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UNIT - 2

Visualization stages

The steps that need to be taken to define a visualization of data are shown Figure 1. Most visualization
pipelines and systems map easily to these stages. Any transformation or computation can be placed at
any of the stages. We selected this as the simplest representation of the process. We also note two key
points: user interaction ideally takes place at any point in this pipeline (nodes and links), and each link
is a many-to-many mapping.
For example, many visualization systems have multiple visualizations at the same time on the screen,
and thus have multiple representation mappings and corresponding renderings.

Figure 1: Visualization pipeline

Data preprocessing and Transformation. The starting point is to process the raw data into
something usable by the visualization system. The first part is to make sure that the data are mapped to
fundamental data types for computer ingestion. The second step entails dealing with specific
application data issues such as missing values, errors in input, and data too large for processing.

Mapping for visualizations. Once the data are clean, we can decide on a specific visual
representation. This requires representation mappings: geometry, color, and sound.

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Rendering Transformations. The final stage involves mapping from geometry data to the image.
This includes interfacing with a computer graphics Application Programmer’s Interface (API). We
need to select the viewing parameters, shading technique if 3D, device transformations. This stage of
the pipeline is very dependent on the underlying graphics library.

Expressiveness: An expressive visualization presents all the information, and only the information.
Expressiveness thus measures the concentration of information. we define one measure of
expressiveness(Mexp) is the ratio of information we want to present to the user to total
information.Mexp always in the range 0 ≤ Mexp ≤ 1.
 If Mexp = 1, we have ideal expressiveness.
 If the information displayed is less than that desired to be presented,then Mexp < 1.
 If Mexp > 1, we are presenting too much information

Effectiveness. A visualization is effective when it can be interpreted accurately and quickly and when
it can be rendered in a cost-effective manner. Effectiveness thus measures a specific cost of
information perception.

We then have 0 < Meff ≤ 1. The larger Meff is, the greater the visualization’s effectiveness.
If Meff is small, then either the interpretation time is very large, or the rendering time is
large. If Meff is large (close to 1), then both the interpretation and the rendering time are very
small.

Figure 2: (a) Scatterplot using plus as symbol provides good query-answering capabilities, but is
slower for simple one-variable queries. (b) Bar charts clearly display cost and mileage, but don’t
provide as much flexibility in answering some other queries

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Semiology of Graphical Symbols:

A visual object called a graphical symbol. Figure 3 is an example. Such symbols are easily recognized.
They often make up parts of visualizations (arrows, labels, . ).We will look at how a graphical object
or representation can be well designed, and how it is perceived. The science of
graphical symbols and marks is called semiology.

Every possible construction in the Euclidean plane is a graphical representation made up of graphical
symbols. This includes diagrams, networks, maps, plots, and other common visualizations. Semiology
uses the qualities of the plane and objects on the plane to produce similarity features, ordering features,
and proportionality features of the data that are visible for human consumption.

Figure 3.Symbols and Visualizations

Figure 3(a) is perceived in one step, and that step is simply an association of its meaning. Figure 3(b)
takes two steps for understanding. The first identifies the major elements of the image, with the second
identifying the various relationships between these.

Discovery of relations or patterns occurs through two main steps. The first is a mapping between any
relationship of the graphic symbols and the data that these symbols represent. In other words, any
pattern on the screen must imply a pattern in the data.

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Figure 4: Matrix representation of a set of relationships between nodes in a graph. The size represents
the strength of the relationship.

Features of Graphics:

Graphics have three (or more) dimensions. Figure 4 shows a matrix with points of various sizes within
each cell. Every point of the graphic can be interpreted as a relation between a position in x and a
position in y. The points vary in size, providing a third dimension or variable to interpret. In effect,
this can be considered a value in z.
This produces a one-to-one correspondence between a 3D view with height and a 2D view with size,
thus different interpretations for the z value
.

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In Figure 5 We identify the tree as the dominant feature of this image, rather than the individual parts that make
up the tree.

