load moments in girders:

𝐿2 1.588(75)2
𝑀𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝐷𝐶 . = = 1116.563 𝑘𝑖𝑝 − 𝑓𝑡
8 8
𝐿2 0.250(75)2
𝑀𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝐷𝑊 . = = 175.781 𝑘𝑖𝑝 − 𝑓𝑡
8 8

3. Cross section of a highway bridge shown in above, having a single span of 85 ft. It
consists of an 8½ in. thick reinforced concrete deck (including ½ in. thick integral
wearing surface) cast from 4500 psi concrete. The deck is supported on and acts
compositely with AASHTO–PCI Type IV precast, prestressed concrete girders having
a compressive strength of6000 psi, which spaced at 7 ft 8 in. on centers. The cross-
sectional area of each girder is 789in2. The parapets weigh 353 lb per linear ft.
Assume the dead load due to future wearing surface (FWS) as 35 lb/ft2. Calculate
the gravity loads for design of an interior girder of the bridge.

9
SOLUTION:

COMPONENTS OF DEAD LOADS

• Deck slab
𝑊𝑑 = ℎ𝑑 . 𝑏𝑓 . 𝛾𝑐

𝑏𝑓 = 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑏 = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑔𝑖𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠 = 7.67 𝑓𝑡

8.5 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑑 = ( ) (7.67)(0.15) = 0.815
12 𝑓𝑡
• Concrete girder:
𝑊𝑔 = 𝐴𝑔 . 𝛾𝑐
𝐴𝑔 = 789 𝑖𝑛2
789 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑔 = ( ) (0.15) = 0.822
144 𝑓𝑡
• Traffic barriers
𝑊𝑝 = 𝑊𝑏𝑎 . 𝑁𝑏𝑎 /𝑁𝑔
𝑊𝑏𝑎 = 0.353 𝑘𝑖𝑝/𝑓𝑡 2
0.353(2) 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑝 = = 0.177
4 𝑓𝑡
• Future wearing surface
𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 𝑞𝑤𝑠 . 𝑏𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑞𝑤𝑠 = 0.035 2
𝑓𝑡
𝑏𝑤𝑠 = 𝑏𝑓 = 7.67 𝑓𝑡
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝑤𝑠 = 0.035(7.67) = 0.268
𝑓𝑡
Total dead weight due to DC and DW
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝑑 + 𝑊𝑔 + 𝑊𝑝
𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝑊𝐷𝐶 = 0.815 + 0.822 + 0.177 = 1.814
𝑓𝑡
𝑊𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝑤𝑠
𝑘𝑖𝑝
= 0.268
𝑓𝑡
Dead Load shears in girders:
𝐿 1.1814(75)
𝑉𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝐷𝐶 . 2 = 2
= 44.3025 𝑘𝑖𝑝
𝐿 0.268(75)
𝑉𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝐷𝑊 . 2 = 2
= 10.05 𝑘𝑖𝑝

Dead load moments in girders:

𝐿2 1.1814(85)2
𝑀𝐷𝐶 = 𝑊𝐷𝐶 . = = 1638.269 𝑘𝑖𝑝 − 𝑓𝑡
8 8
𝐿2 0.268(85)2
𝑀𝐷𝑊 = 𝑊𝐷𝑊 . = = 242.038 𝑘𝑖𝑝 − 𝑓𝑡
8 8

10
4. Determine the dead weight of the reinforced concrete T-beam bridge interior beam
using Figure 2.4 shown below and the bridge data given: span length 50 ft, beam
spacing 10 ft,concrete strength 4.5 ksi, minimum yield strength of steel = 60 ksi,
future wearing surface load = 0.03 ksf and barrier (curbs and parapet) load 0.505 klf.

𝑀𝐷𝐶 = 619.69 𝑘𝑖𝑝 − 𝑓𝑡

𝑀𝐷𝑊 = 93.75 𝑘𝑖𝑝 − 𝑓𝑡

5. A simple span non composite steel girder bridge with a span of 40 ft is shown. The
overall width of the bridge is 33ft, 4 in. the clear (roadway) width is 28ft, 0 in. The
roadway is a concrete slab 7 in thick supported by four W33X130 A36 steel girders
that are spaced at 8ft, 4 in apart. The compression flange s continuously supported
by the concrete slab, and additional bracing is provided at the ends at span. Non
composite construction is assumed, Dead load per longitudinal construction is
assumed, Dead load per longitudinal girder (stringer) is 1.304 kips/ft for slab, stringer,
curbs, railings, and beam details.
Determine maximum live load, dead load, and maximum shear. Use AASHTO
HS 25 loading.

11
SOLUTION:

REFERENCE: Taly, Narendra. (1998). Loads on Bridges. Design of Modern Highway Bridges.
205.

12
 6. An interior prestressed concrete girder (or beams) for two-lane simply supported
highway bridge with an 80ft span is to be designed. The five girders are spaced at
7ft 6 in. Design load is AASHTO HS 20-44. Determine the maximum dead load shear.
• Superimposed dead load) parapet/curb/future wearing surface) is 427 lb/ft.
• The slab has an integral wearing surface of 050 in.

SOLUTION:

REFERENCE: Tonias, Demetrio & Zhao, Jim. (2007). Concrete Deck Slabs. Bridge
Engineering: Design, Rehabilitation, and Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridges. 2nd
Edition. 163-166.

13
 7. Draw the influence line for the force in member GB of the bridge truss shown.

SOLUTION:
Tabulate Values. Here each successive joint at the bottom cord is loaded with a unit load
and the force in member GB is calculated using the method of sections. For example,
placing the unit load at 𝑥 = 6𝑚 (joint B), the support reaction at E is calculated first, then
passing a section through HG, GB, BC and isolating the right segment, the force in GB is
determined. In the same manner, determine the other values listed in the table.

Title: INFLUENCE LINES FOR STATICALLY DETERINATE STRUCTURES

Author: R.C. Hibbeler
https://handoutset.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Structural-Analysis-Eighth-Edition-R.-
C.-Hibbeler.pdf

8. Draw the influence line for the force in member CG of the bridge truss shown.

14
SOLLUTION:
Tabulate Values. A table of unit load position at the joints of the bottom cord versus the
force in member CG is shown above. These values are easily obtained by isolating joint C.

Influence Line. Plotting the tabular data and connecting the points yields the influence line
for member CG as shown. In particular, notice that when the unit load is at 𝑥 = 9𝑚, the force
in member CG is 𝐹𝐶𝐺 = 0.5. This situation requires the unit load to be placed on the bridge
deck between the joints. The transference of this load from the deck to the truss shown.
From this one can see that indeed 𝐹𝐶𝐺 = 0.5 by analyzing the equilibrium of joint C. Since
the influence line for CG does not extend over the entire span of the truss, member CG is
referred to as a secondary member.

Title: INFLUENCE LINES FOR STATICALLY DETERINATE STRUCTURES

Author: R.C. Hibbeler
https://handoutset.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Structural-Analysis-Eighth-Edition-R.-
C.-Hibbeler.pdf

9. Determine the wearing surface dead load of the continuous beam bridge.

GIVEN:
• Two spans, continuous structure with ADTT = 500
• Both spans are 100ft in length.
• 8.5’’ slab with 0.5’’ integral wearing surface, and 1.5’’ average haunch.
• Composite sections.
• 15 psf stay-in-place form, and 25 psf future wearing surface.
15
 • 50 ksi steel and 4.5 ksi concrete.

SOLUTION:

10. Determine the dead load moments of the interior stringer simple span with 70-ft
length.

GIVEN:
• Hs20-44 live loading.
• Barrier area = 2.6 sq.ft.
• Compressive Strength = 5 000 psi.
• Steel Strength = 270 000 psi
• Deck and girder made of same strength concrete.

16
SOLUTION:

17
2.2 LIVE LOADS: Truck Loadings, Lane Loadings, and
Extra-Legal Loads
A load that moves along the length of a span. Examples for these, is when a person
is walking or a truck that is passing by the bridge. However, because of the development
and civilization faced by communities, the bridge or structural engineers should possess the
quality of being futuristic. They should not only design based on the current situation that
the bridge will face, but they should also be able to detect the potential situations that the
bridge will encounter in the future. In that way, they will be ensured that the bridge will stand
for hundreds or even thousands of years.
For live loads on bridges as specified in the AASHTO (American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials) Standard Specifications, the live loads discussed and
referred through that book applies to short-span bridges, not to long-span bridges:
“Primarily, the specifications det forth the minimum requirements which are consistent with
the current practice, and certain modifications may be necessary to suite local conditions.
They ordinarily apply to ordinary highway bridges, and supplemental specifications may be
required for unusual types and for bridges longer than 500 feet.” Also, it is significant to
understand that the live-load models vary in different countries. To give designers the ability
to accurately model the live load on a structure, hypothetical design vehicles based on truck
loading were developed. These design load of vehicles are exaggerated. 1
Modern highway traffic has evolved over a period of several hundred years. Today's
vehicular traffic, which consists of various types of vehicles, from motorcycles and small
compact cars to multi-axle vehicles carrying wide loads, has come a long way from the old
days of horse-and-buggy and oxcart traffic. As a consequence, the per- wheel load of the
vehicles has increased from a few hundred pounds to several thousand pounds, and the
types of vehicles vary from simple two-axle vehicles to multi-axle trucks with trailers,
tractor/semitrailer combinations, and longer combinations.
From a historical perspective, the genesis of highway design live loads goes back to
the mid-nineteenth century. The first live-load procedure for highway bridges was proposed
and used by Squire Whipple in 1846. In his Essay No. 2, he regarded it "proper to consider
the whole area of the roadway covered with men, which is about 100 lb to the square foot,
as the greatest load to which the bridge can be exposed," and this standard continued to be
in use for many years. However, after many bridge failures, the American Society of Civil
Engineers created a committee to determine "the most practical means of averting bridge
accidents." This committee, in its March 3, 1875, report, made recommendations for both
the railroad and highway bridge loadings. It divided highway bridges into the following three
categories [Edwards, 1959]:
A. City and suburban bridges and those over large rivers, where great concentration of
weight is possible.
B. Highway bridges in manufacturing districts or on level, well-ballasted roads.

