MATHEMATICS N3

NEW SYLLABUS
MATHEMATICS N3
New Syllabus

MJJ van Rensburg

TROUPANT
Publishers
Copyright © 1994 by the author

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without prior written permission by the publisher.

ISBN: 978 1 919780 23 8; eISBN: 978 1 430802 64 8

First edition 1998

Eleventh impression 2013

Published by:
Troupant Publishers
P.O. Box 4532
Northcliff
2115

Previously published by
Southern Book Publishers
First edition 1994

Cover design by Alix Gracie

Set in 10.5 on 12pt Times New Roman
Typesetting by Unifoto (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town
Printed and bound by Ultra Litho (Pty) Limited
Preface

The accent in this book has been put on understanding and not nec-
essarily on formal deductions or rote methods. Examples have been
written out fully for students to follow reasoning easily.
Module 0 contains revision of basic Mathematics and can be use as
orientation. At the end of the book there is a summary to help students
to structure their own framework of reference.
To know about something does not necessarily mean that one can do
it, therefore normal exercises are included as well as criterium tests at
the back of the book. These tests can be used for additional exercise or
as evaluation tests at the end of each module. They can also be used
for revision if old examination papers are not available.

THE AUTHOR
Contents

Module 0: Orientation

0.1 The importance of terminology 1

0.2 Symbols 1
0.3 The operations, X, -;-, + and - 2
0.4 Variables 3
0.5 Coefficients 4
0.6 Examples of terms 4
0.7 Similar terms 4
0.8 Addition and subtraction of algebraic terms 4

Exercise 0.1

0.9 Laws for exponents 6

Exercise 0.2

0.10 Fractions 9
0.11 Multiplication and division by fractions 9
0.12 Factors 10
0.13 Simplification of fractions 10
0.14 Addition and subtraction of fractions 12

Exercise 0.3

0.15 The pocket calculator 15

0.15.1 Powers 15
0.15.2 The memory 15
0.15.3 Calculations with parentheses (brackets) 17

Exercise 0.4
Module 1: Factors and fractions

1.1 The common factor 19

1.1.1 Ge.neral 19
1.1.2 Common factors 19
1.1.3 Grouping 22

Exercise 1.1

1.2 The quadratic trinomial 25

1.2.1 General 25
1.2.2 The solvability of trinomials 26
1.2.3 The traditional method 28

Exercise 1.2

1.3 Squares 30
1.3.1 The difference between two squares 30
1.3.2 Completing the square 32

Exercise 1.3

1.4 Cube functions 35

1.4.1 Function notation 36
1.4.2 Function values 36
1.4.3 The remainder theorem 37

Exercise 1.4

1.4.4 Factors with the aid of the remainder theorem 40

Exercise 1.5

1.5 Algebraic fractions 43

1.5.1 Simplification of fractions 43
1.5.2 Multiplication of fractions 45
1.5.3 Division of fractions 46

Exercise 1.6

1.5.4 Addition and subtraction of fractions 49

Exercise 1.7
Module 2: Exponents, surds and logarithms
2.1 Exponents 59
2.1.1 General 59
2.1.2 Exponent laws 60

Exercise 2.1

2.1.3 Exponential equations 67

Exercise 2.2

2.2 Surds 70
2.2.1 General 70
2.2.2 Multiplication with equal order 70
2.2.3 Changing the order 71
2.2.4 Writing mixed surds as one surd 71
2.2.5 Addition and subtraction of surds 73
2.2.6 Multiplication and division of surds 74
2.2.7 Rationalising denominators 74
2.2.8 Factors 76
Exercise 2.3

2.2.9 Equations containing surds 78

Exercise 2.4

2.3 Logarithms 81
2.3.1 The meaning of a logarithm 81
2.3.2 Calculations with respect to bases, numbers and
logarithms, without using a calculator 82
Ex,ercise 2.5

2.3.3 Logarithms and anti-logarithms using a calculator 83

Exercise 2.6

2.3.4 Logarithmic laws 85

2.3.5 Simplifications without using a calculator 86
Exercise 2.7

2.3.6 Changing the base 89

Exercise 2.8
Module 3: Equations, word problems and manipulation of
technical formulae

3.1 Equations 93
3.1.1 Solving a linear equation 93

Exercise 3. 1

3.1.2 Simultaneous linear equations 96

Exercise 3.2

3.1.3 Solving simultaneous equations where one is linear and the

other quadratic 101

Exercise 3.3

3.2 Word problems 103

3.2.1 Compiling and solving simultaneous equations 103

Exercise 3.4

3.2.2 Compiling and solving quadratic equations 106

Exercise 3.5

3.3 Manipulation of technical fo(mulae 110

3.3.1 Introduction 110
3.3.2 The most elementary 'formula' 111
3.3.3 Different operations in the same equation 112

Exercise 3.6

3.3.4 Additional examples 116

Exercise 3.7

Module 4: Geometry of co-ordinates

4.1 Different forms of a straight line 123

4.1.1 The gradient-intercept form 123
4.1.2 The intercept form 124
4.1.3 The general form 124
4.1.4 If the angle between the positive x-axis and the line is
given 125
4.1.5 If the equation is given 126
4.1.6 If two points are given 126
4.1.7 Parallel lines 127
4.1.8 Perpendicular lines 128