The eye sees either branch independent from the

number of its leaves. The graphic can contain a very
large number of single data items, themselves
graphics, with the only possible limitations being
technical ones, such as making sure that the various
graphic symbols are distinguishable from each other.

But even then, perhaps the texture resulting from the

en masse number of symbols may produce an object
of interest.

Figure 5

Rules of a graphic. All graphics are represented on the screen. All objects will be interpreted as flat
(in 2D) or as physical objects (in 3D).

Fundamental rules:

1. The aim of a graphic is to discover groups or orders in x, and groups or orders in y, that
are formed on z-values.
2. (x, y, z)-construction enables in all cases the discovery of these groups;
3. Within the (x, y, z)-construction, permutations and classifications solve the problem of
the upper level of information;
4. Every graphic with more than three factors that differs from the (x, y, z)-construction
destroys the unity of the graphic and the upper level of information; and
5. Pictures must be read and understood by the human.

Analysis of a graphic. When analyzing a graphic, we first perceive groups of objects. We then
attempt to characterize these groups (cognitively). Finally, we examine special cases not within the
groups or relationships between the groups (combination of both).

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Eight Visual Variables:

The application of graphics to communicate information requires an understanding of graphic

primitives and their properties. For the most part, all graphic primitives will be termed marks. One
way to encode data for display is to map different data values to different marks and their attributes.

In total there are eight ways in which graphical objects can encode information, i.e., eight visual
variables: position, shape, size, brightness, color, orientation, texture, and motion.

These eight variables can be adjusted as necessary to maximize the effectiveness of a visualization to
convey information.

Position:
The first and most important visual variable is that of position, the placement of representative
graphics within some display space, be it one-, two-,or three-dimensional. Position has the greatest
impact on the display of information, because the spatial arrangement of graphics is the first step in
reading a visualization.

The maximization of the spread of representational graphics throughout the display space maximizes
the amount of information communicated, to some degree

The best positioning scheme maps each graphic to unique positions, such that all the graphics can be
seen with no overlaps

Example visualizations in Figure 6 (a) using position to convey information. Displayed here is the
minimum price versus the maximum price for cars with a 1993 model year. The spread of points
appears to indicate a linear relationship between minimum and maximum price;

Figure 6(b) another visualization using a different set of variables. This figure compares minimum
price with engine size for the 1993 cars data set. Unlike (a), there does not appear to be a strong
relationship between these two variables.

Mark:
The second visual variable is the mark or shape: points, lines, areas, volumes, and their compositions.
Marks are graphic primitives that represent data.
For example, both visualizations in Figure 7 use the default point to display individual values. Any
graphical object can be used as a mark, including symbols, letters, and words

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Figure 6

Figure 7

When using marks, it is important to consider how well one mark can be differentiated from other
marks. Within a single visualization there can be hundreds or thousands of marks to observe;
therefore, we try not to select marks that are too similar.

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Figure 8
This visualization uses shapes to distinguish between different car types in a plot
comparing highway MPG and horsepower. Clusters are clearly visible, as well
as some outliers.

Size (Length, Area, and Volume)

The third visual variable and first graphic property is size. Size determines how small or large a mark
will be drawn.Size easily maps to interval and continuous data variables, because that property
supports gradual increments over some range. And while size can also be applied to categorical data, it
is more difficult to distinguish between marks of near similar size, and thus size can only support
categories with very small cardinality.

Figure 9

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Brightness

The fourth visual variable is brightness or luminance. Brightness is the second visual variable used to
modify marks to encode additional data variables. While it is possible to use the complete numerical
range of brightness values, consequently, brightness can be used to provide relative difference for
large interval and continuous data variables, or for accurate mark distinction for marks drawn using a
reduced sampled brightness scale

Color

The fifth visual variable is color, Color can be defined by the two parameters, hue and saturation

Another visualization of the 1993 car models data set, this time illustrating the use of brightness to convey
car width (the darker the points, the wider the vehicle).