1
Tonias, Demetrio & Zhao, Jim. (2007). Design Loads. Bridge Engineering: Design,
Rehabilitation, and Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridges. 2nd Edition. 97.

18
 C. County road bridges, where roads are unballasted and the loads hauled are
consequently light.
Highway loadings are rather complex. At any given time, a bridge deck may be
loaded randomly with a multitude of vehicles. The effect of live load on a bridge is a function
of several parameters, such as the gross vehicle weight, axle loads, axle configuration, span
length, position (longitudinal and transverse) and number of the vehicles (multipresence) on
the bridge, speed of the vehicles, stiffness characteristics of the bridge superstructure, and
bridge configuration (straight, skewed, or horizontally curved). Together, these parameters
introduce analytical complexity and affect force distribution in the supporting structures and
its components, live-load distribution in various portions of a bridge superstructure. At the
turn of the century, the heaviest highway loading was aroad roller, which continued to be
used as a model for describing design live loads for highway bridges.2

Truck Load
Truck loads are hypothetical design loading used to simulate a single truck on a
bridge. It is the weight that the truck carries while on the bridge. In 1935, what was then
called AASHO issued a loading scheme based on a train of trucks. These are identified as
H-20-35 and H-15-35.
Since the demand for heavier trucks is rapidly increasing, the introduction of five new
truck classes was made in 1944 to satisfy these demands. To meet the demands of heavier
trucks, the introduction of five new truck classes was made in 1944. These classes have
the following designations and gross vehicle weights:
❏ H10-44 (20,000 lb - 89 KN)
❏ H15-44 (30,000 lb - 133 KN)
❏ H20-44 (40,000 lb - 178 KN)
❏ HS15-44 (54,000 lb - 240 KN)
❏ HS20-44 (72,000 lb - 320 KN)
Today, all but the H10-44 vehicles are still included in the AASHTO standard
specifications3. To load a structure one such truck per lane, per span is used. The truck is
then moved along the length of the span to determine the point of maximum moment.
Recently, to account for higher loading conditions, some states have begun using the so-
called HS-25 design vehicle, which represents a 25 percent increase in loading over the
standard HS20-44 truck for a total gross vehicle weight of 90,000 lb (400 KN).
From the Figure 2.1, it can be observed that the HS trucks have a variable spacing
between the two rear axles. This distance between axles, varying from 14 to 30 ft (4.27 to
9.14 m), is used to create a live loading situation which will induce maximum moment in a
span. For simply supported bridges, this value will be the 14 ft minimum. In continuous
spans, however, the distance between axles is varied to position the axles at adjacent
supports in such a fashion as to create the maximum negative moment.

2
Taly, Narendra. (1998). Loads on Bridges. Design of Modern Highway Bridges. 205.
3
Tonias, Demetrio & Zhao, Jim. (2007). Design Loads. Bridge Engineering: Design, Rehabilitation,
and Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridges. 2nd Edition. 97.
19
 Figure 2.1: AASHTO Standard H & HS Design Trucks. (Adapted from Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges, Ref. 3.3.)

In designing, it is important to stress that the H and HS trucks do not represent an

actual truck being used to transport goods and materials. They are approximations used to
simulate the greatest bending and shear forces caused by actual trucks. The presumption
is that any legal actual vehicle crossing bridge should not cause stresses greater than those
caused by the hypothetical vehicle.

Lane Load
Lane load is a hypothetical design loading used to simulate a train of trucks moving
across a bridge. The design of lane load was developed to better model loading on long
spans, where a string of light vehicle might be critical. It approximates a 20—ton truck
preceded and followed by a 15-ton truck. Essentially, the assumption of uniformly distributed
lane loading obviates the necessity of having more than one design truck in a lane.
Regardless of the span length and the number of spans, resulting in a simple design
procedure for long span bridges is applied.

20
 Figure 2.2: AASHTO Standard H & HS Lane Loading. (Adapted from Standard
Specifications for Highway Bridges, Ref. 3.3.)
Lane loading also has two classes of loadings, and in each class two different load-
ings are provided. These loadings are designated in the same manner as the truck load-
ings (namely, H15-44, HS15-44, H20-44, HS20-44). Basically, the lane load consists of a
uniform load accompanied by a concentrated load. The value of the concentrated load is
different for shear than for moment. Furthermore, as with truck loadings, the loads for H15
lane loading, including the concentrated loads, are only three-fourths as heavy as those for
the HS20ane loading. 4Both the concentrated and the uniform load specified for lane loading
are assumed to be distributed over a 10-ft width normal to the centerline of the lane.
Different concentrated loads are to be used for calculating forces in the supporting
members. The lighter concentrated loads are to be used for calculating bending moment;
the heavier concentrated load should be used for calculating shear.

4
Tonias, Demetrio & Zhao, Jim. (2007). Design Loads. Bridge Engineering: Design,
Rehabilitation, and Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridges. 2nd Edition. 99.
21
Extra Legal Load
These are the trucks that are designed beyond the legal load limit, or these are the trucks
that are overweight.
Since it cannot be denied that some community, such as cities encounter an ever-
growing demand to transport goods and materials, considerations are given to local or
regional modifications to design truck, tandem, or lane load. These are the conditions that
will be considered to permit loadings on highways that are heavier and wider than the typical
AASHTO loadings. Therefore, the following provisions will be identified as extra-legal
loadings. These conditions are the following:
• The legal load of a given jurisdiction is significantly greater than the AASHTO design
loads.
• The roadway is expected to carry unusually high percentages of truck traffic.
• Due to unusual circumstances, many trucks can collect on certain areas of the bridge.
• Special industrial loadings are common due to the location of the bridge5.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Determine the maximum moment and shear due to HS20 loading in a T-beam of a
two-lane T-beam having a simple span of 100 ft. The T-beams are spaced at 7.5 ft
O.C.
According to AASHTO, the following are the specification of HS20 truck:
Spacing between two rear axles :14ft – 30ft
Weight of the Front Axle: 8kips
Weight of the middle Axle: 32 kips
Weight of the Rear Axle: 32 kips
Load Lane Width: 10 ft
Concentrated Load for Moment: 18 kips
Concentrated Load for Shear: 26 kips
Uniform Load per linear Foot: 0.64 k/ft

GIVEN:
Length of span = 100 ft
Spacing = 7.5 ft.
FIND:
Maximum moment and shear due to HS20 loading.

SOLUTION:

𝑎. 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Tonias, Demetrio & Zhao, Jim. (2007). Loads on Bridges. Bridge Engineering: Design,
5

Rehabilitation, and Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridges. 2nd Edition. 191.

22
Summation of forces,
(8 + 32 + 32)(𝑥) = (32)(14) − (8)(14)
𝑥 = 4.67 𝑓𝑡

𝑎𝑏
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 @𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
𝐿
(52.33)(47.67)
=
100
= 24.946

𝐵𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒
𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐𝟕𝟐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔𝟐

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (8)(17.62) + 32(24.946 + 18.272)

= 1523.94
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1524𝑘. 𝑓𝑡
Since the attained maximum moment was only based on the position of the axels, and
neither implies the lateral distribution load of other wheel loads on the span nor the effect of
impact. The Design of Live-Load shall be obtained.

Distribution Factor,
𝑆 7.5
𝐷𝐹 = = = 1.25
6 6
Impact Factor,
50
𝐼=
𝐿 + 125
50
= 100+125
𝐼 = 0.222
Design Live-Load Moment for T-beam,
1
𝑀𝐿+𝐼 = 𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒 − 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ( ) (𝐷𝐹)(1 + 𝐼)
2
1
= 1524 (2) (1.25)(1 + 0.222)
𝑴𝑳+𝑰 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟑. 𝟗𝟔 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟒𝒇𝒕.

b. Maximum Shear

23
Since the problem is described as a two-lane bridge, it falls under the category “c”, which is
the provision to be followed for transverse position of two AASHTO trucks for maximum
value of beam reaction. In addition, the truck was positioned on the point where one wheel
load is positioned directly over a beam, thus identified under the category “ii”.
This concludes to applying the formula:

10
𝑅 = 𝑃 (3 − )
𝑠
For HS20 and H20 trucks, the live load “P” must be 16
kips. Whereas 20 kips shall be used for H25 and HS24
loading.

10
𝑅 = 16 𝑘 (3 − )
7.5
𝑅 = 26.67 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (load of the rear wheel)
𝑃𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 = 16𝐷𝐹 = (16)(1.25) = 19.84 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (load for middle wheel)
𝑃𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 = 4𝐷𝐹 = (16)(1.25) = 4.96 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (load for front wheel)

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
5(72) + (20)(86) + (26.67)(100) = 𝑅(100)
𝑅 = 47.47 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

Loads of the support,

𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡 = 0.72(5) + 0.86(20)
= 2.8 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

Total Shear Live-Load,

𝑉𝐿 = 26.67(1) + 20.8
= 47.47 𝑘

Design Live-Load Shear at the Support,

𝑉𝐿+𝐼 = 𝑉𝐿 (1 + 𝐼)
= 47.46(1 + 0.22)
𝑉𝐿+𝐼 = 58.01 𝑘

REFERENCE: Taly, Narendra. (1998). AASHTO Method of Live Load Distribution-Slabs and
Beams. Design of Modern Highway Bridges. 305-310.