Exercise 4.1

4.2 Equations of straight lines 130

4.2.1 If two points are given 130
4.2.2 If one point and a gradient are given 133
4.2.3 The distance between two points 136
4.2.4 The co-ordinates of the midpoint of a line segment 138

Exercise 4.2

4.3 The circle 141

4.3.1 The equation of a circle with its centre at the origin 142
4.3.2 The intersections of a straight line and a circle 142
4.3.3 The equation of a tangent to a circle in a given direction 145
4.3.4 The equation of a tangent at a given point on the circum-
ference of a circle 148

Exercise 4.3

Module 5: Sketch graphs

5.1 General 152

5.2 The straight line 153
5.2.1 The gradient-intercept form 153
5.2.2 The general form 155
5.2.3 The intercept form 156
5.3 A circle with its centre at the origin 156
5.4 The ellipse 159
5.5 The parabola 160
5.6 The hyperbola 166
5.7 The cube function 168
5.8 The form of y = ax n 169

Exercise 5
Module 6: Differential calculus

6.1 Average gradient and speed 173

6.1.1 The average gradient 173
6.1.2 Average speed 174
Exercise 6.1

6.2 Limits 178

6.2.1 General 178
6.2.2 The gradient of a tangent to a curve at a point 181
Exercise 6.2

6.3 Differentiation 185

6.3.1 General 185
6.3.2 Rules of differentiation 186
Exercise 6.3

6.3..3 The gradient of a curve at a point on the curve 191

Exercise 6.4

6.4 Turning points 193

Exercise 6.5

Module 7: Trigonometry

7.1 Exact values 199

7.1.1 General 199
7.1.2 Exact values in the first quadrant 203
7.1.3 Exact values in other quadrants 204
7.1.4 Another rhyme to help you remember signs 208
7.1.5 Solving easy trigonometric equations with the aid of
exact values 209
Exercise 7.1

7.2 Trigonometric equations 214

7.2.1 Using the calculator to determine function and arc
function values 214
7.2.2 The solution of 'easy' trigonometric equations 217
7.2.3 More advanced trigonometric equations 218
Exercise 7.2
7.3 Identities 223
Exercise 7.3
7.4 Solving triangles 227
7.4.1 Right-angled triangles 227
7.4.2 The sine rule 228
7.4.3 The cosine rule 231
Exercise 7.4
7.4.4 The area of a triangle 237
Exercise 7.5
7.5 Sketch graphs 242
7.5.1 Periodic functions 245
Exercise 7.6
7.5.2 Superimposing graphs 255
Exercise 7.7
7.6 Rotating vectors 257
7.6.1 Sketching trigonometric graphs from a rotating vector 257
7.6.2 Superimposing graphs 259
7.6.3 Graphs of the form y = sin k () 261
7.6.4 Frequency 262
Exercise 7.8 264

Summary 266

Criterium tests 267

Module 0
Orientation

Objectives and overview

This module gives an overview of the pre-knowledge required by the
student. On completion of this section, you should be able to:
1. Use the four fundamental processes +, -, x and -;- with and
without a pocket calculator.
2. State the difference between terms and factors.
3. Add and subtract simple algebraic terms.
4. Reproduce the index laws and apply them in simple calculations.
5. Multiply, divide, add and subtract simple fractions.
6. Use a calculator in simple calculations.

0.1 The importance of terminology

Notation is very important. If you don't know the Mathematical lan-
guage, you will not be able to:
• Read and understand Mathematics.
• Solve mathematical problems.
• Write down the correct solutions.
• Find mistakes in solutions.

0.2 Symbols
is equal to
+ plus
minus
divide
therefore
because
-::t= is not equal to
> is greater than (e.g. 6 > 4)
< is smaller than (e.g. 3 < 5)
~ is greater or equal to
~ is smaller or equal to
p is not greater than
\: is not smaller than
~ strives to
00 infinity
=> implicates
ex proportional to
e 2,71828183 ...
circumference of a circle
diameter of a circle
is parallel to
.::!:- is perpendicular to
AB the length of the line between A and B
~ implicates and being implicated

0.3 The operations, x, + and -

+ x + +
x +
+ x
x +
When these operations occur in the same sentence, we must first x and
-7- and then + and -, but always work from left to right.

Examples:
1. 2 + 3 - 6 x 5 -:- 2
2. 2 -7- 4 x 3 - 6 + 2
3. 2 - 4 -7- 3 + 2 x 6

Solutions:
1. 2 + 3 - 6 x 5 -7- 2
= 2 + 3 - 30 -:- 2
= 2 + 3 - 15
= -10

2
 With a calculator:
rn[±]Q]E]@]0rnElrnG
Beware of:
rn[±]Q]GE]@]G0rnGElrnG
This upsets the sequence.
2. 2 -;- 4 x 3 - 6 + 2
= 0,5 x 3 - 6 + 2
= 1,5 - 6 + 2
= -2,5
Press rn El [i] 0 Q] E] @] [±] rn G
Beware of:
2-;-4x3-6+2
"* 2 -;- 12 - 6 + 2
*~-6+2
* -3~
You must work from left to right. First -;- and then x.
x and -;- both have the same status.
3. 2 - 4 -;- 3 + 2 x 6
4
=2-"3+ 2x6
4
= 2 - "3 + 12

= 12j
Press rn E] [i] El Q] [±] rn 0 @] G
0.4 Variables
Variables are very important in Mathematics. You started to use them
very early in school, e.g. 3 + D = 5. The D represents an unknown
which we also call a variable. The same equation can also be written
as 3 + x = 5, where x represents the variable.
When there are two unknowns in an equation we need the term
variable. For example: x - y = 2. This equation is true if x and y
represent several different values:
2 - 0 = 2
3-1=2
4 - 2 = 2.