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The use of color to display information requires mapping data values to individual colors. The
mapping of color usually entails defining color maps that specify the relationship between values
ranges and color values. Color maps are useful for handling both interval and continuous data
variables

A visualization of the 1993 car models, showing the use of color to display the car’s length. Here
length is also associated with the y-axis and is plotted against wheel base. In this figure, blue indicates
a shorter length, while yellow indicates a longer length.

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Orientation

The sixth visual variable is orientation or direction. Orientation is a principal graphic component
behind iconographic stick figure displays, and is tied directly to preattentive vision.

This graphic property describes how a mark is rotated in connection with a data variable. Clearly,
Orientation cannot be used with all marks; for instance, a circle looks the same under any rotation.

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Texture

The seventh visual variable is texture. Texture can be considered as a combination of many of the
other visual variables, including marks (texture elements), color (associated with each pixel in a
texture region), and orientation (conveyed by changes in the local color).

Dashed and dotted lines, which constitute some of the textures of linear features, can be readily
differentiated, as long as only a modest number of distinct types exist. Varying the color of the
segments or dots can also be perceived as a texture. Texture is most commonly associated with a
polygon, region, or surface.

Motion

The eighth visual variable is motion. In fact, motion can be associated with any of the other visual
variables, since the way a variable changes over time can convey more information. One common use
of motion is in varying the speed at which a change is occurring.The other aspect of motion is in the
direction, for position, this can be up, down, left, right, diagonal

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Effects of Visual Variables

Different visual variables can serve different purposes. We can categorize these purposes in a variety
of ways
Selective visual variables.

• Size (length, area/volume);

• Brightness;
• Texture;
• Color (only primary colors): varies with the brightness value;
• Direction/orientation.

Associative visual variables. All factors have same visibility

• Texture
• Color
• Direction/orientation
• Shape

Ordinal visual variables. After coding with such variables, different data values are spontaneously
ordered by the human

• Texture;
• Size

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• Brightness

Proportional visual variables. In addition, these variables obtain a direct association of the relative
size.
• Size (length, area/volume);
• Direction/orientation;
• Brightness.

Separating visual variables. All elements are visible (the rest are not visible).
• Texture
• Color
• Direction/orientation
• Shape.

Example of separating texture

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6. Write about Historical Perspective of visualization

In this section, we look at a number of efforts over the years to formalize the field of visualization. The
following section contains descriptions of some taxonomies of visualization techniques.

Bertin (1967) Semiology of Graphics

In 1967, Jacques Bertin, possibly the most important figure in visualization theory, published his S
´emiologie Graphique [34]. This was the first rigorous attempt at defining graphics and its application
to the portrayal of information .Bertin presents the fundamentals of information encoding via graphic
representations as a semiology, a science dealing with sign systems. His first key point is the strict
separation of content (the information to encode) from the container

Bertin’s graphical vocabulary, shown in Table 4.2, identifies some veryspecific graphical primitives
that correspond to perceptual attributes, graphic qualities that are perceptually identifiable. A graphic
is defined as a combination of plane properties (implantation plus imposition) and retinal variables
(visual variables above the plane).

The plane is marked by implantations, classes of representations that constitute the elementary
Figures of plane geometry: points, lines, and areas. These three types of figures are organized in the
two planar dimensions by the imposition, dividing graphics into four groups: diagrams, networks,
maps, and symbols
The third and final component is the graphic representations utilizing retinal variables, graphic
variations designed for visual perception. These variations affect the implantations

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There are six retinal variables identified by experimental psychology:size (height, area, or number),
value (saturation), texture (finenessor coarseness), color (hue), orientation (angular displacement), and
shape

Mackinlay (1986) APT:

Mackinlay introduced APT (A Presentation Tool), an automated graphical presentation designer for
relational information. APT extracts information from a database and generates a graphical design to
present the data. The design is based on static two-dimensional presentations such as bar charts,
scatterplots, and connected graphs. Two criteria for these languages are identified: expressiveness,
which ensures that the graphical languages effectively convey the desired information, and
effectiveness, which ensures that the languages utilize the display medium and human visual system
optimally.
Mackinlay developed a composition algebra, consisting of primitive graphic languages and
composition operators, to create complex presentations. He defined three principles for composing
presentations: double-axes composition, single-axis composition, and mark composition.
These principles involve merging graphics that encode the same information. Mackinlay also
discussed the properties of these compositions and implemented them in the APT system.

