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Brain Pointer - Physics

BRAIN POINTER

PHYSICS

Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE
PALA

Mutholy Campus, Ph: 04822 - 206100, 206800


Arunapuram Campus, Ph: 04822 - 212415, 210949, 216975
Ernakulam - Ph: 0484 - 2665080, 2665090

www.brilliantpala.org
email: brilliantstudycentre@gmail.com

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Repeaters 2022-NEET - [Physics]

Brain Pointer - Physics

CONTENTS

1. Physical World, Units and Measurements ---------------------------------------------------------- 05


2. Motion in a Straight Line -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
3. Motion in a Plane --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
4. Laws of Motion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 20
5. Work Energy & Power ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
6. System of Particles and Rigid Body Rotation --------------------------------------------------- 39
7. Gravitation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
8. Mechanical Properties of Solids & Fluids ---------------------------------------------------------- 59
9. Thermal Properties of Matter, Thermodynamics
and Kinetic Theory ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 86
10. Oscillations ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 106

11. Waves--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 118

12. Electrostatics -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128

13. Current Electricity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 156

14. Moving Charges and Magnetism------------------------------------------------------------------------ 179

15. Magnetism and Matter ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 186

16. Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Current --------------------------------------- 190

17. Electromagnetic Waves --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 197

18. Ray Optics & Optical Instruments ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 201

19. Wave Optics ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 214

20. Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation --------------------------------------------------------------- 218

21. Atoms and Nuclei-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 223

22. Semiconductor Electronics --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 230

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Brain Pointer - Physics

CHAPTER - 01
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

The comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit is called
measurement.
Physical Quantities
All the quantities in terms of which laws of physics are described, and
whose measurement is necessary are called physical quantities
Units
 A definite amount of a physical quantity is taken as its standard unit
 The standard unit should be easily reproducible, internationally
accepted
Fundamental Units
Those physical quantities which are independent to each other are
called fundamental quantities and their units are called fundamental
units.

Supplementary Fundamental Units


Radian and steradian are two supplementary fundamental units. It
measures plane angle and solid angle respectively.

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Supplementary Supplementary
Symbol
Fundamental Quantities Unit
Palne angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian Sr

Definitions of Fundamental Units


The seven fundamental units of SI have been defined as under
1. 1 kilogram : A cylindrical prototype mass made of platinum and iridium
alloys of height 39 mm and diameter mm. It is mass of 5.0188  10 25
atoms of carbon-12.
2. 1 metre : 1 metre is the distance that contains 1650763.73 wavelength
of orange-red light of Kr-86
3. 1 Second : 1 second is the time in which cesium atom vibrates
9192631770 times in an atomic clock
4. 1 Kelvin : 1 kelvin is the (I/273.16) part of the thermodynamics
temperature of the triple point of water
5. 1 candela : 1 candela is (1/60) luminous intensity of an ideal source
by an area of cm2 when source is at melting point of platinum (1760oC)
6. 1 ampere : 1 ampere is the electric current which it maintained in two
straight parallel conductor of infinite length and of negligible cross-
section area placed one metre apart in vacuum will produce between
them a force 2 10 7 N per metre length.

7. 1 mole : 1 mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains


a many elementary entities (may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons
or group of particles, as this and atoms in 0.012 kg of carbon is isotope

6 C12 .
System of Units
A system of units is the complete set of units, both fundamental and
derived, for all kinds of physical quantities. The common system of
units which is used in mechanics are given below:
1. CGS System : In this system, the unit of length is centimetre, the unit
of mass is gram and the unit of time is second

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Brain Pointer - Physics

2. FPS System : In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of
mass is pound and the unit of time is second
3. MKS System : In this system, the unit of length is metre, the unit of
mass is kilogram and the unit of time is second
4. SI System : This system contain seven fundamental units and two
supplementary fundamental units
Some Practical Units
1. 1 fermi = 10 15 m
2. 1 X-ray unit = 10 13 m
3. 1 astronomical unit = 1.49  1011 m (average distance between sun
and earth)
4. 1 light year = 9.46  1015 m
5. 1 parsec = 3.08  1016 m = 3.26 light year
Dimensions
Dimensions of any physical quantity are those powers which are raised
on fundamental units to express its unit. The expression which shows
how and which of the base quantities represent the dimensions of a
physical quantity, is called the dimensional formula.
Homogeneity Principle
If the dimensions of left hand side of an equation are equal to the
dimensions of right hand side of the equation, then the equation is
dimensionally correct. This is known as homogeneity principle.
Mathematically [LHS] = [RHS]
Applications of Dimensions
1. To check the accuracy of physical equations
2. To change a physical quantity from one system of units to another
system of units
3. To obtain a relation between different physical quantities
Significant Figures
In the measured value of a physical quantity, the number of digits
about the correctness of which we are sure plus the next doubtful
digit, are called the significant figures.

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Rules for Finding Significant Figures
1. All non-zeros digits are significant figures, e.g. 4362m has 4 significant
figures
2. All zeros occuring between non-zero digits are significant figures, e.g.
1005 has 4 significant figures
3. All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digits are not significant, e.g.
6250 has only 3 significant figures.
4. In a digit less than one, all zeros to the right of the decimal point and to
the left of a non-zero digit are not significant, e.g. 0.00325 has only 3
significant figures.
5. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit in the decimal part are
significant, e.g. 1.4750 has 5 significant figures.
Significant Figures in Algebraic Operations
(i) In addition or Subtraction : In addition or subtraction of the numerical
values the final result should retain the least decimal place as in the
various numerical values.
(ii) In Multiplication or Division : In multiplication or division of the
numerical values, the final result should retain the least significant
figures as the various numerical values.
Rules of Rounding off Significant Figures
1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left
unchanged. e.g. 1.54 is rounded off to 1.5
2. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is
raised by one. e.g. 2.49 is rounded off to 2.5
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digit other than zero, then the
preceding digit is raised by one. e.g. 3.55 is rounded off to 3.6
4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding
digit is raised by one, if it is odd and left unchanged if it is even. e.g.
3.750 is rounded off to 3.8 and 4.650 is rounded off to 4.6
Error
The lack in accuracy in the measurement due to the limit of accuracy
of the instrument or due to any other cause is called an error
1. Absolute Error
The difference between the true value and the measure value of a
quantity is called absolute error

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Brain Pointer - Physics

If a1, a2, a3,........,an are the measured values of any quantity a in an


experiment performed n times, then the arithmetic mean of these
values is called the true value (am) of the quantity.
a 1  a 2  a 3  ....  a n
am 
n
The absolute error in measured values is given by
a1  a m  a1
a 2  a m  a1
.....................
a m  a m  a n
2. Mean absolute error
The arithmetic mean of the magnitude of absolute errors in all the
measurement is called mean absolute error.
a1  a 2  ...  a n
a 
n
3. Relative Error : The ratio of mean absolute error to the true value is
called relative
Mean absolute error a
Relative error = 
True value am
4. Percentage error : The relative error expressed in percentage is
called percentage error
a
Percentage error =  100%
am
Propagation of Error
(i) Error in Addition or Subtraction Let x = a + b or x = a – b
If the measured values of two quantities a and b are  a  a  and

 b  b  , then maximum absolute error in their addition or subtraction


x    a  b 
(ii) Error in Multiplication or Division Let x = a x b or x = (a b).
If the measured values of a and b are  a  a  and  b  b  , then
maximum relative error
x  a b 
   
x  a b 

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CHAPTER - 02
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