3
It is clear that the 'unknowns' can take on many values, that is why we
prefer to call them variables.
Variables are indicated by letters, e.g. a, b, c, x, y, z etc. Greek letters
can also be used, e.g. a, {3, r, 9, qJ etc.

0.5 Coefficients
If a number is multiplied by a variable, the number is called the coef-
ficient, e.g. 3a = 3 x a, 3 is the coefficient and a is the variable or
symbol. The meaning of 3a is 3 of a, or a + a + a.
Another example is:
4x = 4 x x which is equal to x + x + x + x.
If the coefficient is I we don't write it down, e.g. a instead of la.
In 3a 2 it follows that: 3 is called the coefficient
a is called the base
2 is called the index (exponent)
a 2 is called the power

0.6 Examples of terms

Terms are separated by + and/or - in an equation or expression. For
example:
a+ b 2 terms (binomial)
a+b-c 3 terms (trinomial)
2a + 4b = 8c 3 terms in an equation
2a - 4b + 6a - 8ab more than 3 terms (polynomial).

0.7 Similar terms

Terms where only the coefficients differ are called similar terms, e.g.
a, 2a, 6a, ~a or xy, 3xy, 12xy, -~xy or 2x 2 , 4x 2 , ~X2 etc.
Non-similar terms will be: 2a, 3b or 2x, 2x 2, 3x 3 etc.

0.8 Addition and subtraction of algebraic terms

Only similar terms can be added or subtracted.

Example:
6a + 2a - 4a
= (6 + 2 - 4)a [6 + 2 - 4 of a]
= 4a
4
Example:
3a + 3b + 2ab - 6a + ab
= 3b + 3a - 6a + 2ab + ab
= 3b + (3 - 6) a + (2 + l)ab
= 3b - 3a + 3ab

Examples:
1. Add 2a + 3ab - 6b to 2 - 2b + 4a
2. Subtract 3x + xy - 2 from 2xy + x - 4

Solutions:
1. 2a + 3ab - 6b [Rearrange to ensure that similar terms
+4a - 2b +2 are positioned underneath each other.]
6a + 3ab - 8b +2
2. 3x + xy - 2 [A short method is to change the signs of
-x+2xy-4 the terms that must be subtracted and then
2x- xy+2 add.]

Exercise 0.1
Simplify:
1. 3a + 2ab - 6a + 2b - ab
2. 2xy + 3x - 2y - 3xy + x
3. a - 2 + 3a - 6
4. 2ab + b - 4ab - 5b
5. 3p + 2q - 4pq - 2qp
Add the following expressions:
6. 2a + 3ab; 2a - 3ab
7. a - 2; 2b + 6
8. 2xy + 3x - y; 4xy - 2x - 6
9. a - 3; b + 4; c - 12
Subtract the second expression from the first:
10. a - 2; 2b + 6
11. 2a + b; 3b + 2
12. 3xy + 2x - y; x - 3y + 2xy
13. 2 + 4x - 6y; 4 - 2x + 3y

5
Simplify:
14. (2x + 3y) + (8x - 2y)
15. (2x + 3x - 2) - (x 2 + 2x
2
+ 1)
16. 3 x 8 - 4 -;- 6 + 2
17. 4 + 4 x 8 - 6 -;- 12
18. 12 -;- 3 + 4 - 6 x 2
19. 121 - 22 -;- 11 - 50 x2

Answers to Exercise 0.1

1. ab + 2b - 3a 2. 4x - 2y - xy
3. 4a - 8 4. -2ab - 4b
5. 3p + 2q - 6pq 6. 4a
7. a + 2b + 4 8. 6xy + x - y - 6
9. a + b + c - 11 10. a - 2b - 8
11. 2a - 2b - 2 12. xy + x + 2y
13. -2 + 6x - 9y 14. lax + y
15. x 2 + x - 3 16. 25,333
17. 35,5 18. -4
19. 19

0.9 Laws for exponents

am x an = a m+ n

aO = 1 (a =#= 0)
_ 111 1
a =--;;;
a

Examples:
Simplify:
1. 2a x 3a 2
2
2. 3x x 5x 3 X 2y -;- 3x 4

4X 2y3 )4
3. ( 6xy
1
4. 128po - (238q)O + (12Sq3)3

6
Solutions:
1. 2a x 3a 2
= (2 x 3)a l + 2
= 6a 3

2. 3x 25x 3 X 2y -;- 3x 4
X
= (3 x 5 x 2 -;- 3) r + 3 4y
10xy

3. (4X Y Y
(26:;2~J xy y
(2 2
'X~ 'yJ- 'y
(2i Y 2

_ 16x 4 y 8
- 81
1
4. 128pO- (238q)O + (12SqJ)3
1
128(1) - 1 + (SJqJ)l
1 1
128 - 1 + 53 x "3 q.3 x "3
127 + 5q

Note that exponent laws are only valid:

• when bases are the same, e.g. a 2 x b 3 = a2 x b3
• for x, -;- and powers, e.g.
1 1 1
(a 2
+ b2 }i =F a2x
"i + b2x "i
• for negative bases only if the indices are whole numbers,
e.g.
[( _ 2)3]2
= (_2)3x2
= (_2)6
= 64
7
 1
= (_2) 3x 3
= -2
excludes the imaginary solutions. Imaginary numbers are in the N4
syllabus and are used in subjects like Electrotechnics.