The Visualization Reference Model by Bergeron and Grinstein, proposed in 1989, presents a
framework for visualizing data. It establishes a connection between the original data and its physical
representation. The model consists of a conceptual visualization pipeline with four stages.

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The first stage involves identifying the data source and obtaining relevant information about its
structure. In the next stage, standardized data from the previous stage undergoes transformations to
project it into a representation that can be effectively used. The third stage focuses on specifying how
the transformed data should be mapped to visual representations. Finally, in the association stage,
graphics are generated based on the representations and encoded with the data. This results in the
perceptual stimulation of the data, encompassing both visual and auditory representations.

Wehrend and Lewis (1990) : Wehrend and Lewis proposed a method for automatically defining
visualizations by creating a catalog of encoding techniques and their applications. The catalog is
organized as a two-dimensional matrix, with objects representing problem domains and operations
representing groups of goals. The catalog contains tasks and corresponding visualization techniques as
solutions. Wehrend and Lewis surveyed various encoding techniques and matched them with
appropriate cells in the matrix. While the automated system was not implemented, Beshers suggests
that the catalog could serve as a valuable knowledge base for a visualization system.

Robertson (1990) Natural Scene Paradigm:

Introduced by Robertson in 1990, is a method that utilizes people's skills in analyzing various aspects
of natural scenes for multivariate analysis. It involves visually displaying data using identifiable
properties found in realistic scenes. Natural scene views consist of spatial surfaces with spectral and
temporal variables, and visual properties such as surface height, material, density, phase, and wetness
are defined and ranked based on their perceptual characteristics. The paradigm matches data variables
to these characteristics to generate data views that meet interpretation requirements. The matching
process considers the priority order of interpretation goals and selects appropriate natural scene
representations to maximize the desired aims.

Roth (1991) Visage and SAGE:

The content discusses the creation of Visage, a user-interface environment for exploring information,
by Roth et al. in 1991. Visage incorporates SAGE, a knowledge-based automatic graphic design tool,
and builds upon Mackinlay's ideas for two-dimensional graphics. The main focus of Visage is its
"information-centric" approach, where user interaction is directly connected to the data elements
represented graphically. The environment is based on two types of objects: elements (data
representations) and frames (containers for marks). SAGE, as part of Visage, provides intelligent
graphics presentation, particularly for visualizations. SAGE defines two types of graphical objects:
those that encode data elements and those that represent correspondence between pairs of elements.
Various composition operations are implemented in SAGE, including axis and mark compositions
from

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Mackinlay, as well as additional operations for merging display edges, retinal techniques, network
nodes, and object labels.

Casner (1991) BOZ:

BOZ, created by Stephen Casner, is a tool for automated graphic design and presentations that assists
in performing specific tasks. Its goal is to replace logical task descriptions with visually perceptible
tasks by encoding logical inferences into perceptual inferences.
BOZ consists of five components: a logical task description language, a component for converting
logical descriptions to perceptual operators, a component for structuring perceptual data, a component
for selecting perceptual operators, and a rendering component for displaying the graphical designs.
The logical task description language allows users to describe information-processing tasks, while the
perceptual data structuring component analyzes logical operators and specifies appropriate
visualizations. The perceptual operator selection component chooses suitable perceptual operators to
maximize the perceptual gain of the visualization. Finally, the rendering component displays the
resulting graphics on the computer screen.

