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Neutrons and protons have common name, the nucleons.

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Nucleons: Protons & Neutrons which are present in the nuclei of atoms are
collectively known as nucleons.

Atomic number (𝒁): The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic
number of the elements. It is denoted by Z.

Mass number (𝑨): The total number of protons and neutrons present in a
nucleus is called the mass number of the elements. It is denoted by A.

Nuclear mass: The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a nucleus
is called the nuclear mass.

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Nuclide:

Nuclide is a specific nucleus of an atom characterized by its atomic number

(𝑍) and mass number(𝐴).

It is represented by
𝑨𝑿
𝒁

where X is the chemical symbol of the element.

For example, gold nucleus is represented as 197

79𝐴𝑢.
It contains 197 nucleons, of which 79 are protons and 118 neutrons.

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Isotopes: The atoms of an element which have the same atomic number but different
mass number. 11𝐻 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑢𝑚 , 21𝐻 𝑑𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 & 31𝐻(𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚) (A different, Z same)

Isobars: The atoms of an element which have the different atomic number but same
mass number. 3𝐻 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3𝐻𝑒 ( A same, Z different)
1 2

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Isotones: The nuclides having the same number of neutrons.
37 39
17 𝐶𝑙 and 19𝐾 are isotones as 𝑁 = 𝐴 − 𝑍 = 20

Isomers: These are the nuclei with same atomic number and same mass number
but existing in different energy states. ( A same, Z same)

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Atomic mass unit (unit of mass):
𝟏 𝐚𝐦𝐮 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓𝟔𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕𝒌𝒈

Electron Volt (unit of energy):

1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−19𝐽
1 𝑀𝑒𝑉 = 106 𝑒𝑉 = 1.602 × 10−13𝐽

Relation between amu & MeV:

𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽

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The composition of a nucleus can now be described using the following
terms and symbols:

Z (atomic number) = number of protons

N (neutron number) = number of neutrons

A (mass number) = Z + N = total number of protons and neutrons

One also uses the term nucleon for a proton or a neutron. Thus the
number of nucleons in an atom is its mass number A.

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Experimental observations show that the volume of a
nucleus is directly proportional to its mass number.
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𝜋𝑅3 ∝ 𝐴
3

The radius R of a nucleus is proportional to cube root of its

mass number.
𝑅 ∝ 𝐴1/3

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎𝑨𝟏/𝟑
𝑅0 = 1.2 × 10−15𝑚

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The density of nuclear matter is the ratio of the mass of a nucleus of
its volume.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠
𝜌𝑛𝑢 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑢𝑠

𝑚𝐴 3𝑚
=4 =
3 4𝜋𝑅 0 3
3 𝜋𝑅0 𝐴

NOTE: Nuclear density is same for all Nuclei

Nuclear density is independent of mass number A & size of Nucleus.

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PROPERTIES The average separation between two nucleons is about 10−15 𝑚.
1. Strongest interaction The strong attractive interaction acting between the nucleons is
2. Short range focus called nuclear force or strong interaction.
3. Variation with distance
4. Charge independent character
5. Saturation effect
6. Spin dependent character
7. Exchange forces
8. Non-central forces

graphs of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a function of

their separation.
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 PROPERTIES

• Strongest interaction
𝐹𝑔: 𝐹𝑒: 𝐹𝑛 = 1: 1036: 1038

• Short range focus

It operates only upto very short distance
of about 2-3 fm from a nucleon.

• Variation with distance

The P.E. is minimum at a distance 𝑟0 ≈ 0.8 𝑓𝑚

graphs of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a function of

their separation.

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 PROPERTIES

• Charge independent character

nuclear force does not depend on the charge of the
particles.

• Saturation effect
Nuclear forces show saturation effect, i.e., a nucleon
interacts only with its neighbouring nucleon.

• Spin dependent character

The nuclear force between two nucleons having
parallel spins is stronger than that between two
nucleons having antiparallel spins

graphs of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a function of

their separation.

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 PROPERTIES

• Exchange forces
nuclear force between two nucleons arises from
the constant exchange of particles, called
mesons, between them.

• Non-central forces
The nuclear force between two nucleons does
not act along the line joining their centres.

graphs of P.E. a pair of nucleons as a function of

their separation.

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 𝑬 = 𝒎𝒄𝟐

𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝒖 = 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝑴𝒆𝑽

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For example, let us consider 168𝑂 ; a nucleus which has 8
neutrons and 8 protons. We have

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If a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to form
a nucleus of a certain charge and mass, an energy 𝑬𝒃 will be released in
the process. The energy 𝐸𝑏 is called the binding energy of the nucleus.