11. Steel beams are used to support the deck of a bridge with simple span of 25m. The
live load on each beam are as follows:

GIVEN:
Front Wheel = 35.6 kN
Rear Wheel = 142.4 kN
Wheel Base = 4.3 m

24
 FIND:
a. Determine the maximum support reaction
b. Determine the maximum moment
c. Determine the maximum shear at midspan

SOLUTION:

Total Load:
𝑃 = 178 𝑘𝑁 + 35.6 𝑘𝑁
𝑃 = 178 𝑘𝑁

a. Maximum support reaction,

𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑑
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑏 =
𝐿
(178 𝑘𝑁)(25 𝑚) − (35.6 𝑘𝑁)(4.3 𝑚)
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
25
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟕𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑵

b. Maximum moment,

(𝑃𝐿 − 𝑃𝑠 𝑑)2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐿
[(178 𝑘𝑁)(25 𝑚) − (35.6 𝑘𝑁)(4.3 𝑚)]2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
(4)(178)(25)
𝑴𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑𝟕. 𝟑 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

c. Maximum shear at midspan,

𝑢2 0.5
=
8.2 12.5
𝑢2 = 0.328

𝑉𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃𝑏 𝑢1 + 𝑃𝑠 𝑢2
𝑉𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 142.4(0.5) + 35.6(0.328)
𝑽𝒄𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑵

REFERENCE: Gillesania, Diego T. (2023). Structural Engineering and Construction: November

2019. Civil Engineering Reference for Licensure Examination. Volume 5. 182.

12. Three equal wheel loads 9f 30 kN each, separated by 2 m. between each load, roll
as a unit across a 12 m. span.

FIND:
a. Which of the following gives a maximum moment.
b. Which of the following gives the location of the middle 30 kN to obtain the
maximum moment.
25
 c. Which of the following gives the maximum shear.

SOLUTION:

a. Maximum Moment,
2𝑅 = 90
𝑅 = 45
𝑀 = 𝑅(6) − 30(2)
𝑀 = 45(6) − 30(2)
𝑴 = 𝟐𝟏𝟎 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

b. The location of 30kN is at the midspan.

c. Maximum Shear,

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
12𝑅1 = 30(12) + 30(10) + 30(8)
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝑵

REFERENCE: Besavilla, Venancio I. (1999). Strength of Materials: Moving Loads. Structural

Engineering and Construction. Volume 1. S-142.

13. A truck with axle loads of 40kN and 60kN on a wheel base of 5m. rolls across a 10
m span.

FIND:
a. Which of the following gives a maximum bending moment.
b. Which of the following gives a maximum shearing force.
c. Which of the following gives the location of the 40 kN from the left support
when the maximum moment occurs.

SOLUTION:

a. Maximum bending moment,

40(5) + 60(6) = 100𝑥

𝑥 = 2𝑚

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
10𝑅2 = 100(4)
𝑅2 = 40 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀 = 𝑅2 (4)
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀 = 40(4)
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

b. Position for max. shear

∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = 0

26
 10𝑅2 = 60(10) + 40(5)



𝑹𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒌𝑵 (𝒎𝒂𝒙. 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆)

c. Distance pf 40kN from the left support

'LVWDQFHIURPOHIWVXSSRUW P

REFERENCE: Besavilla, Venancio I. (1999). Strength of Materials: Moving Loads. Structural

Engineering and Construction. Volume 1. S-142 – S-143.

14. A truck is moving along a 20 m span of the beam. The front axle is 8 kN, the middle
is 16 kN and the rear is 16 kN. The middle load is spaced 3m from the front and 6m
from the rear.

FIND:
a. Which of the following gies the maximum moment produced by the load.
b. Which of the following gives the position of the 8kN from the center of the span
to obtain maximum moment in the beam.
c. Which of the following gives the maximum shear.

SOLUTION:

a. Maximum Moment,
First possible position:
40𝑥 = 9(9) + 16(6) + 16(0)
𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝒎

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
𝟐𝟎𝑹𝟏 = 𝟒𝟎(𝟗. 𝟏)

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐 𝒌𝑵
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝑹𝟏 (𝟗. 𝟏) − 𝟖(𝟑)
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟐(𝟗. 𝟏) − 𝟖(𝟑)
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

Second possible position:

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
20𝑅1 = 40(7.9)
𝑅1 = 15.8 𝑘𝑁
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀 = 15.8(7.9)
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀 = 124.82 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚

𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆, 𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏. 𝟔𝟐 𝒌𝑵. 𝒎

E/RFDWLRQRIN1

IURPWKHFHQWHURIWKHEHDPIRU

27
 c. Maximum Shear,

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
20𝑅1 = 16(20) + 16(4) + 8(11)
𝑅1 = 31.6 𝑘𝑁 (𝑚𝑎𝑥. 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟)

REFERENCE: Besavilla, Venancio I. (1998). Structural Design and Construction: May 1993 –
November 1993. Civil Engineering Licensure Examinations. D-11.

15. A truck and trailer combination crossing a 12 m span has an axle loads of 10 kN, 20
kN, and 30 kN separated respectively by distance of 3m and 5m.

FIND:
a. Which of the following gives a maximum moment of the beam.
b. Which of the following give the distance from the center should be 20 kN load
be placed to obtain maximum moment.
c. Which of the following gives the maximum shear developed in the span.

SOLUTION:

a. Maximum Moment of the beam,

60(𝑥) = 10(8) + 20(5) + 30(0)
𝑥 = 3𝑚

First position to create max. moment:

One load goes out, and only 20 kN and 30 kN are acting on the
beam.
50(𝑥) = 20(5) + 30(0)
𝑥 = 2𝑚

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
𝟏𝟐𝑹𝟏 = 𝟓𝟎(𝟓)

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟑 𝒌𝑵

𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟖𝟑(𝟓)
𝑴𝒂𝒙. 𝑴 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎

b. Distance from center that the 20kN be placed from the center to obtain max.
moment = 4m.

c. Maximum Shear,

∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0
12𝑅1 = 60(9)
𝑹𝟏 = 𝟒𝟓 𝒌𝑵 (𝒎𝒂𝒙. 𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓)

REFERENCE: Besavilla, Venancio I. (1999). Strength of Materials: Moving Loads. Structural

Engineering and Construction. Volume 1. S-144 – S-145.

28
LIVE LOAD: LANE LOADING

16. Continuation of Problem #1.

GIVEN:
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 (𝑤) = 2.6 𝑘/𝑓𝑡
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑙𝑎𝑏 = 5 𝑓𝑡
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑆) = 7.5 𝑓𝑡

FIND:
Maximum moment and shear due to HS20 loading.

SOLUTION:

a. Maximum Moment
𝑎𝑏
𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 @𝐼𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
𝐿
(50)(50)
=
100
= 25

𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑃(𝐼𝐿 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒) + 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐼𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)

1
= (18)(25) + 0.64( )(100)(25)
2
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1250𝑘. 𝑓𝑡 < 1524 𝑘. 𝑓𝑡 (𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥.𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 )

Design Moment due to lane load,

1
𝑀𝐿+𝐼 = 1250( )(1.25)(1 + 0.222)
2
𝑴𝑳+𝑰 = 𝟗𝟓𝟒. 𝟕 𝒌. 𝒇𝒕 < 𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟒 𝒌 − 𝒇𝒕 (𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒄𝒌 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈)

b. Maximum Shear

The uniform live load,

26𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑤= = 2.6𝑘/𝑓𝑡
10𝑓𝑡
5.0
𝑅 = (2)(2.6)(5.0) (1 − ) = 17.33 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
(2)(7.5)
𝑉 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚)
1
= 0.64 ( ) (100)(1.0)
2
= 32 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

Total Shear,
𝑉 = 17.33 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 + 32 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑉 = 49.33 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

29
Design Shear due to the Lane Loading,
1
𝑉𝐿+𝐼 = 49.33( )(1.25)(1 + 0.222)
2
𝑉𝐿+𝐼 = 37.68 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 < 58.07 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑘 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔

REFERENCE: Taly, Narendra. (1998). AASHTO Method of Live Load Distribution-Slabs and
Beams. Design of Modern Highway Bridges. 305-310.

8. Determine the absolute maximum moment in the simply supported bridge deck
shown in Fig. 6–37a.

SOLUTION:
The magnitude and position of the resultant force of the system are determined first
+↓ 𝐹𝑅 = ∑F; 𝐹𝑅 = 2 + 1.5 + 1 = 4.5𝑘
↻ +𝑴𝑹𝑪 = 𝟒. 𝟓(𝒙) = 𝟐(𝟎) + 𝟏. 𝟓(𝟏𝟎) + 𝟏(𝟏𝟓)
𝑥 = 6.67𝑓𝑡
Let us first assume the absolute maximum moment occurs under the 1.5-k load

↺ +𝑀𝐵 = 0;
−𝐴𝑦 (30) + 4.5(16.67) = 0
𝐴𝑦 = 2.50𝑘

Now using the left section of the beam,

Fig. 6–37c, yields
↺ +𝑀𝐵 = 0;
−2.5(16.67) + 2(10) + 𝑀𝑆 = 0
𝑀𝑆 = 21.7 𝑘 ∙ 𝑓𝑡

REFERENCE:
Kassimali, A. (2010). Structural Analysis, SI Edition (4th ed.). Cl Engineering International
Edition.

30
 9. A truck with axle loads of 40 kN and 60 kN on a wheel base of 5 m rolls across a 10-
m span. Compute the maximum bending moment and the maximum shearing force.
Solution:

𝑅 = 40 + 60 = 100 𝑘𝑁
𝑥𝑅 = 40(5)
200 200
𝑥= = = 2𝑚
𝑅 100

For Maximum Moment under 40 kN wheel:

For Maximum Moment under 60 kN:

31
The Maximum Shear will occur when the 60 kN is over a support:

REFERENCE: https://mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-

materials/solution-to-problem-453-moving-loads

10. A tractor weighing 14kN with a wheel base of 3m carries an 8kN load on its rear
wheel. Compute the maximum bending moment when crossing a 6m span.

8kN
6kN

6m

SOLUTION:
Determine magnitude and location of the resultant force.
∑𝐹𝑅 = 0
𝐹𝑅 = 8 + 6 = 14𝑘𝑁

𝐹𝑅 (𝑥) = ∑𝐹(𝑥)
14(𝑥) = 8(0) + 6(3)
𝑥 = 1.29

Case 1: @ 8kN
Assume that the maximum bending moment is at 8kN.
+↺ ∑𝑀𝐵 = 0
14(3 − 0.645) − 𝐴𝑦(6) = 0
𝐴𝑦 = 5.495𝑘𝑁
Using the left side section of the beam,

32
 +↺ 𝑀𝑆 = 0
𝑀𝑆 − 5.495(3 − 0.645) = 0
𝑀𝑆 = 12.941 𝑘𝑁 · 𝑚

Case 1: @ 6kN
Assume that the maximum bending moment is at 6kN.
+↺ ∑𝑀𝐴 = 0
14(3 − 0.855) − 𝐵𝑦(6) = 0
𝐴𝑦 = 5.005 𝑘𝑁

Using the left side section of the beam,

+↺ 𝑀𝑆 = 0
𝑀𝑆 − 5.005(3 − 0.855) = 0
𝑀𝑆 = 10.74 𝑘𝑁 · 𝑚

6LQFHN1āP‫ޓ‬N1āPWKHUHIRUHW
occurs at 8kN.