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Beshers and Feiner (1992) AutoVisual:

AutoVisual is a system designed for automatic visualization within the n-Vision visualization system.
n-Vision implements a technique called worlds-within-worlds, which defines subspace coordinate
systems and consists of four components: encoding objects, encoding spaces, selections, and a user
interface.
AutoVisual enables users to define visualization tasks using task operators and task selections,
allowing them to explore, search, and compare data relations. The system utilizes predefined graph
types and the worlds-within-worlds technique to create displays based on user specifications.
AutoVisual also considers interactive visualizations by incorporating rendering time information into
the selection process. It excludes encoding techniques that would negatively impact interactive
performance, ensuring a responsive environment.

Senay and Ignatius (1994) VISTA

Senay and Ignatius developed VISTA (Visualization Tool Assistant), a knowledge-based system for
scientific data visualization. They extended the work of Mackinlay and focused on composition rules
for generating complex visualizations from simple techniques. VISTA consists of three sub-processes:
data manipulation, visualization mapping, and rendering.
The system incorporates five categories of knowledge: data characterization, visualization vocabulary,
primitive techniques, composition rules, and visual perception rules. VISTA defines two types of
marks (simple and compound) and uses positional, temporal, and retinal variations to encode data.
Five composition rules are defined, including mark composition, superimposition, union, transparency,
and intersection. These rules combine visualization techniques to display multidimensional data.
VISTA incorporates human perceptual experimental results and heuristic rules to determine
visualization effectiveness.

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Hibbard (1994) Lattice Model

Hibbard proposes a lattice model for describing visualizations, focusing on the transformation of data
into displays. The model consists of a data model (U) and a display model (V), represented as lattices
of data objects and display objects, respectively.
These objects are ordered based on their approximation of mathematical objects or ideal displays. The
display model is defined as an 8-tuple of graphical primitive values, following Bertin's specifications.
It includes screen coordinates, size, value, texture, color, orientation, and shape.
The model utilizes scalar mappings to map data lattices to display lattices, considering expressiveness
conditions. The lattice model provides a mathematical framework for specifying visualizations and
capturing the relationship between data and displays.

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Golovchinsky (1995) AVE:

AVE (Automatic Visualization Environment) is a system that automatically generates graphical

presentations based on a generative theory of diagram design. It constructs diagrams using basic
components corresponding to data relations. The diagrams consist of graphical elements, specifically
rectangles, with attributes and relationships based on the underlying data. The resulting graphics are
tree and graph structures, representing nodes as rectangles and relationships as lines or arrows.

The visualization process in AVE involves four stages: query, analysis, constraint network generation,
and geometric layout. In the query stage, database views are defined to obtain relevant records,
resulting in a collection of tuples, domain frames (sets of objects), slots (directed arcs), and range
frames. The analysis stage categorizes tuples based on their relationship and frame types. The
constraint network generation stage maps slot-based and type-based relations to graphical relations,
ranking multiple potential relations using a scoring system. The top-ranked specification is chosen. In
the geometric layout stage, appropriate positions for objects are calculated to satisfy graphical
constraints, such as rectangles with connecting lines or edges. The final graphical presentation is then
displayed.

Card, Mackinlay, and Shneiderman (1999) Spatial Substrate

One key concept discussed by Card et al. is the spatial substrate, which involves using spatial
positioning to encode data within a display. They propose that empty space can be treated as having a
metric structure and describe this structure in terms of axes and their properties. They identify four
elementary types of axes: unstructured (no axis), nominal (division of a region into sub-regions),
ordinal (meaningful ordering of sub-regions), and quantitative (a region with a metric, such as an
interval or ratio).

Overall, Card, Mackinlay, and Shneiderman emphasize the importance of spatial positioning and the
use of axes for encoding data in visualizations, providing a framework that supports effective visual
representations and human interaction.

Finally, five techniques are described for increasing the amount of information that can be encoded by
spatial positions:
1. The composition of axes—orthogonal placement of axes creating a two dimensional metric space;
2. The alignment of axes—repetition of an axis at a different position in space;
3. The folding of axes—continuation of an axis in an orthogonal dimension;
4. The application of recursion to axes—repeated subdivision of space and
5. The overloading of axes—reusing the same display space.