If a body covers distances S1 ,S2 ,S3 ,...... with speed V1 , V2 , V3 ,.....


then

S1  S2  S3
Average speed =
S1 S2 S3
 
V1 V2 V3

If a body travels with speed V1 , V2 , V3 ,..... in time intervals t1 , t 2 , t 3 .....


then

t1v1  t 2 v 2  t 3 v3 ....
Average speed =
t1  t 2  t 3 ....
If a body travels equal distances with speed V1 and V2, then average
2V1V2
speed =
V1  V2
If a body travels for equal time with speed V1 and V2 then average
V1  V2
speed =
2
Kinematic Equations

  u  at
 2  u 2  2as   u  gt
1 1
S  ut  at 2 h  ut  gt 2
2 2
a
Sn  u   2n  1  2  u 2  2gh
2

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Brain Pointer - Physics

For a body thrown vertically up

u2
Max. height reached, h 
2g
u
Time of ascent = Time of descent =
g
2u
Total time of flight =
g

Velocity attained by a body dropped from height h,   2gh

u2
Stopping distance =
2g

Relative velocity of B w.r.to A VBA  VB  VA

When A & B moves in same direction


Relative velocity of B w.r.to A when A & B moves in opposite direction
VBA  VB  VA

Position time graph of an object with +ve acceleration

Position time graph of an object with –ve acceleration

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Position time graph of an object with zero acceleration

Position time graph of an object at rest.


Velocity time graph for motion with constant acceleration.

Motion in positive direction with positive acceleration.

Motion in positive direction with –ve acceleration

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Motion of an object with negative acceleration. In between time 0 to t1


it moves in +ve x direction and after t1 it starts moving in opposite
direction.

Motion in –ve direction with –ve acceleration

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CHAPTER - 03
MOTION IN A PLANE

Vectors

Addition and Subtraction of Two Vectors


Triangle law of vector addition:

  
R AB

Parallelogram law of vector addition

Subtraction
A – B can be written as A+(–B) or A – B is really the vector addition of
A and –B

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Multiplication of Vectors by Scalars


The product of a vector A and a scalar m is a vector mA whose
magnitude is m times the magnitude of A and which is in the direction
or opposite to A according as the scalar m is positive or negative.
Thus

mA  mA
Resolution of a vector into two perpendicular components

R x  R cos 
R y  R sin 
Ry
tan  
Rx

Scalar or Dot Product

A.B  ABcos 
Vector or Cross Product
 
A.B  ABsin nˆ

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Relative velocity of Rain w.r.t the Moving Man

River - boat
a) To cross the river in minimum time :

b
t min 
v br

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Brain Pointer - Physics

b) To cross the river along shortest path :

 
  sin 1  r 
  br 
PROJECTILE MOTION
Oblique Projectile

For horizontal motion x  u cos  t

1 2
For vertical motion y   u sin   t  gt
2
Equation of trajectory

gx 2
y  x tan  
2u 2 cos 2 
Time of flight (T)

2u sin 
Time of flight T 
g
Maximum Height (H)

Horizontal Range (R)

R max
H
4

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Horizontal component of velocity
remains constant
through out the motion
Horizontal projection from some height

 Time of flight

 Horizontal range

 Angle of velocity at any instant with horizontal


CIRCULAR MOTION

the axis of circular path directed downwards.


Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity    r
For uniform circular motion  remains constant where as for non-
uniform motion  varies with respect to time

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Centripetal Acceleration

v2 42
a  2 r  4 2 n 2 r  2 r
r T
Centripetal force

mv 2 m42 r
F  m2 r  m42 n 2 r 
r T2
Non-Uniform circular Motion
Net acceleration of the particle

a  a c2  a T2

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CHAPTER - 04
LAWS OF MOTION

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Lamis theorem

F1 F F
 2  3
sin  sin  sin 
Newtons Laws
1. Newtons 1st law  Law of inertia
Types of inertia

Momentum
P = mv
It is the product of mass and velocity
2. Newtons second law  Law of force

dp
F
dt
F  ma
Impulse

I  F  dt
I  F  t 2  t1 

Impulse = change in momentum

I  mv  u
If force is variable

dI  F  dt
tf

 I   Fdt
ti

Note : Area under force-time graph gives impulse

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Special Cases
Case 1 :

Impulse = 2mu

Case 2 :

Impulse = 2mu cos 

Newtons 3rd Law


Law of action and reaction

FAB  FBA
Conservation of momentum

 Pi system   Pf system
m1u1  m 2 u 2  m1v1  m 2 v 2

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Recoil of gun

m b v b
Vg 
mg
Rocket propulsion

dm
Fthrust  u.
dt
dm
Fnet  u.  mg
dt

u dm
Acceleration, a  g
m dt

u dm
At free space, a 
m dt
Motion of a mass inside a Lift
Case 1 : Lift at rest/uniform motion
R = mg
Case 2 : Lift accelerating upward

R  m g  a 
Case 3 : Lift accelerating downward

R  m g  a 
Case 4 : Lift under free fall

R  m g  g 
R=0
CONNECTED BODIES
Case 1:

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F
a
m1  m 2
F
F1  m 2 
m1  m 2

Case 2:

F
a
m1  m 2  m3

F1 
 m 2  m3  F
m1  m 2  m3
m3  F
F2 
m1  m 2
Case 3:

F
a
m1  m 2
m1  F
T
m1  m 2
Case 4:

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Brain Pointer - Physics

F
a
m1  m 2  m3
m1F
T1 
m1  m 2  m3

T2 
 m1  m 2  F
m1  m 2  m3

Monkey on a rope
Case 1 :
Monkey at rest
T = mg
Case 2 :
Monkey move up with an acceleration 

T  m g  a 
Case 3 :
Monkey move down with m acceleration 

T  m g  a 
Pulley System
Case 1

if m1  m 2

a
 m1  m 2  g
m1  m 2
2m1m 2 g
T
m1  m 2

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Case 2

m 2g
a
m1  m 2
m1m 2g
T
m1  m 2

Case 3

a
 m1 sin   m 2  g
m1  m 2
m1m 2 1  sin 
T
m1  m 2

Case 4

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a
 m1 sin   m2 sin   g
m1  m 2
m1m 2g sin   sin 
T
m1  m 2

FRICTION

 It is an opposing force which opposes the relative motion between


two surfaces

fN
f  N
  coefficient of friction

Types of Friction
1. Static friction

f s N
fs  g N

 s  coefficient of static friction

2. Kinetic friction

f K N
f K  K N

 K  coefficient of kinetic friction

3. Rolling friction

f r N
fr  r N

 r  coefficient of rolling friction

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Graph between applied force and frictional force

OA  object at rest
B  object tends to move
BC  object is in motion
Angle of friction

  tan 1  s
Angle of repose

  tan 1  s
Acceleration on a rough surface

F  fK
a
m
Acceleration on inclined plane
Case 1
When body move up

  mg sin   mg cos 


a
m
a  g sin    cos 

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Case 2
When block is moving down

a  g sin    cos 

Stopping distance
Case 1
Horizontal surface

u2
S
2g
Time taken to come rest

u
t
g
Case 2
Inclined surface

u2
S
2g sin    cos 

Tangential acceleration

dv
at 
dt

for UCM  a t  0
for NUCM  a t  0

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Centripetal acceleration

v2
ac 
R
Net acceleration

a tot  a c2  a 2t
at
tan  
ac

Centripetal force

mv 2
Fc 
R
Motion of a car on a circular road
Case 1:
Level Road

vmax  s Rg

Case 2:
Banked Road
For no skidding

mv 2
mg sin   cos 
R
angle of banking
v2
  tan 1
rg
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Brain Pointer - Physics