REFERENCE:
Kassimali, A. (2010). Structural Analysis, SI Edition (4th ed.). Cl Engineering International
Edition.

2.3 WIND LOAD:

Wind loads form a major component of lateral loads that act on a structure. They are
a component of so-called environmental loads to which all structure are subjected. Wind
loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes of wind loads
that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
Bridges are frequently built on exposed sites and are subjected to severe wind
conditions. Wind load on bridge superstructures depends on the type of bridge, e.g., slab
stringer, truss, arch, cable-stayed, or suspension. Other parameters that affect wind loads
on bridge superstructures are the wind velocity, angle of attack, the size and the shape of
the bridge, the terrain, and the gust characteristics. General discussions on wind loads and
their effects on structures have been presented by several researchers [ASCE, 1961, 1987;
Houghton and Carruthers, 1976; Ishizaki and Chiu, 1976; Lui, 1991; Sachs, 1978; Scanlan,
1978ab; Sumui and Scanlan, 1986]. The following discussion is summarized from these
references.
Wind effects on bridge structures maybe threefold:
1. Static wind pressures
2. Dynamic (oscillatory) wind movements
3. Buffeting between adjacent structures
33
 Static wind pressures are those that cause a bridge to deflect or deform. These are
horizontal pressure that tries to push a bridge sideways.
Dynamic wind movement gives rise to vertical motion, creating oscillations in any
direction. It affects long span flexible bridges, such as suspension bridges and cable-stayed
bridges. Such bridges are prone to movement under wind forces, which may cause them to
oscillate in a number of different modes, at low frequencies, which may be catastrophic
under suitable wind condition [Davenport, 1962a,b, 1966; Lin, 1979; Scanlan, 1978, ab,
1981, 1986; Scanlan and Wardlow, 1977].
Buffeting is cause by the close proximity of the bridge structures. In such a case, the
turbulent eddy formations from the windward bridge will excite the leeward bridge. Buffeting
is cause by the close proximity of the bridge structures. In such a case, the turbulent eddy
formations from the windward bridge will excite the leeward bridge. It is a random forced
vibration generated by the structure under the action of natural wind fluctuation
components.6
Static wind force, the main wind force acting on a bridge structure, develops as a
result of steady wind that exerts a fairly constant pressure in the general direction of the
wind. Pressure due to wind is calculated by applying the familiar principle of fluid mechanics.
According to Bernoulli’s Theorem, when an ideal fluid strikes an object, the increase in static
pressure equals the decrease in the dynamic pressure. The intensity of this pressure is
expressed as
1
p = ρV 2
2

Where:
q = dynamic pressure in N/m^2
ρ = is the mass density of the air (0.00233 slugs/ft^3 or 12.02 N/m^3 at sea level at 15°c)
V = wind speed in m/s
Expressing the wind speed V in m/s, the dynamic pressure q in N/m2 is given by:
1 12.02 2
q= ( ) V = 0.613V 2
2 9.81
The wind speed V to be used in the determination of the design loads on a structure
depends on its geographical location. The NSCP 2015 provides a contour map of the basic
wind speeds for the Philippines. This map, which is based on data, collected sa the result
from PAGASA, gives the 3-second gust speeds in km/h. These speeds are for open terrain
at the heights of 10 m above ground level. To account for the variation in wind speed with
the height and the surroundings in which a structure is located and to account for the
consequences of the failure of structures, the ASCE 7 Standard modifies Eq. as:
q z = 0.613K z K zt K d V 2
Where:
q z = is the velocity pressure at height z in N/m2

6
Taly, N. (1997). Wind Loads. Design of Modern Highway Bridges
. McGraw-Hill College
34
V = is the basic wind speed in m/s obtained from Fig. 207A.5-1A through 207 A.5-1C in
NSCP 2015
K z = is the velocity pressure exposure coefficient obtained from Table 207 B.3-1
K zt = is the topographic factor obtained from Section 207 A.8 and Table 207 A.8-1
K d = is the wind directionality factor obtained from Section 207 A.6 and Table A.6-1.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

(YDOXDWHWKHZLQGORDGRQWKHEULGJHGH
RIWKHEULGJHGHFNLVPDERYHWKHJURX

GIVEN:
𝑧𝑒 = 7 𝑚 + 1.25 𝑚 = 8.25 𝑚
𝑧𝑏,0 = 40 𝑚/𝑠 (basic wind velocity)

SOLUTION:

a. Mean wind velocity, 𝑣𝑚 (𝑧):

𝑣𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑐𝑜 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑉𝑏

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑐𝑜 (𝑧) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑠 1.

Solving for the roughness factor,

𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟑 𝒎 (roughness length under terrain category III)

𝒛𝟎,𝑰𝑰 =
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎 (𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝑰𝑰)
𝒛 𝟎.𝟑
𝒌𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗(𝒛 𝟎 )𝟎.𝟎𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗(𝟎.𝟎𝟓)𝟎.𝟎𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟏𝟓
𝟎,𝑰𝑰
𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒎
𝒛𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 𝒎

Since, 𝒛𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≤ 𝒛 ≤ 𝒛𝒎𝒂𝒙

35
 𝑧
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = 𝑘𝑟 ∗ ln ( )
𝑧𝑜
8.5
𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) = 0.215 ∗ ln ( )
0.3
𝑐𝑟 (8.5 𝑚) = 0.605 𝑚

𝑣𝑚 (𝑧) = 𝑐𝑟 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑐𝑜 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑉𝑏

𝑣𝑚 (𝑧) = 0.605(1.0)(40)
𝒗𝒎 (𝒛) = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟐 𝒎/𝒔

b. Wind Turbulence, 𝐼𝑣 (𝑧)

Since, it was already proved that 𝑧𝑚𝑖𝑛 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the formular for wind turbulence
becomes:

𝑘1
𝐼𝑣 (𝑧) = 𝑧
[𝑐𝑜 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑙𝑛 ( )]
𝑐𝑜

𝑘1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑥,
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 1.0
1.0
𝐼𝑣 (8.5) =
8.5
[1.0 ∗ 𝑙𝑛 (0.3)]
𝐼𝑣 (8.5) = 0.299

c. Peak velocity pressure, 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧)

𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = [1 + (7 ∗ 𝐼𝑣 (𝑧))][0.5𝜌(𝑉𝑚 )2 (𝑧)] = 𝑐𝑒 (𝑧) ∗ 𝑞𝑝
𝑞𝑝 (𝑧) = [1 + (7(0.299))][0.5(1.25)(24.2)2 (𝑧)]
𝑁
= 1132.15 2
𝑚
𝑞𝑝 (8.5) = 1.132 𝑘𝑁/𝑚2

𝑓𝑤𝑘 = 𝑞𝑝 (𝑧𝑒 )(𝑐𝑓,𝑥 )(𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑓,𝑥 )

𝑑𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 2.5 𝑚 + 1.0 𝑚 = 3.5 𝑚
𝑏 = 10.5 𝑚

𝑏
𝑐𝑓,𝑥 = min [2.4; max(2.5 − 0.3 ( )); 1.3]
𝑑𝑡𝑜𝑡
10.5
= min [2.4; max(2.5 − 0.3 ( 3.5 )); 1.3]
= min [2.4; max(1.6; 1.3)]

𝐹𝑤𝑘 = 1.132(1.6)(3.5)
36
REFERENCE: Ubani Obinna. (2020, March 29). Analysis of Wind Load on Bridge Decks -
Structville. Structville. https://structville.com/2020/03/analysis-of-wind-load-on-bridge-
decks.html

2. You are designing a bridge carrying I-10 over the Apalachicola River between
Jackson and Gadsden Counties. The bridge consists of three spans with lengths of
170’-210’-170’. The superstructure is a steel I-girder with 7.5’ girder depth. There
are 5 girders at 9’ spacing with a 2% cross-slope. Crossframes are spaced at 15
feet. The bottom of the girders is 40 feet above the ground and normal water
elevation. Assume construction will take 2 years and after the Contractor starts girder
erection, there will be 6 weeks before the deck is poured. Determine the Construction
Active Wind Load.
SOLUTION:

The height to the centroid of exposed area (z) is:

The velocity pressure coefficient (KZ) is:

𝐾𝑍 = 2.01(𝑧⁄900)0.2105 = 2.01(44⁄900)0.2105 = 1.065 ≥ 0.85

Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, V = 20 MPH. Per SDG section 2.4.1.E, G = 0.85.
The spacing to depth ratio is:

𝑆⁄𝐷 = 9 𝑓𝑡⁄7.5 𝑓𝑡 = 1.2 ≤ 3

So, CP = 2.2 applied to the projected height of the girders.

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 7.5 𝑓𝑡 + 2%(5 − 1)(9 𝑓𝑡) = 8.2 𝑓𝑡

The Construction Active Wind Pressure (applied to the projected height) per SDG Eq. 2-1
is:

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.065)(202)(0.85)(2.2) = 0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓

The Construction Active Wind Load (applied to the windward girder or divided between all
girders) is:

37
 𝑤 = (0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(8.2 𝑓𝑡) = 0.02 𝑘𝑙𝑓

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

3. Based on problem #2, determine the construction inactive wind load.

SOLUTION:
The KZ, G and CP variables remain the same as calculated for the construction active wind
load. The projected area is also the same. Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, the basic wind speed
for Jackson and Gadsden counties is 110 MPH. Per SDG section 2.4.3.C, since the
exposure period is less than 1 year, RE = 0.6.
The Construction Inactive Wind Speed is:
𝑉 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)

𝑅𝐸 = (110 𝑀𝑃𝐻)(0.6) = 66 𝑀𝑃𝐻

The Construction Inactive Wind Pressure (applied to the projected height) is:

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.065)(662)(0.85)(2.2) = 0.022 𝑘𝑠𝑓

The Construction Inactive Wind Load (applied to the windward girder or divided between
all girders) is:
𝑤 = (0.022 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(8.2 𝑓𝑡) = 0.18 𝑘𝑙𝑓

Note that the construction active wind load is 10 times the construction inactive wind load,
but the construction active wind speed is only 3.3 times the construction inactive wind
speed. Because the velocity term is squared, a small increase in wind speed causes a
much larger increase in pressure.
When using the wind load in a Strength III limit state, include the 1.25 load factor per SDG
Table 2.4.3-1.