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Kamps (1999) EAVE

EAVE (Extended Automatic Visualization Engine), an extension of AVE, is a system developed by

Kamps for generating diagram visualizations from arbitrary data relations. EAVE considers both data
characteristics and user preferences in generating traditional types of diagrams commonly found in
publications. The system employs a three-phase process: data classification, graphical resource
allocation, and layout. In the data classification phase, specific properties of the input data relation are
identified. The resource allocation process encodes the data relations using graphical relations, and the
layout phase realizes the design decisions through procedural layout techniques.
EAVE utilizes formal concept analysis, a mathematical discipline, to define the relation type lattice
and identify logical dependencies between data types. The system maps data relations to graphical
relations based on matching relation types. The resulting visualization is a composition of appropriate
graphical binary relations, determined through a discrete optimization process. The final stage
involves layout optimization to maximize readability in the resulting display.

Wilkinson (1999) Grammar of Graphics

Wilkinson's Grammar of Graphics is a framework for constructing statistical graphics. It defines the
creation of visualizations by specifying the components and transformations of graphical objects. The
process involves three stages: specification, assembly, and display. The specification stage establishes
the foundation for visualizations by identifying object transformations and representational mappings.
The grammar specification consists of seven parts, including data operations, frame and coordinate
definitions, and graph and guide specifications. The framework incorporates primitive geometric
graphs and aesthetic attributes to define visual representations.
The Grammar of Graphics focuses on specifying arbitrary data graphics rather than evaluating their
effectiveness or expressiveness. Wilkinson also introduces the concepts of data points and their visual
representations, as well as the algebraic formalism applied to data variables to define the graphic
frame. The framework allows for complex variable-dimension arrangements and the specification of
nested frames. Wilkinson distinguishes between the mathematical underpinnings of a visualization and
the visible graphic properties that enable perception.

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Hoffman (2000) Table Visualizations

Hoffman's Table Visualizations introduced a formal model for defining a generalized space of data
visualizations. The goal was to encapsulate the properties of different visualization techniques and
combine them within a geometric layout. The model incorporated four specific visualization
techniques: survey plots, scatterplots, RadViz, and parallel coordinates. Table visualizations,
specifically for two- dimensional data tables, were the focus.
The model used dimensional anchors, which were curves associated with data dimensions, as the
fundamental primitives. Each dimensional anchor had associated parameters that defined a specific
visualization technique. Unlike other graphics models, Hoffman's model didn't distinguish between
marks and retinal variables but used a functional approach where a vector of graphic parameters
served as input to the visualization's drawing function. By combining different sets of parameters and
geometric layouts, new visualizations could be generated. Hoffman demonstrated this using the grand
tour technique and showcased a subspace of visualizations for investigating compound actions.

Taxonomies

A taxonomy is a means to convey a classification. Often hierarchical in nature, a taxonomy can be

used to group similar objects and define relationships. In visualization, we are interested in many
forms of taxonomies, including data, visualization techniques, tasks, and methods for interaction

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Keller and Keller (1994) Taxonomy of Visualization Goals

Keller and Keller, in their book Visual Cues [236], classify visualization techniques based on the type
of data being analyzed and the user’s task(s).Similar to those identified earlier in this book, the data
types they consider are:

• Scalar (or scalar field);

• Nominal;
• Direction (or direction field);
• Shape;
• Position;
• Spatially extended region or object (SERO).

The authors also define a number of tasks that a visualization user might be interested in performing.
While some of the tasks seem interrelated, their list is a useful starting position for someone setting out
to design a visualization for a particular application. Their task list consists of:

• Identify—establish characteristics by which an object is recognizable;

• Locate—ascertain the position (absolute or relative); Distinguish—
recognize as distinct or different (identification is not needed);
• Categorize—place into divisions or classes;
• Cluster—group similar objects;
• Rank—assign an order or position relative to other objects;
• Compare—notice similarities and differences;
• Associate—link or join in a relationship that may or may not be of the same type;
• Correlate—establish a direct connection, such as causal or reciprocal.