Skidding up along the plane

mv 2
if mg sin   cos 
R

Rg   tan 
Vmax 
1   tan 

Skidding down along the plane

mv 2
if mg sin   cos 
R

Rg   tan 
Vmax 
1   tan 

Angle of binding of a cyclist

v2
  tan 1
rg
v  Rg tan 

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Conical pendulum

v  Rg tan 
Tension in the string

v4
Tm  g2
R2
Bike on a circular Bridge
Case1 Case 2
Concave Bridge Convex Bridge

Fc  N  mg cos  Fc  mg cos   N
mv 2 mv 2
 N  mg cos    N  mg cos  
R R

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Brain Pointer - Physics

CHAPTER - 05
WORK ENERGY POWER

 Work done by a constant force W  Fs cos 



 In vector form, W  F.s

 SI unit of work = Joule, cgs unit of work = erg

Dimension of work  ML T 
2 2

 Maximum work Wmax  Fs

 Minimum work Wmin   Fs

 Condition for zero work 1)   90o (angle between F


and s)
2) F = 0 or s = 0
B

 Work done by variable force W  F.ds 
n

 In rectangular component form


xB yB zB

W Fd
xA
x x  Fd
yA
y y   Fd
zA
z z

 Area under force - displacement graph gives total work done


 Conservative forces - gravitational force, elastic spring restoring
force, electrostatic force, bouyancy force, central forces
 Non conservation forces - friction, air resistance, viscosity
 Work and energy are scalar quantities
 Units and dimensions of work and energy are same

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1
 Kinetic energy, KE  mv 2
2

P2
 Relation between KE and momentum KE 
2m
1 1
 Work-Energy theorem W  m 2  m 2
2 2
 Gravitational potential energy, PE=mgh
1
 Elastic potential energy, PE  Kx 2  U
2
 Work done can be change in potential energy
 KE is always positive, PE can be positive, negative or zero
 If the force acting is conservative, KE + PE = a constant
work
 Power 
time
dw
 Instanenous power =
dt
 P = Fv
 
 P  F.V (Power can be written as the dot product of two vectors)
 SI unit of power = watt
 Practical unit of power = hose power, 1 hP = 746 watt
 Commercial unit of energy = 1 KWh

 1 KWh  3.6 106 J


 Power dissiplated by centripetal force is zero
n  KE of bullet
 Power of machine gun =
time

1
mv 2  mgh
 Power of motor P  2
t
 Power of heart P  pressure  volume

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Brain Pointer - Physics

 In blowing whistle, power of lungs

1
P   mss of air blown per sec ond   velocity 
2

 When water is flowing through a pipe with a speed v, then its power
is proportional to v3

 Power of an engine driving a vehicle of mass m with a speed v on a


horizontal road is P  Ff v

Vertical Circular motion

Tension in the string,

mu 2
T  2mg  3mg cos 
L

Velocity at any instant,

v  u 2  2g 1  cos 

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Minimum velocity to complete the vertical circle

Tension at bottom,

mv 2A
TA   mg cos 
L

Tension at top,

mv 2B
Tc   mg cos 

Min. velocity to complete one circular motion

VC  5gR
VB  3gR
VA  gR

 Elastic collision in one dimension

v1 
 m1  m 2  u1  2m 2
u2
m1  m 2 m1  m 2

v2 
 m2  m1  u 2  2m1
u1
m1  m 2 m1  m 2

relative velocity of separation


 Coefficient of restitution e =
relative velocity of approach

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Brain Pointer - Physics

v 2  v1
e
u1  u 2

v1  v 2
e
u1  u 2

 Oblique impact on a fixed plane

v cos 
e
u cos 

 Rebounding of a ball

1
 h 2 h 0  Initial height
e 1 
 h0  h1  Height at the first rebound

 For nth rebound

hn = Height at the nth rebound

h n  e 2n h 0

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 Elastic collision in two dimension

Conservation of momentum along X axis


m1u1  m 2 v 2  m1u1 cos 1  m 2 v 2 cos 2
Conservation of momentum along Y axis

0  m1v1 sin 1  m 2   v2  sin 2


Conservation of kinetic energy
1 1 1 1
m1u12  m 2 u 22  m1v12  m 2 v 22
2 2 2 2

Coe fficie ntf


Collision KE Ma in dom a in
of re stitution
Between atomic
Elastic Conserved e= 1
particles
Between ordinary
Inelastic Not conserved 0< e< 1
objects

Perfectly inelastic Maximum loss of KE e = 0 During shooting

Super elastic KE increases e> 1 In explosions

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Brain Pointer - Physics

CHAPTER - 06
ROTATION MOTION

Rotation: A rigid body is said to be in pure rotation if every particle of


the body moves in a circle and the centres of all circles lie on a straight
line called axis of rotation and the plane of circles always perpendicular
to axis of rotation.
CENTRE OF MASS: It is a location / point, of collection particle C, a
rigid body, where all mass is supposed to be concentrated. It can be
inside / outside of body.
It’s not necessary that at centre of mass, mass distribution present.
For example Ring; centre of mass is at the centre of ring where no
mass present.
Centre of mass of a discrete system of particle:

  
 m1 r1  m 2 r2  ...m n rn
r cm  ;
M

M  m1  m 2  m3 ....
  
r1 , r2 , r3 ...... are the position vectors of respective masses m1, m2, m3
........
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
COMPONENT FORM

m1x1  m 2 x 2  .....m n x n m1 y1  m 2 y 2  .....m n y n


Xcm  Ycm 
M M
Special Cases

I. For a 2 particles system and m1  m 2  m

    
mr1  mr2 r1  r2
R cm  
mm 2
Thus centre of mass of two equal masses lies exactly at the centre of
the line joining the two masses.

II. For 3 particle s/m and m1  m 2  m 3  m

   
r r r
R cm  1 2 3
3
For two particle system lies on same line

m1x1  m 2 x 2  0
m1   r1   m 2  r2   0
m1r1  m 2 r2

NOTE 1 : The centre of mass of two particles lies on the line joining
them.
NOTE 2 : The centre of mass divides the distance between two
particles in the inverse square the ratio. Means centre of mass will be
more close to the massive body.

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Brain Pointer - Physics

NOTE 3: If an object has symmetric uniform mass distribution about


X axis then Y coordinate of CM is zero and vice versa.