Calculate the Wind Load Applied to Cross-Frames

Per SDG Table 2.4.3-3, CP = 2.9. The wind pressure was calculated based on a pressure
coefficient of 2.2, so the pressure needs to be adjusted by the ratio of 2.9/2.2.

𝑃𝑍 = (0.022 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(2.9⁄2.2) = 0.029 𝑘𝑠𝑓

Since the cross-frame spacing is 15 ft, use 15 ft as the loaded length of the bridge.
Per SDG 2.4.3.E, apply wind to the height of a single girder to calculate the cross-frame
load. The girder height is 7.5 ft.
The tributary area is:

𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (15 𝑓𝑡)(7.5 𝑓𝑡) = 112.5 𝑓𝑡2

The Construction Inactive Wind Load for the cross-frame is:

38
 𝑃 = (0.029 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(112.5 𝑓𝑡2) = 3.3 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Service I limit state)

𝑃 = (3.3 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠)(1.25) = 4.1 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Strength III limit state)

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

4. You are designing a bridge carrying SR 856 over the Intracoastal in Miami-Dade
County. The bridge consists of three simple spans with lengths of 98 feet. The
superstructure consists of (5) FIB 45 beams at 12’ spacing with a 2% cross-slope.
Bracing will be provided only at the ends of each beam. The bottom of the girders is
30 feet above the ground and normal water elevation. Assume 1 month between
when the beams are set and the deck is poured. Calculate the Construction Active
wind pressure per SDG.
SOLUTION:
The girder height is:

The height to the centroid of exposed area (z) is:

The velocity pressure coefficient (KZ) is:

𝐾𝑍 = 2.01(𝑧⁄900)0.2105 = 2.01(32⁄900)0.2105 = 1.0 ≥ 0.85

Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, V = 20 MPH. Per SDG section 2.4.1.E,

G = 0.85. The spacing to depth ratio is:

𝑆⁄𝐷 = 12 𝑓𝑡⁄3.75 𝑓𝑡 = 3.2 > 3

So, CP = 2.0 applied to the area of the first girder, 0 for the second girder and CP = 1.0 for
girders 3-5. The wind is applied to each girder height.

Per SDG section 2.4.1.E, G = 0.85.

The Construction Active Wind Pressure per SDG Eq. 2-1 is:

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(202)(0.85)(2.0) = 0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 1)

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 0 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 2)

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(202)(0.85)(1.0) = 0.001 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girders 3-5)

The Construction Active Wind Load is:

𝑤 = (0.002 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.008 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 1)

𝑤 = 0 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 2)

39
 𝑤 = (0.001 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.004 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girders 3-5)

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

5. Based on problem #4, Calculate the construction inactive wind load.

SOLUTION:
The KZ, G and CP variables remain the same as calculated for the construction active wind
load. Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, the basic wind speed for Miami-Dade County is 150 MPH.
Per SDG section 2.4.3.C, since the exposure period is less than 1 year, RE = 0.6.
The Construction Inactive Wind Speed is:
𝑉 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)𝑅𝐸 = (150 𝑀𝑃𝐻)(0.6) = 90 𝑀𝑃𝐻

The Construction Inactive Wind Pressure is:

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(902)(0.85)(2.0) = 0.04 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 1)

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 0 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girder 2)

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(902)(0.85)(1.0) = 0.02 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girders 3-5)

The Construction Inactive Wind Load is:

𝑤 = (0.04 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.15 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 1)

𝑤 = 0 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 2)

𝑤 = (0.02 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(3.75 𝑓𝑡) = 0.08 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girders 3-5)

When using the wind load for the Strength III limit state, include the 1.25 load factor.

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

6. Based on problem #4, calculate the wind load applied to cross-frames.

SOLUTION:
Per SDG Table 2.4.3-3, CP = 2.6. The wind pressure was calculated based on a pressure
coefficient of 2.0, so the pressure needs to be adjusted by the ratio of 2.6/2.0.

𝑤 = (0.15 𝑘𝑙𝑓)(2.6⁄2.0) = 0.20 𝑘𝑙𝑓

Since the bracing is only provided at the ends of the bridge, the loaded length of the
bridge is half of the span length. So, the tributary length is:

(98 𝑓𝑡)⁄ = 49 𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2

The Construction Inactive Cross-Frame Wind Load is:

𝑃 = (0.20 𝑘𝑙𝑓)(49 𝑓𝑡) = 10 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Service I limit state)

40
 𝑃 = (10 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠)(1.25) = 13 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Strength III limit state)

Since the bracing is only provided at the ends of the beams, most of the load will be
transferred directly to the substructure. Beam bracing analysis is required to determine
the portion of the load that the bracing must be designed for.

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

7. The bridge consists of three simple spans with lengths of 150 feet. The
superstructure consists of (7) FIB 72 beams at 10’ spacing with a 2% cross slope.
Bracing will be provided at the ends and mid-span of each beam. The bottom of
the girders is 30 feet above the ground and normal water elevation. Assume 1
month between when the beams are set and the deck is poured. Determine the
construction active wind load.
SOLUTION:
The girder height is:

The height to the centroid of exposed area (z) is:

The velocity pressure coefficient (KZ) is:

𝐾𝑍 = 2.01(𝑧⁄900)0.2105 = 2.01(34⁄900)0.2105 = 1.0 ≥ 0.85

Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, V = 20 MPH. Per SDG section 2.4.1.E, G = 0.85.
The spacing to depth ratio is:

𝑆⁄𝐷 = 10 𝑓𝑡⁄6 𝑓𝑡 = 1.67 < 3

So, CP = 2.0 applied to the projected height of the first 5 girders and CP = 1.0 applied to
the height of girders 6 and 7.

Per SDG section 2.4.1.E, G = 0.85.

Projected height for girders 1-5:

𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 6 𝑓𝑡 + 2%(7 − 1)(10 𝑓𝑡) = 7.2 𝑓𝑡

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

41
 8. Based on problem #7, Determine inactive wind pressure per SDG.

SOLUTION:
The KZ, G and CP variables remain the same as calculated for the construction active wind
load. Per SDG Table 2.4.3-1, the basic wind speed for Miami-Dade County is 150 MPH.
Per SDG section 2.4.3.C, since the exposure period is less than 1 year, RE = 0.6.
The Construction Inactive Wind Speed is:
𝑉 = (𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑)𝑅𝐸 = (150 𝑀𝑃𝐻)(0.6) = 90 𝑀𝑃𝐻

The Construction Inactive Wind Pressure is:

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(902)(0.85)(2.0) = 0.04 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girders 1-5)

𝑃𝑍 ∶= 2.56𝑥10−6𝐾𝑍𝑉2𝐺𝐶𝑃 = 2.56𝑥10−6(1.0)(902)(0.85)(1.0) = 0.02 𝑘𝑠𝑓 (for girders 6, 7)

The Construction Inactive Wind Load is:

𝑤 = (0.04 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(7.2 𝑓𝑡) = 0.29 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girder 1-5)

𝑤 = (0.02 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(6 𝑓𝑡) = 0.12 𝑘𝑙𝑓 (for girders 6, 7)

When using the wind load for the Strength III limit state, include the 1.25 load factor.

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

9. Based on problem #7, calculate the wind load applied to cross-frames.

SOLUTION:
Per SDG Table 2.4.3-3, CP = 2.6 and the wind should be applied to the height of a single
girder. The wind pressure was calculated based on a pressure coefficient of 2.0, so the
pressure needs to be adjusted by the ratio of 2.6/2.0.

𝑤 = (0.04 𝑘𝑠𝑓)(2.6⁄2.0)(6 𝑓𝑡) = 0.31 𝑘𝑙𝑓

Bracing is provided at mid-span. Assume the tributary length for the intermediate brace is
equal to half of the span length:

(150 𝑓𝑡)⁄ = 75 𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 2

The Construction Inactive Cross-Frame Wind Load is:

𝑃 = (0.31 𝑘𝑙𝑓)(75 𝑓𝑡) = 23 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Service I limit state)

𝑃 = (23 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠)(1.25) = 29 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Strength III limit state)

42
 Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

10. Based on problem #7, determine the substructure reaction based on the values found
from the wind loads applied.
SOLUTION:
The construction inactive wind load calculated previously can be used to calculate the
substructure reaction. Per SDG Table 2.4.3-2, the wind load is applied to the projected
height of the first 5 girders and applied to the individual height of girders 6 and 7.
The Construction Inactive End Bent Reaction is:

𝑃 = (0.29 𝑘𝑙𝑓)(150 𝑓𝑡⁄2) + (2)(0.12 𝑘𝑙𝑓)(150 𝑓𝑡⁄2) = 40 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Service I limit state)

𝑃 = (40 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠)(1.25) = 50 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Strength III limit state)

The Construction Inactive Intermediate Bent Reaction is:
𝑃 = (2)(40 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠) = 80 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Service I limit state)

𝑃 = (2)(50 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠) = 100 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 (for the Strength III limit state)

Reference: https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.guidebook.com/upload/33090/extra/1.pdf

2.4.1 THERMAL STRESS:

Thermal stresses are caused due to temperature. When the temperature is very high
or very low, they induce stresses in the bridge elements especially at bearings and deck
joints. These stresses are tensile in nature so, concrete cannot withstand against this and
cracks are formed. To resist this, additional steel reinforcement perpendicular to main
reinforcement should be provided. Expansion joints are also provided.7
According to experiments, the dependence of thermal expansion on temperature,
substance, and original length is summarized in the equation

dL/dT=αL

where L is the original length dL/dT is the change in length with respect to temperature, and
αα is the coefficient of linear expansion, a material property that varies slightly with
temperature. As αα is nearly constant and also very small, for practical purposes, we use
the linear approximation:

ΔL≈αLΔT

7
Anupoju, Sadanandam, 7\SHVRI/RDGV&RQVLGHUHGIRU'HVLJQRI 
WKH
&RQVWUXFWRU
,
2018. https://theconstructor.org/structures/bridge-design-loads/21478/?amp=1#9_Thermal_Stresses

43
2.4.2 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:
When a particle of mass m moves along a constrained curve path with a constant
speed, there is a normal force exerted in the particle by the constraint. It is caused by the
centripetal (meaning “toward the center of rotation”) acceleration and acts perpendicular to
the tangent to the path. For equilibrium, an equal and opposite force called the centrifugal
force, is transferred to the path. 8The magnitude of this force is given the following
expression:

F=mv^2/r

Where, m = mass of the particle

g = acceleration due to gravity
v = particle velocity
r = instantaneous radius of curvature of the path

2.4.3 TRACTION LOAD:

Vehicle traction is the generated friction between a drive wheel and the road surface
and is caused by the vehicle's acceleration and the subsequent movement over the bridge
carriageway. These loads assume the nature of horizontal loads applied to the
superstructure.9

8
Taly, Narendra. (1998). Loads on Bridges. Design of Modern Highway Bridges. 211.
9 KHAN, U. (2022, May 30). TYPES OF FORCES ON CONCRETE BRIDGES. BridgeHAWK; BridgeHAWK.
https://www.thebridgehawk.com/post/types-of-forces-on-bridges

44
 Figure 3.1.23.1.2: Simplified diagram of the variables related to a wheel developing a net
tractive force.
ω = angular velocity of the wheel
Ff = friction force
H = net tractive force
R = vertical reaction force of the wheel
T = torque transferred to the wheel axle
va = actual velocity of the wheel
W = dynamic wheel load

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1. The main Span of Francisco’s Golden Bridge is 1275 m long at its coldest. The bridge
is exposed to temperatures ranging from – 15°C to 40°C. What is its change in length
between these temperatures? Assume that the bridge is entirely made of steel.

SOLUTION:

Using equation of thermal expansion:

Note:
Coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 12×10^-6
ΔL≈αLΔT = (12×10^-6)(1275m)(40-(-15)) = 0.8415 m

Reference:https://openstax.org/books/university-physics-volume-2/pages/1-3-thermal-
expansion

2. The vertical section of a road over a bridge in the direction of its length is in the form
of an arc of a circle of radius 19.5 m. Find the greatest velocity at which a car can
cross the bridge without losing contact with the road at the highest point if the c.g. of
the car is 0.5 m from the ground. Given: Radius of circle = r = 19.5 + 0.5 = 20 m, To
find: velocity of car v =?

Solution:

At the highest point, the centrifugal force and weight of the car are equal in magnitude.

45
 The velocity of car = 14 m/s

Reference: https://thefactfactor.com/facts/pure_science/physics/centrifugalforce/6369

3. Consider a wheel that works with a dynamic load of 10 kN, a motion resistance ratio
of 0.08, and a gross traction ratio of 0.72. Find the tractive force that the wheel can
develop. If this wheel rotates at 40 rpm and the rolling radius of the wheel is 0.71 m,
how much power is necessary to move this wheel?
SOLUTION:
Calculate the gross tractive force developed by the wheel F using Equation 3.1.16:

Reference:
https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Biological_Engineering/Introduction_to_Biosys
tems_Engineering_(Holden_et_al.)/03%3A_Machinery_Systems/3.01%3A_Traction

46
4. A steel bridge is 40 m long at 20°c. Coefficient of linear expansion for steel is
12 × 10−6 (𝐶)−1 . What is the increase in length and the final length of the bridge when it is
at 70°c?
GIVEN:
Change in Temperature(∆𝑇) = 70°c - 20°c = 50°c
Original Length of the bridge = 40m
Coefficient of linear expansion for steel(⍺) = 12 × 10−6

SOLUTION:
a. Change in Length ∆𝐿

∆𝐿 = ⍺𝐿∆𝑇 = (12 × 10−6 )(40)(50°𝑐)

∆𝐿 = 0.024𝑚

b. Final length 𝐿2
𝐿2 = 𝐿1 + ∆𝐿
𝐿2 = 40 + 0.024
𝐿2 = 40.024𝑚

5. A flyover bridge is in the form of a circular arc of radius 30 m. Find the limiting speed
at which a car can cross the bridge without losing contact with the road at the highest
point. Assume the centre of gravity of the car to be 0.5 m
above the road.

Given:

Radius of circle=r=30+0.5=30.5m

Find:
velocity of car=v= ?
SOLUTION:
At the highest point, the centrifugal force and weight of the car are equal in magnitude.

Ans. The velocity of the car = 17.3m/s

Reference:https://thefactfactor.com/facts/pure_science/physics/centrifugal-force/6369/

47
 6. There is a parabolic shaped bridge across the river of width 10 m. The highest point of
the bridge is 4 m above the level of the bank. A car of mass 952 kg is crossing the bridge
at a constant speed of 4 m/s. The force exerted on the bridge by the car when it is at the
highest point of the bridge is 464576x N. The value of x is -

Reference :

https://byjus.com/question-answer/there-is-a-parabolic-shaped-bridge-across-the-river-of-
width-10-text-m-the/

48
 7. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed
points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what
temperature will the stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in / (in·°F) and E = 29 ×
106 psi.
Solution:

Reference: https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq

8. A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed
points. The tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what
temperature will the stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in / (in·°F) and E = 29 ×
106 psi.

SOLUTION:

Reference: https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq
49
 9. A steel rod is stretched between two rigid walls and carries a tensile load of 5000 N
at 20°C. If the allowable stress is not to exceed 130 MPa at -20°C, what is the
minimum diameter of the rod? Assume α = 11.7 µm/(m·°C) and E = 200 GPa.

SOLUTION:

Reference: https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq

10. Calculate the increase in stress for each segment of

the compound bar shown in Fig. P266 if the
temperature increases by 100°F. Assume that the
supports are unyielding and that the bar is suitably
braced against buckling.

SOLUTION:

Reference: https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq
50
2.5 SEISMIC LOAD:
Seismic loading is one of the basic concepts of earthquake engineering which
means application of a seismic oscillation to a structure. It happens at contact
surfaces of a structure either with the ground or with adjacent structures. Seismic
loading depends, primarily on seismic hazard, geotechnical parameters of the site,
and structure's natural frequency etc. There are horizontal and vertical components
of earthquake ground motions, but the horizontal component of earthquake ground
motion is the main cause of bridge damages. Therefore, only horizontal earthquake
ground motion is considered in the bridge design and analysis.

In the Philippines, the DPWH and the Association of Structural Engineers of

the Philippines (ASEP) are the organizations formulating the design guidelines and
specifications for bridges in the Philippines. The DPWH, being mandated to control
the design and construction of roads and bridges, prepares the design guidelines
and specifications to have a standard and uniform approach in bridge design and
construction. On the other hand, the ASEP, being a professional engineering
association, has the mission to uphold the structural engineering profession through
standardizing the national structural code for bridge design. Both DPWH Guidelines
and ASEP’s NSCP1 incorporate some provisions on seismic design. However, the
NSCP codes prepared by ASEP will need DPWH’s endorsement for use in public
infrastructures. Since the seismic loading provisions of the DPWH Design Guidelines
(1982) have been outdated by recent earthquake events, the current seismic design
of bridges practiced by DPWH under D.O.75 requires, as a minimum, that bridge
design shall conform to the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Seismic Design (1989
or latest edition).10

$$6+726HLVPLF'HVLJQ&DWHJRU\
Seismic Design Category is a classification assigned to a structure based on its occupancy
category, and the severity of the design earthquake ground motion. The category
assignment can range from A-F, and can be defined as the following:

• Seismic Design Category A – Corresponds to buildings in areas where expected

ground shaking will be minor. Good Soils
• Seismic Design Category B - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups I, II and
III where expected ground shaking will be moderate. Stratified soils with Good and
poor Soils
• Seismic Design Category C - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups IV
(Hospitals, Police Stations Emergency control centers etc) I where expected ground
shaking will be MODERATE AND buildings of occupancy categories I, II, and III
where MORE SEVERE ground shaking will occur
• Seismic Design Category D -Corresponds to buildings and structures in areas
expected to experience severe and destructive ground shaking But NOT located
close to a major fault. Sites with poor soils are a good example.

10
Weiwei Lin, Teruhiko Yoda. (2017). Bridge Engineering: Loads and Load Distribution. Science Direct.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/seismicloading#:~:text=Seismic%20loading%20depends%2C%20p
rimarily%20on,main%20cause%20of%20bridge%20damages.
51
 • Seismic Design Category E - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups I,II and
III in areas NEAR MAJOR ACTIVE FAULTS. Soil or rock is of no consequence.
• Seismic Design Category F - Corresponds to buildings of Occupancy Groups IV
(Hospitals, Police Stations Emergency control centers etc) areas NEAR MAJOR
ACTIVE FAULTS. Soil or rock is of no consequence.

A Good Soils report from a Geotechnical engineer will and should provide to the structural
engineer and architect the parameters necessary to determine the Seismic Design Category
OR provide the Seismic Design category outright. However, it MUST be specified in their
sub-contract.