Practical insert 0.1

Solving x 3 = -8
1 1
... (x 2 )3 = (-8)3
1
X = [( -2)3]3
= -2

This means that we have to apply a fractional index (~ ) to a negative

base. The answer, - 2, is true because - 2 x - 2 x - 2 = - 8 but

it excludes two other roots, x = 1 + 1,732i and x = 1 - 1,732i.
These are called imaginary roots, where i 2 = -1 by definition.
Test:
(1 + 1,732i)3 = (1 + 1,732i)2 (1 + 1,732i)
= [1 + 2(1,732i) -3][1 + 1,732z1
= [-2 + 3,464z1[1 + 1,732z1
= -2 - 3,464i + 3,464i - 6
= -8
Likewise: (1 - 1,732i)3 = -8

Exercise 0.2
Simplify:

l. 49a 2 x 2~b -;- 8a 2b 2. 2a x 3ab x 4ab 2

3. 4( -2pq)(3pq) 4. (xy) 3 -+- (xy)2
1
5. 2pq + 3p 2q X 4pq 3 6. 7"2 X 4xy2 + (2y)4

8
 2 2
16
7. ( 8a bC
2

4ab 2c
)
8. (2X)3 X (4xy)2 -;- -L
x

9. (54X 6y
)~
2X y3 4

Answers to Exercise 0.2

7a
1 3. _24p 2q 2
· 4
15x
4. xy 6. 2
8y
9. 3x
y

0.10 Fractions
When simplifying fractions, notation sometimes causes problems. The
following have the same numerical meaning in algebra: ~3 = !4 =

311
-4 = 4(-3) = -4(3) = -3 -;- 4 = 3 -;- (-4) = 0,75.

Note that we cannot do this in graphical representations.

In a fraction ~, a is called the numerator and b the denominator.

~b = a(!) b ~
and 6 = 5(!)
6 etc .

0.11 Multiplication and division by fractions

When multiplying fractions, both the numerators and the denominators
must be multiplied. For example:
ace ace 132
b x d x ] = bdf or -x-x-245
1x 3 x 2
2 x 4 x 6
6
- 48
1
- 8

9
When dividing fractions we invert the divisor and then multiply. This
is because x and -7- are opposite operations.
~-7-£.
b d
a d
=-x-
b e
ad
- be

0.12 Factors

Factors are identified by finding products. A factor is always a product.

The following examples will explain the concept.
• In ab, a is a factor of ab and b is also a factor of abo
• In abc, a is a factor of abc, b is a factor of abc and e is a factor of
abc.
• In 2(x + 3), 2 is a factor of 2(x + 3) and x + 3 is also a factor of
2(x + 3).
0.13 Simplification of fractions

Method 2:
24
72
2x2x2x3
2x2x2x3x3
2 3.3
2 x 32
3

= 23~3 X 31 - 2
= 1 X 3- 1
1
- 3

Method 3:
24 This can result in cancellation of
72 2 + 2
terms, e.g. 2 + 3
~x~x~x~
~x~x~x~x3 ~ + 2
1 =1= ~ +3
- 3

10
Method 4:
24
72
~~)
=~~3
1
- 3
Method 1 or 2 is preferable. Method 3 is effective if we remember that
only factors can be divided into each other. Cancelling is not generally
valid and can lead to mistakes. Method 4 becomes useless in algebraic
fractions.

Example:
8(a -1)2b 2e
12a(a - l)e
2 x 2 x 2(a - 1)(a - 1) x b x b x e
2 x 2 x 3 x a(a - 1) x e
2 2 2 a-I a-I e
=-x-x-x--x--xbxbx-
2 2 3 a a-I e
2 a-I
=lxlx-x--xlxbxbxl
3 a
2b 2(a - 1)
3a
or
8(a - 1)2b 2e
12a(a - l)e
2 3(a - 1)2b 2e
2 2 .3a(a - l)e
2 3 - 2.(a _ 1)2 J.b 2e)··)
3a
2(a - l)b 2
3a
or
8(a - 1)2b 2e
12a(a - l)e
~ x ~ x 2 (a - 1)(a---l) x b x b x ~
~ x ~ x 3 x a(n---l-) ~
2(a - l)b 2
3a

11
o. 14 Addition and subtraction of fractions
Only similar fractions can be added or subtracted.
1 3
6+ 6
= l(~) + 3(~)
1
= (1 + 3>6
= 4(~)
4
- 6

This is how we can write it in a shorter and more abstract form, e.g.
1 3
6+ 6
1+ 3
=-6-
4
- 6

Example:

If fractions are not similar they must be made similar.

12
Example:
3 2
4+ 3
3 3 2 4 3 4
=4 x 3+3 x 4 [x by 3= 1 and 4= 1]
9 8
= 12 + 12

= 9(/2) + 8(/2)
1
= (9 + 8).12

= 17(/2)
17
- 12
12 + 5
12
12 5
= 12 + 12
5
1 + 12
5
112
The shorter method which begins by finding the LCM of the denom-
inators is abstract and should only be used by more experienced people.
By resolving the original fractions into prime factors it is easy to
eliminate common factors between the numerator and denominator.