CENTRE OF MASS OF CONTINUOUS MASS DISTRIBUTION:



rcm 
 rdM

 dM

X cm 
 rdM
Ycm 
 ydM
 dM  dM
CENTRE OF MASS OF REGULAR RIGID BODIES

OBJECT
LOCATION OF CENTRE OF MASS

1. SEMI CIRCULAR RING

2R
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =

2. SEMI CIRCULAR DISC

4R
Xcm = 0 , Ycm =
3

3. HEMISPHERICAL SHELL

R
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
2

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
4. SOLID HEMISPHERE

3R
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
8

5. CONICAL SHELL

h
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
3

6. SOLID CONE

h
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
4

7. TRIANGULAR PLATE

h
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
3

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Brain Pointer - Physics

CENTRE OF MASS OF LAMINA (PLANAR MASS DISTRIBUTION)

; A = total area of lamina;


are the position vectors of respective area A1, A2, A3........
NOTE 1; If a portion A2 is removed from the lamina having area A1:

MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS

VELOCITY OF

ACCELERATION OF

 
 ma
We know that A cm 
M
       
MA cm  m1a 2  m1a 2  .....  m n a n  F1  F2  .....  Fn  Fext
 
MA cm  Fext i.e., CM of a system of particles moves as if the entire
mass of the system were concentrated at the centre of mass and all
the external forces were applied at that point
LINEAR MOMENTUM OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
For a system of particle
      
P1  P2  P3  .....  m11  m 2  2  m3 3  .....  MVcm

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

For an isolated system; (No force interaction with other system)

Initial momentum = Final momentum = Constant. Means momentum


will be conserved.
   
For a system of particle P1  P2  P3  .....  MVcm = constant


V cm = constant.
Note: Velocity of CM will remains constant when total external force
acting on the system is zero.

LINEAR MOMENTUM OF TWO PARTICLE SYSTEM RELATIVE TO


CENTRE OF MASS FRAME.

    m1m 2


P1,CM   2,1 ; P2,CM  1,2 ;  is the reduced mass = m  m
1 2

    


Psystem,CM  P1,CM  P2,CM  zero;  2,1  1,2

NOTE 1: Momentum of the system relative to CM is zero. That means


neither internal forces nor external forces can change the momentum
of the system relative to CM.

NOTE 2: Internal forces cannot change the momentum of CM of the


system.

MOMENT OF INERTIA : Is a measure of ability to resist it state of


rotational state of motion. Moment of inertia of a body about an axis
depends on the position of axis and distribution of mass of the body
about the axis.

I  Mk 2 ; M mass and k is the radius of gyration.


K can be also defined as the root mean square of distance of
constituting particle from the axis of rotation.

r12  r22  r32  r42 ....


k
n

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Brain Pointer - Physics

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
THEOREM OF PERPENDICULAR AXIS :
This theorem is applicable only for lamina.

Theorem of perpendicular axes applicable to a planar body : x and y


axes are two perpendicular axes in the plane and the z-axis is
perpendicular to the plane.

Iz  Ix  Iy
THEOREM OF PARALLEL AXIS

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Brain Pointer - Physics

The theorem of parallel axes the z and z’ axes


are two parallel axes separated by a distance a;
O is the centre of mass of the body, OO’ = a

I1Z  IZ  Ma 2 ; where a = distance between axis


TORQUE : The tuning effect of a force about the axis of rotation

ˆi ˆj kˆ
 
0  r  F  r1 r2 r3
F1 F2 F3

  1;  : angular acceleration


 
Torque is maximum when r is perpendicular to force F


Angular momentum ( L ) : Is a measure of rotation motion contained
in a body.
   
L  r  P ; where P is linear momentum ; r radial distance of CM
from the axis of rotation
   angular velocity
L  Iw ; I : moment of inertia , w

Relation between Torque and L

 dL

dt

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Law of conservation of angular momentum: If no external torque is
acting on the system, the total angular momentum remains conserved.
   
L1  L 2  L3  L 4  ....... = constant
MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY
For 3 Dimensional condition; body should satisfy

 F  0 ; Net force acting on the body should be zero

 Fx  0,  Fy  0,  Fz  0

 M  0 ; Net torque acting on body should be zero


For 2 Dimensional condition (planar system)

 Fx  0,  Fy  0,  M  0
COUPLE : A pair of equal and opposite force with different line of
action is called couple. A couple produce pure rotation without any
translation
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT
F1 the load, d1 loard arm, F2 is the effort, d2 effort arm

For the equilibrium ;

R  F1  F2  0 & d1F1  d 2 F2
Mechanical advantage is ratio of Load to the Effort

F1 d 2
M.A. = 
F2 d1
Note : Higher the effort arm higher the mechanical advantage. So as
the lever length increases easy to lift/move the load.

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Rotational Kinematic Equation

 w  w 0  t  v  u  at 
1  1 
   w 0 t  at 2 s  ut  at 2 
2  2 
 w  w 0  2  v  u  2as 
2 2 2 2

d  ds 
 w  v 
dt  dt 
dw d 2  wdw
   
dt dt 2 d

Angular Impulse
  
Linear impulse, J  F t  m V  P

Angular impulse, A.I. = 



 F  r   t  I 

A.I.  J  r  Iw

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Is the point at which gravitational force is concentrated. The CG of a
body is that point where the total gravitational torque on the body is
zero.
Centre of gravity will coincide with centre of mass if the body placed
in a uniform gravitational field.
WORK DONE BY TORQUE

WD   Td

For constant Torque T, WD  T  ;  is the angular displacement


POWER
 
Power P  T.w ; w angular velocity. (smilar to translation motion :

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 
P  F V )
Also : P  Iw

GENERAL RIGID BODY MOTION : (Combined translation and


rotation)
    
Velocity of any point A; V  w  r  Vcm ; Vcm : velocity of CM; OA = r

Most common combined translation and rotation motion is ROLLING


PURE ROLLING MOTION : A body is said to be under pure rolling if
that body rolls without any slipping or skidding ie Velocity of point of
contact will be zero.
For pure rolling Vcm = rW ;
If Vcm > rW ; forward slipping will be the result
If Vcm < rw : backward slipping will be the result.
NOTE1: Velocity of point of contact will be zero.
NOTE 2: For pure rolling only static friction will act.
NOTE 3: In pure rolling work done by frictional force is always zero.
Therefore mechanical energy will be conserved in pure rolling.

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Brain Pointer - Physics

NOTE 1: If a body in pure rotation gently placed on a frictionless surface


body will not translate. It will keep on spinning at that point.
NOTE 2: If a body in pure rolling over a rough surface is entering on
smooth surface , body will continue pure rolling without any change in
motion.
NOTE 3. If a body in pure rolling climb up, both translational and Kinetic
energy will convert into gravitational Potential energy.
NOTE 4: If a body in pure rolling start climbing up frictionless surface
only translational kinetic energy will convert into Gravitational Potential
energy and the body will continue slipping even at highest point.
NOTE 5 : Direction of static friction acting while body is in pure rolling
on inclined plane will be always up the plane.
Kinetic Energy in rolling motion

K rolling  K t   K r cm
1 2  K2 
K rolling  MVcm 1  2 
2  R 

2
Let   1  K
R2

Rt 1
K rolling  K t  
K rolling 
Kr 1
 1
K rollin g 

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF COMBINED MOTION

L0 = ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM + SPIN ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
Orbital angular momentum = M Vcm r!
Spin angular momentum = Iw : I = moment of inertia about centre of
mass.