Shneiderman (1996) Data Type by Task Taxonomy

A related strategy was proposed by Shneiderman [376]. His list of data types was somewhat different
from Keller and Keller’s, and included more types from the information visualization field. His list of
data types consisted of:

• One-dimensional linear;
• Two-dimensional map;
• Three-dimensional world;
• Temporal;
• Multidimensional;
• Tree;
• Network.

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For his tasks, Shneider man looked more at the behavior of analysts as they attempt to extract
knowledge from the data. His task set consisted of the following

Shneiderman Task Set

Overview. Gain an overview of the entire collection, e.g., using a fisheye strategy for network
browsing. Zoom. Zoom in items of interest to gain a more detailed view, e.g., holding down a mouse
button to enlarge a region of the display.
Filter. Filter out uninteresting items to allow the user to reduce the size of a search, e.g., dynamic
queries that can be invoked via sliders.
Details-on-demand. Select an item or group and get details when needed, e.g., a pop-up window can
show more attributes of a specific object on the screen.
Relate. View relationships among items, e.g., select a particular object that can then show all other
objects related to it.
History. Keep a history to allow undo, replay, and progressive refinement, such as allowing a mistake
to be undone, or a series of steps to be replayed.
Extract. Extract the items or data in a format that would facilitate other uses, i.e., saving to file,
sending via e-mail, printing, or dragging into another application (statistical or presentation package).

Keim (2002) Information Visualization Classification.

• As shown in Figure Keim designed a classification scheme for visualization systems based
on three dimensions: data types, visualization techniques, and interaction/distortion
methods.
• His interaction/distortion technique classification has some similarities to Shneiderman’s
tasks, as do his data types, but his classification of the visualization techniques used is not
included in the other taxonomies. The components of each of his classification dimensions
are listed below:

Classification of Data Types. 6 types of data exist:

1. One-dimensional data—e.g., temporal data, news data, stock prices, text documents
2. Two-dimensional data—e.g., maps, charts, floor plans, newspaper layouts
3. Multidimensional data—e.g., spreadsheets, relational tables
4. Text and hypertext —e.g., new articles, web documents
5. Hierarchies and graphs—e.g., telephone/network traffic, system dynamics models
6. Algorithm and software—e.g., software, execution traces, memory dumps

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Classification of Visualization Techniques.

5 classes of visualization techniques exist:
1. Standard 2D/3D displays—e.g., x, y- or x, y, z-plots, bar charts, line graphs;
2. Geometrically transformed displays—e.g., landscapes, scatterplot matrices, projection pursuit
techniques, prosection views, hyperslice,parallel coordinates;
3. Iconic displays—e.g., Chernoff faces, needle icons, star icons, stick figure icons, color
icons, tilebars;
4. Dense pixel displays—e.g., recursive pattern, circle segments, graph sketches;
5. Stacked displays—e.g., dimensional stacking, hierarchical axes,worlds-within-worlds,
treemaps, cone trees.

Classification of Interaction and Distortion Techniques.

5 classes of interaction techniques exist:

1. Dynamic projection—e.g., grand tour system, XGobi, XLispStat,ExplorN;
2. Interactive filtering—e.g., Magic Lenses, InfoCrystal, dynamic queries, Polaris;
3. Interactive zooming—e.g., TableLens, PAD++, IVEE/Spotfire,DataSpace, MGV and
scalable framework;
4. Interactive distortion—e.g., hyperbolic and spherical distortions,bifocal displays, perspective
wall, graphical fisheye views, hyperbolic visualization, hyperbox;
5. Interactive linking and brushing—e.g., multiple scatterplots,bar charts, parallel coordinates,
pixel displays and maps, Polaris,scalable framework, S-Plus, XGobi, XmdvTool, DataDesk.

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Experimental Semiotics based on Perception Gibson‘s Affordance theory

Experimental Semiotics is a research field that explores the relationship between communication,
perception, and meaning through empirical studies. One influential theoretical framework that has
informed Experimental Semiotics is James J. Gibson's Affordance theory.