Example:
5 1
- --
12 8
5 1
2x2x3 2x2x2
5 2 1 3 2 3
:;:: 2 x 2 x 3 x 2 - 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 [x by 2 = 1 and 3 = 1]
10 3
= 12 - 12

= 10(/2) - 3(/2)
13
= (10 - 3) (/2)

7
- 12

Example:
3 a (2 + a)
bl + b - --a-
3 a (2 + a)
= -b-x-b + b - a
3 (2 + a)
= -b-x-b x aa + ba x bb x a-
a
a
b b
x bx b
3a alb b 2(2 + a)
= -ab-2 + -ab-2 - ab 2

= [3a + a 2b - b 2(2 + a){ a~2 ]

3a + a 2b - 2b 2 - ab 2
ab 2

Exercise 0.3
Simplify:
70 420 8a 2be
1. 350 2. 30 3. 16ab 2e
7(a - b)2be 2 2 4 3 3 8 2
4. 49(a - b)c 5. 3 x "7 x "8 6. 4 -;- 9 x 5
a 2a 2 6a 3 8 3xy ...:.- 14xy 2
7. b x 3b 2 -+- 4b2 . 12x 2y . 7x 2y

9.
134
"7 + "7 - "7 10. ~+~- ~
a a a
~ ~_(a+b) 3 1 5
11 ·4+ 4 4 12. "8 + 16 - 24
~ ~ _ (a - b) 111
13·4+ 3 14. 1 + 2 - 3
6 4 3 5
15 ~ + ~ _ (a - e)
. ab 2 ae be

14
Answers to Exercise 0.3
1 a (a - b)be 1
1. "5 2. 14 3. 2b 4. 7 5. "7
27 4 1
6. 80 7. 9b 8. 8y 9. 0 10. ~
a
11
13 ·
a +. 6b 23
11. 0 12. 48 12 14. 60
l
15 2e + 3b - alb + abc
. ab 2e

0.15 The pocket calculator

0.15.1 Powers

The function ~

Examples:
Calculate the following using a calculator.
1. 24 2. (2, 4)5 3. (3, 6)2.4
4.~ 5.~126 6. ~(2, 6)7
Solutions:
1. 24 = 16 Press rn ~ [!J B
2. (2, 4)5 = 79,626 Press rn [] [!J B ~ ~
3. (3, 6)2.4 = 21,633 Press Q] [] @] rn [] [!J ~ B
4. ~ = 2,520 Press ill @] ~ Q] IT] B
5. ~126 = 3,350 Press ill rn @] ~ [!J rn B
6. .(/(2,6)' = 3,810 Press rn 0 @] [E:] mB [E:] ~ rn B
0.15.2 The memory

1. Press the number and Ix -+ ml to put a number into the memory.

2. Press IRM I to use the number in the memory.
3. Put zero into the memory to cancel a number in the memory.

Examples:
12 x 4 = 48 Press ill rn
Ix -+ ml ~ [!J B
12 x 9 = 108 Press IRMI ~ [2J B
15
4. If you want to add a number to the memory press the number and
1M I. For example:
+

Put 15 in the memory by pressing [I rn Ix --+ m I

Add 4 to 15 by pressing [±] IM I +

Test by pressing IRM I = 19.

5. If a number, e.g. 5, must be subtracted from the memory, press
rn [I] 1M I ([I]
+ changes the sign of the number). Test by
pressing ~!!1 = 10.

Examples:
Use a calculator to calculate:

Solution:
Press rn D rn D rn G, put it in the memory by
@] 0
pressing Ix mI --+

Press ~ D [±] G D rn B, add it to the memory by pressing

IM+I
Press [I @] 0 rn ITJ G, subtract it from the memory by
pressing [I] IM + I
Press IRMI to obtain the answer 47,664

2. ~ - (12)0 J + ..)2,4 + 11,6

Solution:
Press ~ rn G Ix --+ ml
G
Press [I rn
0 D rn G and subtract from the memory by
pressing [I] IM I +

Press rn D [±] [±] [I [I D @] G I"'¥ ~ I and add to the

memory by pressing IM I +

Answer IRMI = 2,68

16
3. [(2,1)16 + li 2
- W]6

Solution:
Press rn
D IT] ~ ~ D @] G Ix --+ m I
Press IT] ~ D rn EJ [!] G 1M I +

Press @] D [!] [EJ ~ GJ G 0 IM'I

Press IRM I [EJ @] G
Answer = 8675553,614.

0.15.3 Calculations with parentheses (brackets)

Parentheses are used when we wish to perform calculations in an order
other than that usually followed for the x, -;-, + and - operations.
The key IT] forces the operations prior to it to be pending while the
calculations inside the brackets are performed.
Pressing a number and then IT] gives the same result as pressing
o IT]. If IT] is the first part of an expression it may be omitted.