  


 
L0  L t  Lr
cm

L t  mVcm r
L r  Icm w

ROLLING ON INCLINED PLANE


Acceleration down an inclined plane

Minimum friction required for pure rolling

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Minimum coefficient of friction required for pure rolling

Note : As the angle increases chance of slipping will increase


Velocity on reaching bottom

Time taken to reach bottom

1 2h
t
sin  g

NOTE 1: Acceleration does not depend on the material of body


NOTE 2: Higher the radius of Gyration more time required to reach
bottom.
NOTE 3: Independent of size in diameter, a large diameter cylinder
and smaller cylinder will reach the bottom at same time

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

CHAPTER - 07
GRAVITATION

 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

m1m 2
Gravitational force F
r2
Gm1m2
F : Gravitational constant, G  6.67 1011 Nm 2 kg 2
r2
Dimensional formula M 1L3T 2
 Acceleration due to Gravity [g]

GM 4
(i) At surface of earth , g   RG
R2 3

GM g
(ii) At a height h, g  h   
R  h
2 2
 h
1  R 

 2h  g 2h
If h < < R, g  h   g  1   
 R  g R

 d
(iii) At a depth d, g  d   g 1  
 R

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Brain Pointer - Physics

d
g 
g
R
(iv) At centre of earth, g = 0
 Acceleration due to gravity is same at a certain height (h) and depth
(d), then d = 2h
(v) At a latitude  , effective value [due to rotation]

g '  g  R2 cos 2 


 g pole  g equator
 Gravitational field [E]

F
Intensity of gravitational field, E 
m
GM
For a point mass, E 
r2
If E1 , E 2 , E 3 ,... are the fields due to a number of masses then the
 
resultant field = E1  E 2  E 3  .....
 For earths gravitational field, ‘E’ and ‘g’ are same, unless the effect
of rotation is to be considered

 Gravitational Potential [V]

GM
For a point mass, v 
r
If v1 , v 2 , v3 ,.... are the potential due to a number of masses.

then the total potential V  V1  V2  V3 ....


 Gravitational Potential Energy [U]

Gr. Potential energy of m at a distance ‘r’ from M = U  mV


GMm
U
r
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

For a system of particles of masses m1 , m 2 , m 3 ....

Gm1m 2 Gm 2 m3 Gm1m3


U    ....
r12 r23 r13

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Brain Pointer - Physics

 n 
=   mgR
 n 1

2GM
 Escape Velocity; ve 
R

From surface of earth, ve  2gR ve = 11.2 km/s (second cosmic


velocity)
 If a body projected with a velocity v = nve, then the final velocity v/ with
which it move in space is given by

v '  n 2  1 ve

 If body projected with velocity v > ve, the final velocity

v '  v 2  ve2

 Satellites

GM
 Orbital velocity, v 0 
r
GM
v0 
Rh
If h < < R, minimum orbit, v0  gR  7.92 km / s

(First cosmic velocity)

ve
 v0  or v e  2 v0
2

r3
 Time period T  2 GMT 2  42 r 3 
GM
T 2 r 3

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

R
For minimum orbit (h < < R), T  2
g

1 1 GMm
Energy of Satellite, KE  mv 02 
2 2 r

GMm
PE 
r

1 GMm
Total energy = KE + PE =
2 r
Total energy = –kinetic energy

1 GMm
i.e. Binding energy =
2 r
 Kepler’s Laws
1. Law of orbit : Planets are revolving in elliptical orbits with the sun at
one of its foci

2. Law of area : Areal velocity remains constant

A L
 = a constant
t 2m

3. Law of period :  Period    semi  major axis 


2 3

T 2 a 3

for circular orbit, T 2  r 3

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Brain Pointer - Physics

CHAPTER - 08
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS & FLUIDS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS


1. PERFECTLY ELASTIC BODY
Nearest eg: Quartz, phosphor bronze
Eg. for nearest perfectly plastic body : Mud, Paraffin wax

2. STRESS  

Re storing force

Area
F

A

unit - N/m2 or Pa
Dimension - ML–1T–2

Tensile stress
i. Normal stress
Compressive stress
ii. Hydraulic stress or volume stress
iii. Shear or tangential stress
3. STRAIN

change in dim ension


Strain 
Original dim ension

No units and dimension


i. Linear strain

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

L

L

ii. Volumetric strain

V

V

iii. Shear strain

x

L

4. HOOKE’S LAW
Stress  strain
stress = E  strain

stress
Modulus of elasticity, E 
strain

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Slope = tan  = E

Stress. Strain graph for materials which obeys Hooke’s law is a straight
line.
5. STRESS-STRAIN CURVE

1) OA
a) Elastic region
b) Hooke’s law is obeyed
c) A is known as proportional limit
(2) AB
a) B is known as elastic limit or yield point
b) Sy is known as yield strength

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
(3) BCDE
a) Su is known as ultimate strength
b) E is known as fracture point

Breaking load
6. BREAKING STRESS 
Area
Breaking load  Area
7. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON STRESS-STRAIN
CURVE

a) b)

(c) Elastomers

Eg. Rubber, tissue of aorta

8. TYPES OF ELASTIC MODULI


a) Young’s modulus (Y)

Longitudinal stress
Y
Longitudinal strain

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Brain Pointer - Physics

F
FL
Y A 
L AL
L
unit - N/m2 or Pa
b) Bulk modulus (B)

Volume stress
B
volume strain

F
P PV
B A  
V V V (Numerically)
V
V
unit - N/m2 or Pa
Compressibility (k)

1
K unit  N1m2 or Pa 1
B
Dimension  M1LT2
Variation of density of liquid with the effect of pressure

 P 
 '   1  
 B 
 '   1  KP 

(c) Shear modulus (G)

Shear stress
G
Shear strain

F
G A  FL
x Ax Unit N/m2 or Pa
L

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

9. POISSON’S RATIO   

Lateral strain

Longitudinal strain
D R
 D  R
L L
L L

 theoretical = –1 to  1 2

1
 practical  0 to 
2
If there is no lateral strain,   0

1
If there is no volume change,   
2
10. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Y,B,G AND 

Y  3B 1  2 
Y  2G 1   

3B  2G

6B  2G
9 3 1
 
Y G B
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Brain Pointer - Physics

11. WORK DONE IN STRETCHING A WIRE

1
Work done, W  FL
2
This work is stored as the elastic Potential energy,
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED WIRE,
1
U F L
2
Energy density of a wire (u)

Elastic potential energy


Energy density =
Volume

1 F L
u
2A L
1
u  stress  strain
2

1
Y   strain 
2
u
2
1  Stress 
2

u
2 Y
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Interatomic force constant (K)
It is the restoring force per unit extension

F YA
K 
L L

1
Elastic potential energy, U  KL2
2
Case I : When two wires connected in parallel

K effective  K1  K 2

Case 2 : When two wires are connected in series

1 1 1
 
K effective K1 K 2
K1K 2
K effective 
K1  K 2

12. THERMAL STRESS

T.S. = Y  T

 = coefficient of linear expansion


In case of volume expansion, T.S. = BT

 = coefficient of cubical expansion

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Brain Pointer - Physics

13. SPECIAL CASE


ELONGATION DUE TO SELF WEIGHT

1 WL
L 
2 AY
gL2
L 
2AY
  Density of material

14. APPLICATIONS OF ELASTICITY


1) Depression of loaded beam

W3
Depression,  
4Ybd3
2) Maximum height of a mountain on earth can be estimated from the
elastic behaviour of earth.
At the base of mountain, the pressure (hsg) produced must be less
 
than yield strength of rock  y

h  g  y rock
rock

y
h max   10km
g

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
SYNOPSIS
A. HYDROSTATICS
1. DENSITY

mass unit  kg / m 3

volume dim ension  ML3

 SI  CGS  1000

  water  103 kg / m 3  At 4o C   1 g / cm 3

body
 Relative density = 
o
water at 4 C 
Density of Mixtures

a) If 2 liquids of different masses m1and m2 and density 1 and  2


are mixed together

total mass
mixture 
total volume
12  m1  m 2 

m1 2  m 21

b) If 2 liquids of same mass ‘m’ and densities 1 and  2 are mixed


together

212
mixture 
1  2

c) If a number of liquids of volume V1, V2.... and densities 1 ,  2 ,... are


mixed

1V1  2 V2  ...
mixture 
V1  V2  ...