SAMPLE PROBLEM

1.) Design a simple bridge with a single span in a region prone to earthquakes. The
bridge has the following characteristics:
• Length of the bridge (span): 30 meters
• Width of the bridge: 4 meters
• Type of soil at the bridge site:
▪ Seismic design category: D (High seismicity)
▪ Response spectrum parameters:
 Spectral acceleration (S_a): 0.6 𝑔 (where “𝑔” is the acceleration due to
gravity)

Solution:
Max. Seismic Lateral Force
Total weight of the bridge:
Assume the density off concrete = 2400 kg/𝑚3

Formula: W=L x W x 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 x 𝑔

W = 30m x 4m x 2400 kg/𝑚3 x 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
W = 2,825,280 𝑵

Calculate the seismic mass:

W
Formula: M = 𝑔
2,825,280 N
M= 9.81 𝑚∕𝑠 2
M = 288,000 kg

Seismic lateral force:

Formula: 𝐹𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑐 = 𝑀𝑎
𝐹𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑐 = (288,000kg) (0.6 x 9.81)
𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = 1,695,168 𝑵

52
 1.) Design a highway overpass bridge in a region with moderate seismic activity. The
bridge is a simple supported span with the following characteristics:
• Length of the bridge (span): 40 meters
• Width of the bridge: 6 meters
• Type of soil at the bridge site:
▪ Seismic design category: B (Moderate seismicity)
▪ Response spectrum parameters:
 Spectral acceleration (S_a): 0.4 𝑔 (where “𝑔” is the acceleration due to
gravity)

Solution:
Max. Seismic Lateral Force
Total weight of the bridge:
Assume the density off concrete = 2400 kg/𝑚3

Formula: W=L x W x 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑒 x 𝑔

W = 40m x 6m x 2400 kg/𝑚3 x 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
W = 5,650,560 𝑵

Calculate the seismic mass:

W
Formula: M = 𝑔
5,650,560 𝑁
M= 9.81 𝑚∕𝑠 2
M = 576,000 kg

Seismic lateral force:

Formula: 𝐹𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑐 = 𝑀𝑎
𝐹𝑠𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑐 = (576,000kg) (0.4 x 9.81)
𝑭𝒔𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒄 = 2,260,224 𝑵

2.) Compute the Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient of the existing bent pier. 4

53
GIVEN:

• A 3 span (29'-63'-29') essential bridge crossing a highway.

• 35 pairs of piles at 3'-3" center-to-center along length of footer.
• 5 bays at 21.80 ft center of column to center of column.
• Concrete strength fc´ = 3.0 ksi.
• 1950’s vintage reinforcement fy = 40 ksi
• Reactions as provided below.
• Superstructure Weight = 28.29 k/ft
• Geographic area has acceleration coefficient: A = 0.19.

SOLUTION:
A. Determine the Types of Seismic Analysis and Other Criteria
• For an “essential bridge” by AASHTO 3.3 I-A we have:
IC = Importance Classification = I
• With an importance classification of “I” by AASHTO 3.4 I-A for:
0.09 < A < 0.19 and IC = I SPC = Seismic Performance Category = B
• The bridge has an unchanging cross section, with similar supports, and a
uniform mass and stiffness, so it is considered to be:
Regular (By AASHTO 4.2 I-A)
• For a Regular Bridge, SPC = B, and 2 to 6 spans, we choose to use:
Method 2 = Single-Mode Spectral Analysis (AASHTO 4.2 I-A)
• The bridge has an unchanging cross section, with similar supports, and a
uniform mass and stiffness, so it is considered to be:
Regular (By AASHTO 4.2 I-A)
• Response Modification Factor (AASHTO 3.7 I-A) Multiple Column Bent: R = 5
Pier Footing: R = One-Half R for Multiple Column Bent
= R/2 = 5/2 = 2.25 (AASHTO 6.2.2 I-A)
• Combination of Seismic Forces (AASHTO 3.9 I-A):
• Case I: (100% Longitudinal Motion) + (30% Transverse Motion)
• Case II: (30% Longitudinal Motion) + (100% Transverse Motion)
• Load Grouping (AASHTO 6.2.1 I-A): 1.0(DL + Buoyancy (N/A) + Stream Flow
(N/A) + Earth Pressure + Earthquake)

54
B. Compute Stiffness of the Pier

C. Compute Deflection Due to Longitudinal Motion with P=1:

(1)(14.33)3
𝛿=
(18)(478 000𝑘𝑠𝑓)(12.57 𝑓𝑡 4 )

𝛿 = 2.721𝑥10−5 𝑓𝑡/𝑘

1
𝑘 = 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝛿
1
=
2.721𝑥10−5 𝑓𝑡/𝑘
𝑘 = 36 750 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

D. Compute Deflection Due to Transverse Motion, with P=1:

(1)(14.33)3
𝛿=
(72)(478 000𝑘𝑠𝑓)(12.57 𝑓𝑡 4 )

𝛿 = 6.802𝑥10−6 𝑓𝑡/𝑘

1
𝑘 = 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝛿
1
=
6.802𝑥10−6 𝑓𝑡/𝑘
𝑘 = 147 000 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

55
E. Compute Load Due to Longitudinal Motion

Compute Static Displacement

𝑃𝑜 (𝐿)
𝑣𝑠 =
𝑘
(1)(63.0 𝑓𝑡)
=
𝑘
36 750
𝑓𝑡
= 1.714 𝑥10−3 𝑓𝑡

Compute Single-Mode Factors 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 (𝐴𝐴𝑆𝐻𝑇𝑂 𝐼 − 𝐴 4.4):

𝐿
𝛼 = ∫ 𝑉𝑠 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
= 𝑉𝑠 𝐿
= (1.714 𝑥10−3 𝑓𝑡)(63.0 𝑓𝑡)
= 0. 1080𝑓𝑡 2
𝐿
𝛽 = ∫ 𝑊(𝑥)𝑉𝑠 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0
= 𝛼𝑊
= (0.1080 𝑓𝑡 2 )(28.29 𝑘/𝑓𝑡)
= 3.055 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘
𝐿
𝛾 = ∫ 𝑊(𝑥)𝑉𝑠 (𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
0
= 𝛽𝑉𝑠
= (3.055 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘)(1.714 𝑥10−3 𝑓𝑡)
𝛾 = 0.005236 𝑓𝑡 2 . 𝑘

56
Compute period of Oscillation

𝛾
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑃𝑜 𝑔𝛼

= 0.005236 𝑓𝑡 2 . 𝑘
= 2𝜋 √
32.2𝑓𝑡
(1) ( ) (0.1080 𝑓𝑡 2 )
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑇 = 0.244 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Compute Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient:

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 0.19

𝑆 = 𝑆𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 1.2
1.2 𝐴𝑆
𝐶𝑠 = 2
𝑇3
1.2 (0.19)(1.2)
= 2
(0.244sec)3
𝐶𝑠 = 0.701

AASHTO Division I-A 3.6.1 states that 𝐶𝑠 need not exceed 2.5A

𝐶𝑠 = 2.5𝐴 = (2.5)(0.19) = 0.475 < 0.701

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑈𝑠𝑒: 𝐶𝑠 = 0.475

Compute Equivalent Static Earthquake Loading:

𝛽𝐶𝑠
𝑝𝑒 (𝑥) = 𝑤(𝑥)𝑣𝑠 (𝑥)
𝛾
(3.055 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘)(0.475)
𝑝𝑒 (𝑥) = 2
(28.29𝑘/𝑓𝑡)(1.714 𝑥10−3 𝑓𝑡)
(0.005236 𝑓𝑡 . 𝑘)
𝑝𝑒 (𝑥) = 13.44 𝑘/𝑓𝑡

Compute Dorce Due to Longitudinal Motion Acting on Pier:

𝑝𝑒 (𝑥)𝐿
𝑉𝛾 =
𝑅𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑟
(13.44 𝑘/𝑓𝑡)(63 𝑓𝑡)
𝑝𝑒 (𝑥) =
(5.0)
𝑝𝑒 (𝑥) = 169.34 𝑘

57
F. Compute Load due to Transverse MotioL

This step is skipped for the sake of brevity. The force due to transverse
motion is:

𝑉𝑥 = 123.65 𝑘 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑅 = 5)

G. Summarize Loads Actin on Pier Column

Case I: (100% Longitudinal Motion) + (30% Transverse Motion)

(169.34 𝑘)(1.00)
𝑉𝑌 = = 28.22 𝑘/𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
6 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
𝑀 𝑌 = (28.22 𝑘)(17′ − 2′′ 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴𝑟𝑚) = 484.5 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘
(123.65 𝑘)(0.30)
𝑉𝑥 = = 6.18 𝑘/𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
6 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠
𝑀 𝑥 = 23.0 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘 (𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑠)
𝑀 = √𝑀𝑥2 + 𝑀𝑦2

𝑀 = √(43 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘)2 + (484.5 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘)2

𝑀 = 486 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘
𝑃𝑢 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 283.01 𝑘
𝑃𝑢 = 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 200.4 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘

Case II: (30% Longitudinal Motion) + (100% Transverse Motion)

A Check load for Case II produces a total moment of 204 ft.k so Load Case I
Controls.

H. Check for Effects of Slenderness

Unsupported Column Length (AASHTO 8.16.5.2.1):

Lu = 16.33 ft − 4 ft = 12.33 ft (See Figure, Calculation Sheet 1)

Radius of Gyration (AASHTO 8.16.5.2.2):

r = q𝑙𝑠 = (0.25 for Circular Member) (4 ft) = 1.0 ft

Effective Length Factor (Figure 4.13):

The effective length factor used will vary depending on the earthquake
motion and the corresponding orientation of the pier. Keep in mind the following:

58
 • Transverse Earthquake Motion Longitudinal Pier
Direction
• Longitudinal Earthquake Motion Transverse Pier
Direction

Pier directions are perpendicular to bridge centerline.