Examples:
1. 5 x (8 -;- 2) = 20
Press ~ 0
IT] [!] EJ rn rn G
2. 12 + 3 (4 x (5 + 6» = 144
Press 12 [1] 3 IT] 4 0 IT] 5 [±] 6 rn rn G
3. 18 + 6(12 x (3 + 8)2) = 8730
Press 18 [±] 6 IT] 12 0 IT] 3 [±] 8 rn [EJ 2 rnG
4. 48 x «(23 + 6) x 3) - 12 -;- 3) = 3984
Press 48 IT] IT] IT] 23 [±] 6 rn 0 3 rn El 12 El 3 rn El
Exercise 0.4
Calculate (using a calculator):
1. (2,4)°8 - m
2 21 8,4
2. 2,6(3 + ,1) - M
3. ~~ - -.}9,3 - (3,2)' 6
~ 15
4. J(28,4)2 + (6,3)2 - l3~62 + (O,9r 2

17
 5 (12,3)3 + (2,7)4 - 12
. 4(16,7)

6. (11,2)43 - (4,1~'6 + J1D

7. ~1r (2,W - \!'24.6
8. 3 (l~',~)4 - ,r + (2,6)'

9. (3~)4 + (11,2)41

10 (22 W 1
.,
+ (4,7) 3
3,2
- J 12 6 _
'
rr
4

11. 103(e - 14,6)

12. (25,1 - 3,8)(4,2 - n)
13. «2,1)3 - 4,1)e 3
14. 5 x (18 + 2)
15. 16 + 4(8 + (11 - 4) 3)

Answers to Exercise 0.4

1. 0,153 2. -130,408 3. 2,928
4. 26,415 5. 28,473 6. 32484,045
7. 71,395 8. 9,257 9. 20035,283
10. 15156,973 11. -11881,718 12. 22,544
13. 103,661 14. 100 15. 1420

18
Module 1
Factors and fractions

1.1 The common factor

Objectives and overview

On completion of this section, you should be able to factorise
polynomials containing common factors.

1.1.1 General
The process where a number, term or expression is written as a product
is called factorisation (or resolving into factors).

1.1.2 Common factors

This means that the same factor is present in every term. For example:
x is a common factor in ax + bx.

Example:
Resolve ax + bx into factors.
Solution:

(i) Short method:

ax + bx
= x(a + b) Here we say that x is "taken out' as a common factor.
This is a very handy and often used method, but it is not really a
valid mathematical operation, e.g. sin 2A =f:: 2 sin A. The answer
can easily be tested by removing the brackets by multiplying.

19
(ii) Taking out could be addition:

ax + bx
= (a + b)x [a of x and b of x is (a + b) of xl
It can be better seen in:
2x + 3x
= (2 + 3)x

(iii) Taking out could be mUltiplication:

Multiplication by the identity element for multiplication namely

= ~ = ~ etc. leaves the expression unchanged. For example:
x
14 x -
x
14 x 1
14
:. ax + bx
x
= -(ax + bx) [x by 1]

= 1"~(x
a· x + b· xx) [ x by ~ into the bracket]
x
= 1"(a.l + b.l)
= x(a + b)

Note: When factorising the highest common factor must be 'taken out'.

Examples:

Solve into factors:

(a) 2ax + 8x - 16a
D2 d2
(b) - + -
4 2

Solutions:
(a) 2ax + 8x - 16a
= 2(ax + 4x - 8a)

20
 or
2ax + 8x - 16a
2
= - (2ax + 8x - 16a)
2
= ~
1
(2ax
2 2
+
2
8x _ 16a) [ x by ~ into the bracket]
= 2 [ax + 4x - 8a]

(b) 02 d 2

-
4
+-
2

= 1(0
2 "2 +
2

d~' )

or
02 d2
4+"2
= ~(~2 + ~2)
= 1(2.042
2
+ d
2'2 2) [x by 2 into the bracket]

= ~(~2 + d 2
)

The alternative method is very handy in the following examples.

Examples:
Factorsie 1 + x 2 so that one factor must be:
1
(a) -
x
(b) x
(c) x2
Solutions:
(a) [ A factor must be ~ :. x by ~J
X
= -(1 + x 2)
x
1
= -(x. 1 + x.x-)
J
[Divide ~ into .!..x and x by xl
x x x
1 3
= -(x + x)
x
21
(b) [ A factor is x ... x by ~J
=
x
-(1 + x-,)
x

= x (l. x1+ x-.;:)1) [DIVI°de -xx Into

oldO
-.x an x by -IJ
x x

= x(~ + X)
(c) 1 + x2

1.1.3 Grouping

Sometimes terms have to be rearranged, or grouped, before factors can

be found.

Example:

Resolve ap + ax + 4p + 4x into factors.

Solution:
ap + ax + 4p + 4x [Group terms 1 and 2 as well as 3 and 4]
= a(p + x) + 4(p + x) [a and 4 are common factors. Take out a and 4]
= (p + x)(a + 4) [Take out (p + x) from term 1 and term 2]
or
ap + ax + 4p + 4x
p P
=a ( a a-+a-
ax)
+4 (4"4+"4
4X)

= a(p + x) + 4(p + x)

22
 p
= (P + x)(a. +x + 4.P + x)
P+x P+x
= (P + x)(a + 4)
The 'take out' method is shorter in this case.

Example:
6x + 2x 2 + 3 + x [Group terms 1 and 2 as well as 3 and 4]
= 2x(3 + x) + 1(3 + x) [(3 + x) is now also common]
= (3 + x)(2x + 1)
or
6x + 2x 2 + 3 + x
6X 2X2)
=2x ( 2x+ 2x +11+1
1(3 x)

= 2x(3 + x) + 1 (3 + x)
= (3 + x) (2X(3 + x)
3+x
+ 1(3 + x»)
3+x
~]
[ Xby 3+x
= (3 + x)(2x + 1)

Grouping can be applied on 4, 6, 8 terms etc.