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Brain Pointer - Physics

d) If 2 liquids of same volume but different densities

1 and  2 are mixed

1  2
mixture 
2
2. FLUID PRESSURE

fluid thrust
P
area

F
P unit - N/m2 or Pa
A
Dimension - ML1T 2
Pressure exerted by a liquid column

W
Pr essure, P 
A
P  hg
  density of liquid

Variation of fluid pressure with depth

Absolute pressure, P  P0  hg


P0  Atmospheric pressure
hg  Gauge pressure
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3. PASCAL’S LAW
Applications of Pascal’s law
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic brake, hydraulic jack
Hydraulic lift

P1  P2
F1 F
 2
A1 A 2
A 
F2  F1  2 
 A1 
where A 2  A1
Hence F2  F1
4. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

 Patmospheric  1.013 105 Pa

 1 atm  1.013  105 Pa


 torr is a unit of Patm
1 torr = pressure of 1 mm of Hg column
1 torr = 133 Pa
 1 bar = 105 Pa
5. BAROMETER

h
cos  

h

cos 
6. 7 0 MANOMETER
Brain Pointer - Physics

PA  PB
P  Patm  hg
P  Patm  hg
= density of manometric liquid

7. LAW OF FLOTATION

When a body of density  and volume ‘V’ is immersed in a liquid of


density 

The forces acting on the body are

Weight, W = mg = Vg , acting downward

Upthrust = Vg , acting upward

Case-1

If density of body is greater than that of liquid   

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Weight > upthrust, the body will sink to the bottom.
Case-2

If density of body is equal to that of liquid   

Weight will be equal to upthrust so the body will float fully submerged
Case-3

If density of body is lesser than that of liquid   

Weight will be less than upthrust. The body will rise above the liquid.

 A body will float only when   

 For floating, Weight = Upthrust

Wapparent  Wactual  Upthrust  0

 In case of floating, Vg  Vi g

Vi = volume of immersed part

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Fractional immersed volume of floating body

For flotation,
Weight  Upthrust
Vg  Vi g

Vi 
Fractional submerged volume, 
V 
Vi 
percentage of submerged volume, 100   10
V 

V0   
Fraction of volume outside the liquid,  1
V   
B. SURFACE TENSION (T)
Unit - N/m or dyne/cm
Force
Surface tension, T 
length
Dimension, MT 2
1. Surface energy
Work done
Surface energy = ; unit - J/m2
Area

Work done = F.dx  2T.dx


But 2.dx  dA , change in area
 W  T  dA Surface energy = T  dA

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Surface energy is numerically equal to surface tension
 A liquid film has two free surfaces
 Work done in forming a liquid drop of radius ‘r’

W  T.dA
W  4r 2 T
 Work done in forming a bubble of radius ‘r’

W  8r 2 T [A bubble has 2 free surfaces]


2. Excess pressure
 For a plane surface, pressure on liquid and vapour side are same
 For a curved surface, pressure on concave side will be greater
 For a liquid drop,

Pi  P0
P  Pi  P0
2T
P 
r

4T
 For a soap bubble in air, P  [Two free surface]
r

 For a bubble in liquid or cavity in a liquid

2T
P 
r
 For a bubble at a depth ‘h’ from a liquid surface

2T
P  h g 
r
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Brain Pointer - Physics

3. Radius of interface when two bubbles coalesces

r1r2
r
r1  r2

4. Radius of bubble formed by combining two bubbles under isothermal


condition surrounded by vacuum

r  r12  r22

5. Angle of contact   

Case-1

 Cohesive force < Adhesive force

   90o
 Concave meniscus
 Eg. water and glass

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Case-2

 Cohesive force > Adhesive force


   90o
 Convex meniscus
Eg. Mercury and glass
Case-3
 Cohesive force = Adhesive force
   90o
 Plane meniscus
 Eg. Silver and water
6. CAPILLARITY

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Note : There is no rise or fall in case of pure water in silver coated


capillary tube
Length of capillary rise (Ascent formula)

2T cos 
h
rg
h  capillary oise
r  radius of tube
  angle of contact

2T
Also h 
R g

R= Radius of curvature of meniscus

 Also hR = constant

h1  h 2  h 3
R1  R 2  R 3

Hence capillary tube of insufficient length will never overflow

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 For clean glass tube in pure water
  0o
cos   1
2T
h 
rg
1
 As h 
r
liquid rises more in a narrow tube than wider one

C. VISCOSITY
1. Newton’s viscous formula

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Units of 

SI unit = Poiseiulle  P  CGS unit - poise

1 P  = 10 poise
2
Its other units are Nm s or Pa s

Dimension ML1T 1
shear stress
 
Rate of change of shear strain
2. Stoke’s law

When a spherical body of density '  '

moves through a fluid of density '  '


the viscous force acting on it is given by

Fv  6rv

3. Terminal velocity (Vt)

Fb  Upthrust
Fv  viscous force
2 r    g
2

Vt 
9 

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
4. Critical velocity (vC)

R e
vC 
d
Reynold’s no. :

vd
Re 

  density of the fluid


v  velocity of the fluid
d  diameter of pipe
  coefficient of viscosity
If Reynolds number is less than 1000, the flow is streamline or laminar,
if Re is greater than 2000 the flow is turbulent. The flow becomes
unsteady for Re between 1000 and 2000.
5. Rate of flow (Discharge)

volume of fluid flow


Q
time
Q = Area of pipe  velocity of fluid flow
Q = Av
D. HYDRODYNAMICS
1. Equation of continuity

Area  velocity = constant

A1v1  A 2 v 2

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1
Area 
velocity
A = Area of cross section
v = velocity of flow

A1V1  A 2 V2  A 3 V3

2. Bernoulli’s principle

1
P  v 2  gh = constant
2

P  Pressure energy per unit volume


1 2
v  Kinetic energy per unit volume
2

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

gh  Potential energy per unit volume

1 1
P1  v12  gh1  P2  v 22  gh 2
2 2

P v2
  h = constant
g 2g

Pressure head  P g

2
Velocity head  v 2g

Potential head  h

Special case - Flow through a horizontal pipe

h1 = h2

1
P  v 2 = constant
2

As A1  A 2  v1  v 2
 P1  P2

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Brain Pointer - Physics

3. Applications of Bernoulli’s theorem

a) Venturimeter

b) Speed of efflux (Torricelli’s theorem)

For a closed tank

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Special vases :

Case 1: In case of rocket propulsion

P > > Pa

For an open tank

Horizontal range of efflux  R  2 h  H  h 

H
For maximum range, h 
2
R max  H

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Condition for getting same range

