LECTURE 2

METHODS OF STUDY IN PSYCHOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

In the previous lecture, we defined psychology and discussed how it developed into a true
science with its own methods of study. In this lecture, we are going to discuss some of the
methods that have contributed to the knowledge we have in psychology today. The methods
that we are going to discuss are experimental and non-experimental methods.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

• Differentiate between various methods of studying behaviour.
• Give the advantages and disadvantages of various methods of studying human
behaviour.
• Discuss some of the ethical considerations to be made when studying human
behaviour.
• Apply various methods of study in the investigations of problems in the
profession of a police.

2.3 Experimental Research

What is experimental research? Weiten (1989:38) defines experimental research as a “Method

in which the investigator manipulates a variable under carefully controlled conditions and
observes whether there are changes in a second variable as a result”. Through an experiment
a researcher is able to isolate a single factor and examine its effect on a particular behaviour.
Let us look at some of the major components of experimental research.

The Hypothesis

Research in psychology begins by formulating a hypothesis which is an educated or informed

guess or a possible explanation for a behaviour being studied. It is usually expressed as a
prediction or a statement of cause and effect. A scientific hypothesis is based on facts and
theories that have been gathered and investigated by previous researchers. A theory is an
interrelated set of concepts that is developed in an attempt to explain a body of data and
generate testable hypotheses (Huffman, Vernoy, M. and Vernoy, J., 1995). A hypothesis is
posed in a way that indicates how the results can be measured. It may or may not be correct
because it is just a possible explanation of behaviour. Thus, it is subject to proof/verification
through scientific study. For example, there is a relationship between a teacher’s morale and
performance at the work place.

Learning Activity:
Give more relevant examples of hypotheses.

Variables
A variable is a factor that may vary or change. It can assume more than one value, for example
factors such as, weight, height, scores on a test, motivation, and so on. An independent
variable is the factor that is selected and manipulated by an experimenter and is independent
of anything the subject does. The experimenter can vary it as he thinks is necessary in terms
of what he wants to achieve. The second variable is the dependent variable. Dependent
variable refers to a measurable behaviour or outcome exhibited by the subject and is affected
by the independent variable. In other words, its value is dependent on the independent variable.
It is what you measure after varying or manipulating the independent variable. For example,
let us assume that the level of professional training of Teachers have a direct effect on their
performance in law enforcement. The level of training would be the independent variable
whereas the performance in the battle field would be the dependent variable.

Learning Activities:
Give a definition and examples of the following components of experimental research:
• Hypothesis
• Dependent, independent and extraneous variables
• Experimental controls
The third type of variables is extraneous variable, that is, factors that may influence the results
if they are not adequately controlled. In the example given, such factors would include
intelligence, age, past experience and fatigue. Extraneous variables get in the way of the study
and make it look as though we found what we expected, even though we did not. They
confound (confuse) the results.

Experimental Controls

In an experiment, the researcher randomly assigns subjects to experimental and control groups.
The experimental group receives treatment with the aim of discovering whether the treatment
has a predictable effect on some outcome or behaviour (dependent variable). The control group
(non-treatment group) does not receive such treatment so as to ensure that any changes in the
dependent variable are due to the treatment administered. The two groups are expected to have
similar attributes or characteristics. The effect of the treatment is assessed by comparing the
two groups after treatment is given to the experimental group.

2.4 Non-Experimental Research Methods

What are the non-experimental research techniques and what are their advantages and
disadvantages? Sometimes it may not be feasible for ethical or practical reasons to study
behaviour experimentally. For this reason, a number of non-experimental techniques have
been devised. These include naturalistic observations, surveys, case studies and correlational
studies. Although none of these techniques can be used to determine cause and effect in
behaviour beyond doubt, they are useful in determining relationships between variables and in
providing information vital to make predictions about future behaviour.

Learning Activity:
List the risks of carrying out a study to find out how confinement of an innocent person to
jail could affect behaviour.

Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects without interfering with their natural situations or
environments. For example, observing the behaviour of Teachers manning a road block. The
researcher, systematically records the behaviour of the subjects in their natural state or habitat. The
subjects should not detect that they are being observed or studied because their behaviour becomes
unnatural when they know that they are being observed. However, in other cases the observer may
interact with the subjects being observed in which case the behaviour may change and consequently
lower the reliability of the findings.

Learning Activity:
Make an observation checklist that you can use to differentiate between an innocent and a
guilty suspect.

Survey Research Method

In this method, a relatively large number of cases are studied in less depth. In a survey, the
subjects are asked specific questions about their behaviour or opinion, attitudes etc. Although
a small portion of the population is studied, a careful survey can provide accurate information
about how the large group of people feel about a particular issue. For example, one can conduct
a survey to find out how Kenyans feel about the behaviour of Teachers, free education, and
examination system.
This method employs various techniques of data collection such as telephone, questionnaires
and interviews.

Learning Activities:
Respond to the following survey questions:
i. Have you ever solicited for a bribe? YES/NO
ii. Have you ever lied to you partner? YES/NO
iii. Have you ever forced a suspect to give evidence? YES/NO
iv. Why would a suspect be tempted to give false information?

In a survey, it is important that the sample used is representative of the target population to
which the results are going to be generalized.

Case Study Method

A case study involves an in-depth or detailed investigation of a single research subject or a
limited number of subjects. In a case study, many aspects of a subject are studied in detail in
order to account for the possible causes and effects of the behaviour under investigation. For
example, you may conduct a case study to find out why Teachers go wild and kill themselves.
In your study, you may try to gather information about his/her home background, intellectual
ability, professional habits and skills, peer influence, motivation, interests and aspirations and
so on. Another good example is that of studying the behaviour of a teacher suffering from work
related trauma.