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Binding energy curve. The value of binding energy per nucleon of a
nucleus gives a measure of the stability of that nucleus.

Greater is the binding energy per nucleon of a nucleus, more stable is the
nucleus.

Binding energy per nucleon as a

function of mass number A. 19
 We notice the following main features of the graph:

(i) the binding energy per nucleon, 𝐸𝑏𝑛, is practically

constant, i.e. practically independent of the atomic
number for nuclei of middle mass number
( 30 < A < 170).

The curve has a maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 (Fe)

and has a value of 7.6 MeV for A = 238 (U).

ii. 𝐸𝑏𝑛 is lower for both light nuclei (A<30) and heavy
nuclei (A>170).
Binding energy per nucleon as a
function of mass number A.

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(i) The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a
binding energy of a few MeV per nucleon.

Binding energy per nucleon as a

function of mass number A.

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 (ii) The Constancy of the binding Energy in the range 30 < 𝐴 < 170 is
a consequence of fact that the nuclear force is short-ranged.
(Explanation)

The property that a given nucleon influences only nucleons close to

it is also referred to as saturation property of the nuclear force.

Binding energy per nucleon as a

function of mass number A.

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 (iii) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per
nucleon compared to that of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a
nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei, nucleons get more
tightly bound. This implies energy would be released in the process.

It has very important implications for energy production through

Nuclear fission.

Binding energy per nucleon as a

function of mass number A.

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 (iv) Consider two very light nuclei (𝐴 ≤ 10) joining to form a
heavier nucleus. The binding energy per nucleon of the fused
heavier nuclei
is more than the binding energy per nucleon of the lighter
nuclei.

This means that the final system is more tightly bound than
the initial system. Again energy would be released in such a
process of Nuclear fusion.
This is the energy source of sun.

Binding energy per nucleon as a

function of mass number A.

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A reaction which involves the change of stable nucleus of
one element into the nucleus of another element is called
nuclear reaction.

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 The energy released during a nuclear reaction is called nuclear
energy.

The nuclear reactions which can be exploited to produce

energy are of two broad types:

1. Nuclear fission in which a heavy nucleus splits

up into two smaller nuclei, liberating a large amount of
energy as in an atom bomb.

2. Nuclear fusion in which two smaller nuclei fuse

together to form a larger nucleus, releasing a large
amount of energy as in a hydrogen bomb.

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The phenomenon in which a heavy nucleus (𝐴 > 230) when excited splits out
into two smaller nuclei of nearly comparable masses is called nuclear fission.

𝟐𝟑𝟓𝑼 + 𝟏𝒏 → 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝑩𝒂 + 𝟗𝟐𝑲𝒓 + 𝟑𝟏𝒏 + 𝑸

𝟗𝟐 𝟎 𝟓𝟔 𝟑𝟔 𝟎

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235𝑈 + 1𝑛 → 141𝐵𝑎 + 92𝐾𝑟 + 31𝑛 + 𝑄
92 0 56 36 0

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The process in which two light nuclei combine (at extremely high
temperature)to form a single heavier nucleus is called nuclear
fusion.

For example, the fusion of two deuterium nuclei into helium is

given as

𝟐𝑯 + 𝟐𝑯 → 𝟒𝑯 + 𝟐𝟏. 𝟔 𝑴𝒆𝑽
𝟏 𝟏 𝟐

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Necessary conditions for nuclear fusion
• The high temperature is necessary for the light nuclei to have
sufficient kinetic energy so that they can overcome their mutual
columbic repulsions and come closer than the range of nuclear
force. That is why a fusion reaction is also called a thermonuclear
reaction.

• High density or pressure increases the frequency of collision of

light nuclei and hence increases the rate of fusion.

These conditions exist in the interior of the Sun where the

temperature is about 2 × 106 𝐾.

Such conditions cannot be easily met in a laboratory.

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If the energy released in a thermonuclear reaction is controlled in
such a manner that a limited amount of energy is produced
continuously, it can be used for many useful purposes,
particularly for generation of electrical power.

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 NUCLEAR FISSION NUCLEAR FUSION
1. Here a heavy nucleus when excited gets split Here two lighter nuclei fuse together to form a
up into two smaller nuclei of nearly heavier nucleus.
comparable masses.
2. It is a quick process. It occurs in several steps.
3. Neutrons are the link particles of this process. Protons are the link particles of this process.
4. It produces very harmful radioactive wastes. The products of fusion are harmless.
5. The stock is fissionable fusion is limited. The fuel required for fusion is available in plenty.

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