The orifices should be at equal distance from top and bottom

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

CHAPTER - 09
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS

Thermometry
Heat
Heat is the form of energy which gives the sensation of hotness or
coldness of a body. It is the physical cause of sensation of hotness
or coldness.
Temperature
Degree of hotness or coldness of a body is temperature. It determines
the direction of heat flow.
Thermometry is the technique for the quantitative determination of
thermodynamic temperature
Different temperature Scale

Scale LFP UFP n Representation


Celsius 00C 1000 C 100 10 C
Fahrenheit 320 F 2120F 180 10F
Reaumer 00R 800R 180 10 R
Kelvin 273 K 373 K 100 1K

Conversion of temperature Scales


Let x be a faulty / Reference Scale

x  xLFP C0 F  32 R  0 K  273


  
xUFP  xLFP 100  0 212  32 80  0 373  273

x  xLFP C F  32 R K  273
  
xUFP  xLFP 100 180 80 180

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Thermometers
Devices used for the measurement of temperature
Principle : Linear variation of thermometric property with temperature
Eg : Pressure of a gas
Volume of a liquid
Resistance of metal
Light Intensity
Thermo emf, magnetic properties
Liquid Thermometers
Mercury and alcohol are thermometric liquids advantages of Hg
Advantages of Hg
High conductivity, high boiling point, low specific heat, high visibility,
high sensitivity to heat, high angle of contact
Gas Thermometers (Most Sensitive)
Constant Volume Gas Thermometers

P  T Based on Gaylussac’s law


Constant Pressure Gas Thermometers

V  T Based on Charles law


Resistance Thermometers
Eg : Platinum Resistance Thermometer
Germanium Resistance Thermometer
To find unknown temperature
Let  be a thermometric property
x0 = thermometric property at 00C
x100 = thermometric property at 1000C
xt = thermometric property at t0C
then unknown temp

x t  x0
t 100
x100  x 0

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Thermal Expansion
Expansion of Solids
Three types of Expansion is possible in solids
1) Linear Expansion (in length)
2) Areal Expansion (in area)
3) Volume Expansion (in volume)

Linear Areal Cubical


Expansion Expansion Expansion
  linear   Superficial   cubical
Expansivity Expansivity Expansivity
Co-efficient L A V
  
Lt At Vt
Change in value L  Lt A   At V  Vt
Fractional change L A V
 t  t  t
L A V
% change L A V
 100  t  100  100  t  100  100  t  100
L A V
Final value L '  L 1  t  A '  A 1  t  V '  V 1  t 

Expansion of Liquids
For heating a liquid, it has to be kept in a container. On heating, the
container will also expand.

Real Expansion of = Apparent Expansion of + Expansion of


Liquid Liquid the container

Real   apparent   container


Real   apparent  3 vessel

Anomalous Expansion Water


Volume of given amount of water decreases with increase in
temperature from 0 to 40C. But beyond 40C water will normally expand.
Water has the least volume and maximum density at 40C

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Volume

Pmax

0
0C 0
4C Temp

It plays an important role in the survival of aquaticf life in cold winter


season in polar regions.
There is expansion of water above and below 40C
Calorimetry
Calorimetry deals with two types of heats
Specific heat and latent heat
Joules mechanical equivalent of heat (J)
Joule found that when mechanical work is converted into heat (Q)
the ratio of W and Q is always a constant

W
 J or W  JQ
Q

J  joules mechanical equivalent of heat (It is a conversion factor)


J = 4.186 Joule/ Calorie
Calorie
It is the amount of heat energy required to rise the temperature of 1 g
water by 10C (14.50C to 15.50C)
1 Calorie = 4.2 J
Principle of Calorimetry
Law of mixtures
Heat lost by hot body = heat gained by cod body
[when no heat is lost to the surroundings]

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Specific heat capacity (C)
It is the amount of heat energy required to rise the temperature of unit
mass (1 g on 1 kg) of any substance by 10C or 1 K
for a given mass m

heat required is H = m  C
H is called heat capacity or thermal capacity .
For a given mass m and t rise in temperature
Amount of heat required dQ = mcdt
t2

Q  mct Q   mcdt
t

Unit of specific heat capacity

Q Joule
C  SI unit : J Kg–1K–1
mt kg  K

Q Calorie
C 
mt g  0C CGS unit : Calg–1 0C–1

for water C = 4200 J Kg–1K–1 C = 1 Calg–1 0C–1


for ice C = 2100 J Kg–1K–1 C = 0.5 Calg–1 0C–1
Latent Heat
It is the amount of heat energy exclusively utilized for phase transition
at certain fixed temperatures like melting point or boiling point etc
Latent heat of fusion (Lf)

For solid  Liquid Transition @ melting point

Eg : 1 g ice @ 00 C 
L
 1 g water @ 00C
f

Lf of ice = 80 cal/g

For a given mass m, Q  mL f

Latent heat of Vapourisation (Lv)


For liquid  Gas transition @ boiling point

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Eg : 1 g water @ 1000C 


L 1 g steam @ 1000C
V

LV of water = 540 Cal/g


For a given mass m Q = mLV
Unit of Latent Heat Capacity
Q = mL S.I. Unit : Joule/kilogram
L = Q/m CGS Unit : Calorie/gram
Water Equivalent
It is the amount of water which has got the same heat capacity as
that of a given substance

H = mC mC  mC

for water

mC
H  mC m 
C

Water equivalent is numerically equal to heat capacity of the


substance in CGS system
Regelation
Melting of ice at lower temperature due to increase in pressure and
refreezing when pressure is with drawn is regelation
Heat Transfer
Transport of heat energy from one point to another can be done in 3
ways
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Conduction
Particle to particle heat transfer without actual transport of matter.
Its common to solids and mercury
Gravity has no effect in conduction
Metals are good conductors of heat

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Heat Current (H)
Rate of flow of heat energy through a conductor

Q
H unit : Watt
t
Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a conductor to allow the passage of heat energy through
it
Expression for Thermal conductivity

Consider a metallic rod with length  , uniform cross sectional area


A. Its both ends are maintained at two different temperature T1 and T2
(T1 > T2).
Steady State is a condition in which heat current through every cross
section of the conduction become a constant. There is no further
absorption of heat energy by molecules. Only effective method of
heat transfer is conduction is steady state.
At Steady State
Rate of heat flow

Q
H  area of cross section
t

Q
 temperature gradient
t

Q Q T1  T2
A 
t t 

Temp diff
Temperature gradient 
length
T1  T2

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Q (T  T2 ) Q K A T
 KA 1 
t  t 

Unit of thermal conductivity

K A T
H

H Watt  m
K  2
A T m  Kelvin

Unit of K  Watt m–1K–1


Thermal Resistance (RT)
It is the ability to oppose the flow of heat energy through a conduction

Temperature difference
Heat Current 
Thermal Resistance

T
H (1)
RT

K A T
We have H 

T
H (2)
[  / KA]

Thermal Resistance R T   / KA

Unit of Thermal Resistance

T
H
RT

T Kelvin
RT  
H Watt
Radiation
Radiation is the fastest mode of heat transfer

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Properties of heat radiations
It travels in straight lines
It is universal, invisible
All bodies above zero kelvin will emit radiations
It belongs to IR Region
It shows reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation
They are em waves with speed 3 × 108 m/s
Absorptive Power (absorptance) [a]