Example:
2a - 3ax + ac + 2p - 3px + pc [Group first 3 and last 3 terms]
= a[2 - 3x + c] + p[2 - 3x + c] [(2 - 3x + c is now common]
= (2 - 3x + c)(a + p)
or
2a - 3ax + ac + 2p - 3px + pc

= a(2a _ _
a
3a_x
a
+ ac)
a
+ p(2P _ _
p
3p_x
p
+ [X
pc)
pap
~
by and e]
= a(2 - 3x + c) + p(2 - 3x + c)
= (2 _ 3x + C)[a(2 - 3x + c) + p_(_2_-_3x_·_+_C)]
2 - 3x + c 2 - 3x + c

[
X b 2 - 3x
y 2 - 3x
+
+c
c]
= (2 - 3x + c)(a + p)
23
Exercise 1.1

Resolve the following into prime (smallest) factors:

1. 12x - 4xy
2. 3ab + 4eb
3. 4nD 2 + 4nd 2
nD 2 nd 2
4.
4 +4
5. y(x - 2) + e(x - 2)
6. 4(x + 2) + x 2 + 2x
7. ax 2 + bx - a 2x - ab
8. 3a - 2ax + ax 2 + 3b - 2bx + bx 2
9. 4x 2 ....... 8x - 16 + ex 2 - 2ex - 4e
10. 3a(a + 2b + e) - 3b(-a - 2b - c)
11. 2nJe + 6Je
12. a + x(x 2 + X + a)
13. yz - xz + 3(x - y)

14. Write ~ as a factor of x + x 2

X
. 1 ~ f 1 1
15. Wnte - as a lactor 0 1 + - + "2
x x x
16. Write x 2 as a factor of (1 + 2x - 3x 2)
~ k: J2X
17. v2x + 2av2x - 3a
18. a(x - y) - bx + by
19. x 2(x + 1) + 12(x + 1) - 7x(x + 1)
20. xy2 - Y + p(l - xy)

Answers to Exercise 1.1

1. 4x(3 - y)
2. b(3a + 4e)
3. 4n(D 2 + d 2)
4. ~D2 + d 2)
5. (x - 2)(y + e)
6. (x + 2)(4 + x)
7. (ax + b)(x - a)
8. (3 - 2x + x 2)(a + b)
9. (x 2 - 2x - 4)(4 + e)

24
10. 3(a + 2b + c)(a + b)
11. 2Je
(n + 3)
12. (a + x 2)(1 + x)
13. (x - y)(3 - z)
1
14. ---;(x
x-
3
+ x
4
)

IS. ~(X +1 +~)

16. X2(~x 2
+ ~-
X
3)
17. J2X( 1+ 2a - 3~)
18. (x - y)(a - b)
19. (x + 1)(x 2 - 7x + 12)
20. (xy - 1)(y - p)

1.2 The quadratic trinomial

Objectives and overview

On completion of this section you should be able to:
1. Solve quadratic trinomials with no limitations on any term.
2. Solve quadratic trinomials containing common factors.

1.2.1 General
Generally a quadratic trinomial looks like:
ax 2 + bx + c or ax 2 + bxy + cy2 where a, band c are constants.
Quadratic trinomials originate when certain word problems are trans-
ferred to symbolic language (mathematised) or if binomials are mul-
tiplied. For example:
(x + 2)(x - 1) 2
= x + X - 2
(3x + 2)(x + 1) = 3x 2 + 5x + 2
(a - x)(2a - 3x) = 2a 2 - 5ax + 3x 2
(x - 3)(2x + 1) 2
= 2x - 5x - 3
2 2
(2x + a)(3x + 2a) = 6x + tax + 2a

25
Note that if the sign of the third terms is +, the signs of the factors
will be the same. If the sign of the third term is -, the signs of the
factors will differ.

1.2.2 The solvability of trinomials

The factors ofax l + bxy + cyl can easily be solved if the product of
a and c can be broken up into factors p and q so that the sum is equal
to b, p + q = b. It is important to remember that if the sign of the
last term is positive, p and q must have the same sign. If the sign of
the last term is negative the signs of p and q will differ.
.". ax l + bxy + cyl becomes ax 2 + (p + q) xy + cyl.

Example:
x 2_ x - 6 ." .a = 1, b = - 1 and c = - 6
= x 2
+ (p + q)x - 6 .".ac=-6
Factors of 6
= Xl + (- 3 + 2)x - 6
1 and 6 cannot result in - 1
= Xl - 3x + 2x - 6 3 an 2 can result in -1 if
= x(: - ~) + 2(2; _~) p = -3 and q = 2
.".p+q=-1
= x(x - 3) + 2(x - 3)
= (x - 3)[X(X - 3) + 2(x - 3)J
x-3 x-3
= (x - 3)(x + 2)

Example:
x 2_ 5x +6 a = 1, b = - 5 and c = 6
= Xl + (p 6 + q)x + ac = 6
= x + (- 3 - 2)x + 6
2
1x 6 -6 + 1 = -5
=>
= x 2 - 3x - 2x + 6 ." . P =6 and q = 1 but the
-
sign of 6 must be + ... the
~)
2
= x(x _ 3X) _ 2(-2X + signs of p and q must be the
x x -2-2
same
= x(x - 3) - 2(x - 3) 2 x 3 => -3 - 2 = - 5
= (x _ 3)[X(X - 3) _ 2(x - 3)J .". P = - 3 and q = - 2
x-3 x-3
= (x - 3)(x - 2)