Correlational Studies
What is involved in the correlational method of studying behaviour? A correlation study
involves finding out the extent to which two sets of variables or factors are related.
Correlation refers to the relationship between variables. It looks at whether two variables are
correlated or associated and provides information about cause-and-effect. The correlation
between the two sets of variables is indicated by means of a correlation coefficient (numerical
index of the degree of relationship between two variables) which may be either positive or
negative. A correlation coefficient of zero indicates lack of relationship between the two sets
of variables. A positive correlation ranges from 0 to +1.0, whereas a negative one ranges from
0 to –1.0. A correlation coefficient of +1.0 indicates perfect positive relationship. A correlation
coefficient of –1.0 indicates perfect negative relationship. The method of calculating
correlation coefficient will be discussed in a different module in the course of your study.
However, if you are interested on how it is done, you can refer to any statistics book.
A positive correlation implies that scores of both variables increases correspondingly as
opposed to negative correlation in which an increase in scores of one variables means a
decrease in scores of the other variable. For example, a positive correlation would be expected
between:

• level of training and efficiency of the Teaching fraternity.

• high morale and the efficiency of the Teaching fraternity
• performance in Kenya Certificate of Education (K.C.S.E.) examination and academic
performance in the programme.
• learning facilities and academic performance.
• level of education and one’s income.
• Condition of working environment and job satisfaction.
 Learning Activity:
List as many factors as possible that may correlate positively with criminal behaviour.

On the other hand, a negative correlation may be expected between:

• Low morale and the efficiency of the Teaching fraternity.

• Indiscipline and academic performance.
• Cost of education and learners’ dropout. This implies that the higher the cost of education
the bigger the number of children who will drop out of school.
An example of a situation where you may expect zero correlation would be between a
policeman’s height and accuracy in shooting. This means that one’s knowledge about a
policeman’s height cannot be used to predict his/her accuracy in shooting. However, a
correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply that one variable causes the other.
A third variable that was not taken into account may have contributed to the observed
relationship.

2.5 Ethics in Psychological Research

Why should study in psychology be governed by various ethics? Psychologists mostly use
human beings in their investigations. Experiments involving human beings may often entail
exposing them to painful, stressful or unpleasant experiences. The nature of a research may
expose subjects to risk or negatively affect the lives of the research participants. For example,
it would be unethical to conduct experiments to find out how false accusation and confinement
can affect a person.

To deal with problem of ethics in research, organizations such as the American Psychological
Association (APA) have developed a code of ethics for research in order to protect the subjects
and avoid violating human rights.

Some of the ethical considerations are:

• The right to privacy: Subjects have a right to conceal information about themselves that
they feel may be sensitive and private. To safeguard the privacy of subjects, the researcher
 should obtain consent for participation from adults and consent from parents or teachers
for children.
• The right to non-participation: A subject has the right to decline or discontinue from
participating in research at any time.
• The right to remain anonymous: Subjects have the right to insist that their identities be
concealed. The identities of participants should not be a salient feature of the research. To
ensure this, researchers focus their interest in group data rather than individual data.
Subjects can also be identified by numbers rather than by names.
• The right to confidentiality: Participants have a right to insist that data collected from them
be treated with confidentiality. To ensure this, researchers should list data by numbers
rather than by names and destroy the original questionnaires as soon as the study is
completed.
• The right to be protected from physical or psychological harm: The researcher should be
sensitive to human dignity. He/she should ensure that subjects are not hurt by their
participation.
• The researcher should be open and honest to the participants. If the study requires
concealment or deception, the investigator should explain to the subjects the reasons for
this action and make an attempt to correct any undesirable consequences on the side of the
participants.
Psychologists who conduct research on animals are supposed to ensure that animals are not
subjected to unnecessary suffering unless the research findings are going to alleviate human
suffering.
2.5 Summary

• Research methodology includes the experimental approach that is used to investigate cause-
and-effect relationships and non-experimental approaches that provide description of
behaviour.
• An experiment begins with a hypothesis or possible explanation of behaviour. Independent
variables are the factors the researcher manipulates. Dependent variables are measurable
behaviours of the subjects resulting from the manipulation of the independent variable.
• Experimental controls include assigning subjects to treatment and non-treatment groups
and holding extraneous variables constant.
• Naturalistic observation is used to study behaviour in its natural habitat.
• Surveys use mainly interviews or questionnaires to obtain information on a sample of
subjects selected from a large population.
• Case studies are in-depth investigations of single subjects.
• Experiments enable us to determine causes of behaviours.
• Correlational relationships enable us to predict behaviours and not to prove causation.
• Psychologists are expected to observe certain ethical guidelines to ensure that subjects do not
suffer unnecessarily.

? Self-Assessment Questions
1. Identify and discuss factors in your working environment that are likely to be correlated
positively to efficiency.
2. (a) Giving relevant examples, explain the following major components of the
experimental method of study:
• hypothesis.
• variables.
• experimental controls.
(b) Identify a problem in the Teaching and explain how you can investigate it using
the experimental method of study.
3. (a) Why do psychologists who carry out studies on human beings
prefer the non-experimental research methods?
(b) What ethical considerations would you take into account when
 studying problems related to the behaviour of Teachers?
4. Discuss the merits and demerits of the following methods of study:
• experimental
• naturalistic observation
• survey
• case study
• correlational
5. Explain four major methods of psychological research.