Gibson's Affordance theory proposes that perception is not simply the passive reception of sensory
information but an active process of perceiving possibilities for action in the environment. According
to Gibson, the environment contains affordances, which are the action possibilities or opportunities for
interaction that objects and the environment offer to an organism. Affordances are perceived directly
and are intrinsic to the environment-object relationship.

Experimental Semiotics builds upon Gibson's theory by investigating how affordances shape
communication and meaning. It examines how individuals perceive and interpret signs and symbols
based on their affordances in specific contexts. These studies often involve designing experiments
where participants are exposed to novel signs or symbols and asked to infer their meanings.

For example, researchers might create a set of abstract symbols and present them to participants in
different contexts. The symbols may be designed to afford certain interpretations or actions based on
their visual features or associations. By observing how participants interpret and respond to these
symbols, researchers can gain insights into how affordances influence meaning-making processes.

Experimental Semiotics also explores the role of context in shaping communication. According to
Gibson, affordances are context-dependent, meaning that the perceived action possibilities of an object
or sign can vary depending on the surrounding environment. Researchers in this field examine how
different contextual factors, such as cultural background, prior experiences, and social cues, influence
the interpretation of signs and symbols.

Experimental Semiotics, drawing on Gibson's Affordance theory, offers a valuable perspective on the
dynamic interplay between perception, communication, and meaning. By conducting empirical
studies, researchers can deepen our understanding of how affordances shape the way we perceive,
interpret, and communicate through signs and symbols in various contexts.

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Model of Perceptual Processing.

Perception:

Perception as the process of recognizing (being aware of), organizing (gathering and storing), and
interpreting (binding to knowledge) sensory information. Perception deals with the human senses that
generate signals from the environment through sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste.

Two seated figures, making sense at a higher,

more abstract level, but still disturbing. On
closer inspection, these seats are not realizable

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The Model of Perceptual Processing:

The Model of Perceptual Processing is a theoretical framework that seeks to explain how humans
perceive and interpret visual information. It proposes a series of stages through which visual stimuli
are processed and transformed into meaningful representations in the mind.

Classic model of the flow of sensory data for cognition

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Key components of the Model of Perceptual Processing:

Sensory Inputs: This is the first stage of the model, where information from the environment is
gathered through the various sensory modalities, such as sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell. These
sensory inputs are raw, unprocessed signals that contain a vast amount of information.

Sensation Processing (Pre-attentive Processing): In this stage, the sensory inputs undergo initial
processing, often referred to as "bottom-up" processing. It involves the extraction of basic features and
patterns from the sensory information, such as color, shape, texture, motion, and spatial location. This
processing occurs automatically and does not require conscious attention. The results of sensation
processing form the building blocks for the next stage.

Perception Processing (Attentive Processing): The second stage of the model involves more complex
processing, known as "top-down" processing, where the brain utilizes its prior knowledge,
expectations, and context to interpret the sensory information. Perception processing is attentive,
meaning it requires focus and cognitive resources. It involves organizing and integrating the basic
sensory features into meaningful objects, scenes, or events. For example, combining lines, shapes, and
colors into the perception of a face or recognizing a familiar object in a complex scene.

Perception: At this stage, the processed sensory information is finally transformed into meaningful
perceptual experiences, enabling us to identify objects, understand language, recognize faces, and
make sense of our surroundings. Perception involves higher-order cognitive processes, memory, and
the integration of sensory and contextual information to form a coherent representation of the world.

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Question Bank

1. Explain about Visualization stages with neat diagram.

2. Explain Semiology of Graphical Symbols
3. Write about features of Graphics
4. Write in detail about Eight Visual Variables used for graphical objects
in visualization.
5. Illustrate categories of visual variables.
6. Write briefly about Historical Perspective of visualization
7. Write about Taxonomy of Visualization
8. Write briefly about Shneiderman Task Set
9. Explain about Classification of Visualization Techniques.
10. Experimental Semiotics based on Perception Gibson‘s Affordance theory
11.Write about perception with example
12. Explain about Model of Perceptual Processing