Check the Slenderness Ratio Limit (AASHTO 8.16.5.2.5):

𝑘. 𝑙𝑢 (1.0)(12.33 𝑓𝑡)
= = 12.33 < 22
𝑟 1.0 𝑓𝑡

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑘. 𝑙𝑢 (2.0)(12.33 𝑓𝑡)
= = 24.67 > 22
𝑟 1.0 𝑓𝑡

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

I. Compute Moment Magnification Factor

Approximate Effects of Creep (AASHTO 8.16.5.2.7):

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝛽𝑑 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
200.4 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘
𝛽𝑑 =
486.0 𝑓𝑡. 𝑘
𝛽𝑑 = 0.412

Moment of Inertia of Gross Concrete Section:

𝜋𝐷 4
𝐼𝑔 =
64
4
𝑖𝑛
𝜋 ((4.0 𝑓𝑡) (12.0 ))
𝑓𝑡
𝐼𝑔 =
64
𝐼𝑔 = 260 576 𝑖𝑛4

Compute Flexural Rigidity (Equation 4.28):

𝐸𝑐 𝐼𝑔
2.5
𝐸𝐼 = 1+𝛽𝑑

(3 320 000 𝑝𝑠𝑖)(260 576 𝑖𝑛4 )

= 2.5
1 + 0.412
= 2.45 𝑥1011 𝑙𝑏. 𝑖𝑛2

59
 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑢𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐿𝑎𝑜𝑑 (𝐸𝑞𝑎𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4.26):

𝜋 2 (𝐸𝐼)
𝑃𝑐 =
(𝑘𝐿𝑢 )2
𝜋 2 (2.45 𝑥1011 𝑙𝑏. 𝑖𝑛2
= 2
𝑖𝑛
((2.0)(12.33 𝑓𝑡) (12 ))
𝑓𝑡
= 27 600 𝑘

Compute Moment Magnification Factor:

1
𝛿=
𝑃𝑢
1−
∅𝑃𝑐
1
𝛿=
283.01 𝑘
1−
(0.75)(27 600 𝑘)
𝛿 = 1.014

Based on the criteria defined in AASHTO 8.16.5.2.7, it is safe to conclude that

the pier columns are not braced against sideway in the longitudinal direction.

Reference: Tonias, Demetrio & Zhao, Jim. (2007). Piers. Bridge Engineering: Design,
Rehabilitation, and Maintenance of Modern Highway Bridges. 2nd Edition. 407-421

60
2.6 FLOOD LOADS:
Flood Loads are part of Environmental Loads which act on bridges that are
constructed over streams. Bridges constructed over river crossings must be designed for
flood loads.
Flood load is consisting of Hydrodynamic and impact force.
Hydrodynamic Loads are exerted by moving flood water against the bridge members
such as pier, abutments and superstructure in a submersible condition. That is when flood
water over tops the bridge. It composed of Pressure force, drag force and lift Force.
Impact force is due to debris and logs hitting against the bridge members such as pier and
abutments.11

What are the effects of flood in a bridge?

High-velocity water flows, flooding, and overtopping can erode and damage bridge
approach slabs and abutments. These flows also can cause scour around piers and
abutments, which can damage the bridge and even cause structural soundness problems

What can happen because of a flood?

Large debris and floodwaters can cause structural damage to bridges and roadways,
making travel impossible. Power, telephone, and cable lines can be taken out by flash floods
as well. Flood waters can disrupt or contaminate ground water, making tap water unfit for
consumption.
Flood are causing serious bridge deformation compared to other load types.
Therefore, Bridge specifications require review to cater for the change in the flood condition.

Sample Problems
1. Suppose a small six-girder bridge is planned with dimensions below:

Dimension Value

Deck thickness (s) 2.5 m

Length (L) 280 m

Width (W) 11.2 m

Low chord elevation height of the 10 m

free surface in 1000 year flood from
the original stream elevation.

Low chord elevation 106 m

11
N.A. (2023, May 30).Flood Loads on Bridges over Crossings. https://www.slideshare.net/GibsonAliHolemba/flood-
loads-on-bridges-over-river-crossings
61
 The bridge is planned over a small stream with an enormous range of flow. Suppose
that the stream has a channel bottom elevation of 102 m at the crossing. The 1,000-
year flood rises to elevation 110 m and has an average velocity of 3.2 m/s.
Determine the total drag force.

Solution:
hb = 106 – 102 = 4 m
h* = hu-hb/ s = 10-4/ 2.5= 2.4
Fr = V/ √ghu = 3.2/ √9.81(10)= 0.323
V = Fr √g•(h*crit•s+hb)= 0.323√9.81•(3•2.5+4)= 3.43m/s

Since h* is greater than 1, we will use this equation of drag coefficient CD= FD/
½v²(s).

FD= ½(2.15)(3.43)²(2.5)= 31.6kN/m

Reference:
https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/hydraulics/09028/0902
8.pdf

2. A bridge has an expected life of 50 years and is designed for a flood magnitude of
return period 100 years. The risk associated with this hydrologic design is _______
%. Also, the return period in design which would have reduced the risk to 25% will
be _____ years.

SOLUTION:
1
𝑃=
2
1 50
𝑃 = 1 − (1 − )
100
𝑃 = 39.5 %
1
25 = 1 − (1 − )
𝑇
1
ln 25 = ln 1 − 50ln (1 − )
𝑇
1
ln 25 − ln 1 = −50ln (1 − )
𝑇
1
3.218 = −50ln (1 − )
𝑇
1
−0.0644 = ln (1 − )
𝑇
1
(1 − ) = 𝑒 −0.644
𝑇
1
= 1 − 𝑒 −0.644 = 0.0623
𝑇
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟑 ≈ 𝟏𝟔 𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔
Reference: https://testbook.com/question-answer/a-bridge-has-an-expected-life-of-25-
years-and-is-d--616859db91fb9f76491e04c1

62
 3. A bridge has expected life of 25 years and is designed for a flood magnitude of
return period 100 years. What is the risk of this hydrologic design?
Concept:
Risk = the probability of a flood to occur at least once in successive years
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 = 1 − 𝑞 𝑛 = 1 − (1 − 𝑝)𝑛
Where,
P is the probability of occurrence of an event and its given by p=1/T
Where,
T is the return period; q is the probability of not occurrence of an event
GIVEN:
n= 25 years, Risk=?
SOLUTION:
Return Period (T) = 100
𝟏 𝟏 𝟗𝟗
𝑷= ,𝒒 = 𝟏 − =
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑛
99 25
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑘 (𝑅) = 1 − 𝑞 = 1 − ( )
100

References: https://testbook.com/question-answer/a-bridge-has-an-expected-life-of-25-
years-and-is-d--616859db91fb9f76491e04c1

63
Summary
Conclusion
Bridge structures must be built with great capacity and strength to resist the gravity and
lateral loads Generally, the major components of loads acting on highway bridges are dead
and live loads, flood load, seismic load, wind load, Thermal Stresses, Centrifugal Forces,
and Traction load.

Loads are one of the factors that are to be considered when designing/ constructing a
bridge. That's why the components of loadings are very significant. To learn about the types
of possible loads, how to calculate ultimate load combinations, and investigate the different
sizes for the beams and columns of simple bridge design is necessary. To understand the
problem, and learn how to determine the potential bridge loads, calculate the highest
possible load, and calculate the amount of material needed to resist the loads is the utmost
goal in this topic.

Engineers who design structures must completely understand the problem to be solved,
which includes the complexities of the site and the customer needs. To design for safety
and longevity, engineers consider the different types of loads, how they are applied and
where. This is because engineers often aim for a design that is the strongest and lightest
possible—one with the highest strength-to-weight ratio.

Feedback
At last, as part of the requirement in Prof Course 1 subject, students were being grouped to
report different topics about Bridge Engineering. As such, we, the group 1 reporters were
assigned to "Loads on Bridges" topic. The report outlined the principle for designing and
constructing a bridge with regards to the loading factors that must be resists by the structure
itself. With this, the topic represents a critical component of delivering quality structure.

Beyond, the reporting was intended for the students to gain;

1. An introductory knowledge about loads on bridges.
2. Framework about the different major components of loads.
3. A systematic review about how these loads affect a bridge design.
4. Knowledge about how to compute problems in terms of the different loads that a bridge
might interact.

64
References
Taly, Narendra. (1998). Loads on Bridge Superstructures: Live Loads. Design of Modern Highway
Bridges.

Gregory Michealson. (2019, Feb 8). ENGR 453 Lecture 11: Dead loads [Video].
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W4jObOeBm_8

CE Box (2020, Oct 8). Structural Theory 1 Moving Loads Problem 2 Part 1 (PH) [Video].
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wlr2-6H7SVw&t=78s

Gillesania, Diego T. (2023). Structural Engineering and Construction: November 2019. Civil
Engineering Reference for Licensure Examination.

Besavilla, Venancio I. (1999). Strength of Materials: Moving Loads. Structural Engineer-ing and
Construction.

MATHalino Engineering Mathematics. Solution to Problem 453 | Moving Loads. Solution to

Problem 453 | Moving Loads | Strength of Materials Review at MATHalino

Ubani Obinna. (2020, March 29). Analysis of Wind Load on Bridge Decks. Structville. Structville.
https://structville.com/2020/03/analysis-of-wind-load-on-bridge-decks.html]

Kassimali, A. (2010). Structural Analysis, SI Edition (4th ed.). Cl Engineering International Edition

Taly, N. (1997). Design of Modern Highway Bridges. McGraw-Hill College

Sadanandam Anupoju. 2015. 12 Types of Loads Considered for Design of Bridges Structures. The
Constructor. 12 Types of Loads Considered for Design of Bridge Structures - The Constructor
Rice University. 2016. University Physics Volume 2. Openstax. Free University Physics Volume 2
Book for Download - OpenStax

Hemant More. 2020. Numerical Prolems on Centripetal Force-02. The Factor Factor. Centrifugal
force and Centripetal force: Numerical problems (thefactfactor.com)

Usama Khan. 2022. Types of Forces on Concrete Bridges. Bridge hawk. TYPES OF FORCES ON
CONCRETE BRIDGES (thebridgehawk.com)

University College Dublin and Virginia Tech. Traction. LibreText Engineering. 3.1: Traction -
Engineering LibreTexts

MIDASoft. (2022, March 31). Importance of Seismic Analysis and its Understanding. MIDAS
Engineering Software. https://www.midasoft.com/bridge-library/the-importance-of-seismic-
analysis-and-its-
understanding#:~:text=The%20seismic%20analysis%20allows%20us,Vibration%20loads
65
Weiwei Lin, Teruhiko Yoda. (2017). Bridge Engineering: Loads and Load Distribution. Science
Direct. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/seismic-
loading#:~:text=Seismic%20loading%20depends%2C%20primarily%20on,main%20cause%20of%
20bridge%20damages.

Gibson Ali Holemba. 2018. Flood Loads on Bridges over River Crossings. Slideshare.
https://www.slideshare.net/GibsonAliHolemba/flood-loads-on-bridges-over-river-crossings

66