26
If p = - 6 and q = 1 it is not possible to find factors.
x 2 _ 5x + 6
= x + (p + q)x + 6
2

= x + (- 6 + l)x + 6
2

2
= X (;2 6x :x)x + 6
= x x - x + l(x + 6)

= x(x - 6) + l(x + 6)

Example:
6x 2 - 9x - 42 a 6, b = - 9 and
=

= 6x + (p + q)x - 42
2 c -42
=
2 ac = 6( -42) = -252
= 6x + (- 21 + 12)x - 42

= 6x - 21x + 12x - 42 252

2

2 1 x 252
= 3X(6X _ 21X) + 6(12X _ 42) 2 x 126
3x 3x 6 6
3 x 84
= 3x(2x - 7) + 6(2x - 7) 4 x 63
= (2x _ 7)[3X(2X - 7) + 6(2x - 7)J 6 x 42
2x-7 2x-7 7 x 36
9 x 28
= (2x - 7)(3x + 6)
12 x 21 ~ -21 + 12
= (3x + 6)(2x - 7) = -9
3X
... p = - 21 and q = 12
= 3( 3 +"36) (2x - 7) The signs of p and q must
differ.
= 3(x + 6)(2x - 7)
or
6x 2 - 9x - 42 ... a = 2, b = - 3 and
2 c = -14
= 3(6X _ 9x _ 42)
3 3 3 ac = 2(-14) = -28
= 3(2x 2
- 3x - 14) 28
= 3[2x 2
+ (p + q)x - 14] 1 x 28
2 x 14
= 3[2x 2 + (-7 + 4)x - 14] 4x7~-7+4=-3
= 3[2x 2 - 7x + 4x - 14] ... p = - 7 and q = 4
= 3[x( 2;2 - ~) + 2(~ - 124) J
27
= 3[x(2x - 7) + 2(2x - 7)]
= 3{ (2X _ 7)[X(2X -
2x - 7
7) + 2(2x - 7)J
2x - 7
= 3{ (2x - 7)(x + 2)}
= 3(2x - 7)(x + 2)
Example:
2x 2 - 5xy + 3y 2 a = 2, b = - 5 and
= 2x 2 + (p + q)xy + 3y 2 c = 3
ac=2x3=6
= 2x 2 + (-3 -2)xy + 3y 2
= 2x 2 - 3xy - 2xy + 3y 2 6
=
2 y2
x(2X _ 3XY ) _ y(-2XY + 3 ) : X_IS ~ -6 + I
x x -y-y
But the signs of p and q
= x(2x - 3y) - y(2x - 3y) must not differ
= (2x _ 3y )[X(2X --- 3y) _ y(2x - 3y )J 3 x 2 ~ -3 3 -d 2 = -25
2x - 3y 2x - 3y .'. p = - an q = -
= (2x - 3y)(x - y)

Example:
10 - 3x - x 2 a = - 1, b = - 3 and
10 + (p + q)x - x 2 c = 10
ac = -10
10 + (- 5 + 2)x - x 2
10 - 5x + 2x - x 2 10
x
= sCso - s;) + x( ~ - :) 1
2 x 5
.'. p
10

=
~
-
-5 + 2 = -3
5 and q = 2
= 5(2 - x) + x(2 - x)

= (2 _ X)[5(2 - x) + x(2 - X)J

2-x 2-x
= (2 - x)(5 + x)
Experienced people can write it out in a much shorter form.
1.2.3 The traditional method
You must also know that if the sign of the last term is negative then
the signs of the factors must differ and when the sign of the last term
is positive the signs of the factors must be the same.
Resolving involves guessing the factors in the brackets.

28
Example:
x2 - 2x - 3
= ( )( )

Method:
1. Write down the factors of the first term x
underneath each other. x
2. Write down the factors of the last term x 3
underneath each other just to the right
of x x
x
3. Multiply across each other and write
down the answers on the same horizon-
tal plane as the arrows.
XX
x
3

1
3x

x
Just to the right of i
4. Try to find the middle term by adding
or subtracting 3x and x. Remember that
if the sign of the last term is -, the signs
of the factors must differ. If the sign of
the last term is +, the signs of the fac-
X: -3x

+x
-2x

tors must be the same + or -.

5. The signs of the answers are displaced x -~
3 -3x
to the arrow points on the same hori-
zontal plane. x+~+x
-2x
:. x 2 _ 2x - 3
= (x - 3)(x + 1)
As a test, the factors can be multiplied to result in the original
expression.

Exercise 1.2
Resolve into factors:
1. x 2 + X - 20 2. x 2 + 9x + 14
3. x 2 - 5x + 6 4. 2x 2 + 11x - 6
5. 3x 2 + 8x + 4 6. 6x 2 + 13x - 5
7. 21x 2 + 17x + 2 8. 15x 2 - 26x + 8
9. 9p 2 - 21p + 6 10. 8a 2 + 28a + 24
11. 15a 2 - 85a - 140 12. a 2 + 2ab + b 2
13. 2a 2 + 5ab + 3b 2 14. 15x 2 + xy - 2y 2

29