Radiant energy absorbed


a
Total incident energy

A
a
Q
for a perfect black body a = 1
for a non black body a < 1
Emissive Power [E]
Radiant energy emitted per unit area per unit time

Q Energy Power
E  E unit : Watt / m2
At area  time area

Emissive power × area = Power


Kirchoff’s Law
for a given wavelength and temperature

Emissive power
= Constant
Absorptive power

E
=Constant
a

Ea
 A good absorber is a good emitter
A bad absorber is a bad emitter
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Brain Pointer - Physics

Emissivity / Relative Emittance (e)

Emissive power of abody


e
Emissivepower of black body

E
e E  e  EB
EB

for a perfect black body e = 1


for a non black body e < 1
Stefan’s Law
Emissive power of a blak body

EB  T 4 T  absolute temperature
EB   T 4   Stefan's constant
  5.68 10 8 wm2k 4

Q
Power P    AT 4
t
for a non black body

E  e T 4 e  emissivity

P  e  AT 4
When temperature difference between body and surrounding is very
large
Stefan - Boltzmann’s Law

for black body EB   (T 4  T04 )

for non black body E  e (T 4  T04 )


Wiens Displacement Law
“Wavelength corresponding to maximum spectral intensity is inversely
proportional to absolute temperature”

1
m 
T

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
T  b a constant
b = Wien’s constant
b = 0.29 cm K

1T1   2 T2
Newton’s Law of Cooling
When temperature difference between the surrounding is not very
large, rate of cooling is proportional to temperature difference between
body and surroundings

R  Body  Surroundings

Q  1  2 
   0 1  Initial temperature of body
t  2 
mcd  1  2 
   0 2  Final temperature of body
t  2 
mc(1  2 )  1  2 
   0 0  Surrounding temperature
t  2 
mc(1  2 )    2 
K  1   0 t  time of cooling
t  2 

Solar Constant
It is the amount of solar radiant energy received by unit area of earth
surface in unit time
Solar constant
S = 1400 W/m2
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Postulates
1. Molecules in a gas are in a random irregular motion.
2. During the motion they collide with each other and also with the walls
of the container.
3. These collisions are perfectly elastic in nature.
4. Size of the molecules is negligible compared to average separation
between the molecules.

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Brain Pointer - Physics

5. Molecules behave like perfect spheres.


6. Molecular dynamics is governed by Newton’s Laws of motion
Pressure exerted by an ideal gas on the walls of the container is
given by

1
P C RMS
2

  density of the gas

CRMS  Root mean square velocity

Root mean Square Velocity (CRMS)

R / NA  K Boltzmann's constant
K = 1.38  10 23 J/K

M / NA  m, mass of molecule

3PV 3RT
CRMS  CRMS 
M M

3KT
RMS 
m

CRMS  T

Average Speed (Cavg)

C1  C2  C3  C4  ...  Cn
Cavg 
n

8RT
Cavg  Cavg  T
M

8KT
Cavg 
m
Most Probable Velocity (Cmp)
Velocity possessed by maximum fraction of molecules

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

2RT
Cmp 
M

2KT
Cmp  Cmp  T
m

8
CRMS : Cavg : Cmp  3 : : 2

CRMS  Cavg  Cmp

Average Translational KE of an ideal gas

3 3 3
KE  PV  RT KE  KT for a molecule
2 2 2
KE T

Mean free path (  )


It is average distance travelled by molecules between two successive
collisions

1 n  no.of molecules / volume(no density)



2 dn2
P  Pr essure
KT K  Boltzmann' s cons tan t

2 dP2
T  Temperature

Specific Heat of Gases


Molar Specific Heat Capacity
It is the amount of heat energy required to rise the temperature of 1
mole of an ideal gas by 10C. It can be supplied by two ways.

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Brain Pointer - Physics

CP  C V  R Mayers Relation

for n moles and dt rise in temperature

dQ  nCv dt at constant volume


dQ  nCp dt at constant pressure

Ratio of Specific Heats (  )

CP 2
  1
CV ; f

f  degree of freedom (No. of independent possible ways in which


a system can have energy)

f  3n  r n  no.of atoms / molecule


r  no.of possiblerelations / restrictions

Monoatomic molecule Diatomic molecule

f = 3n – r = 3 × 1 – 0 = 3 (translational) f = 3n – r = 3 × 2 – 1 = 5
3 translational + 2 rotational
2 2 5 2 2 7
 1 1    1 1  
f 3 3 f 5 5
  1.67   1.4
CP  C V  R
dividing by CV
CP CV R R
    1
CV CV CV ;
CV

R CP
CV   C P  C V
 1 CV

R
CP 
 1

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Law of Equipartition of Energy
An ideal gas divides its total energy equally among all degrees of
freedom

1
KE of a molecule / degree of freedom  KT
2
1
TotalKE of a molecule  f  KT
2
1
KE of n molecules  n  f  KT
2
1
KE of 1 mole / degree of freedome  RT
2
1
Total KE of 1 mole  f  RT
2
1
Total KE of n moles  n  f  RT
2
Thermodynamics
Zero’th Law of Thermodynamics
It defined the existence of thermodynamic temperature. It states that
“when two systems A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third system C then the systems A and B will also be in thermal
equilibrium with each other”.
First Law of Thermodynamics
It is another form of “Law of conservation of Energy”
It states that

Heat supplied to  change in + work


a system internal energy done

dW  pdV
 Q  U  W
dW  F  dx F
dQ  dU  dw P
dW  p  Adx A
dQ  dU  pdV
dW  pdV
Heat Energy (dQ)
When heat is added to a system dQ   ve
When heat is removed from a system dQ   ve
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Internal Energy (du)

Internal energy is a state variable. It is independent of the path.

If initial and final point s are same


U  0

In a cyclic process when a system returns to its initial status du  0

Eg : at constant volume dV = 0 pdV = 0 dW  0

du  nC V dT

Work done (W)


V2

dW  pdV W   pdV
V1

Expansion Compression
Volume increases Volume decreases
Work done by the system Work done on the system
W = +ve W = –ve

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Thermodynamic Process
Isobaric Process
Constant Pressure

V
V T =constant
T

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

fraction of energy for internal energy change

du nC V dT CV 1
  
d nCP dT CP 

fraction of energy for work done

dW 1
1 
dQ 

dQ  nCp dT
dU  nCv dT
dW  p d V

P-V graph P-T graph

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Work done

W  P(V2  V1 )
W  nR (T2  T1 )

Isochoric Process
Constant volume

P
P T =constant
T

dQ  nCV dT
P1 P2
 du  nCV dT
T1 T2
dw  0

dQ  du dV  0
PdV  0

Isothermal Process
Constant temperature dT = 0

1
PV = a constant du  nCV dT p
V
 du  0

P1V1 = P2V2

P1 V2

P2 V1

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Slope of isothermal graph
PV = a constant du = 0
V2
PdV + VdP = 0 W  nRT n
V1

P1
PdV = –VdP W  nRT n
P2

dP P
 Specific heat capacity  
dV V

P
Slope  
V
Adiabatic Process

dQ  0 PV   cons tan t Work done


nR
W [T1  T2 ]
 1
du  dw TV 1  cons tan t
P V  P2 V2
W 1 1
 1
dw   du PV1  T   cons tan t

Slope of Adiabatic Graph

dP P
  
dV V

Specific heat capacity C = 0

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Slope of adiabatic
   slope of isothermal

Second Law of Thermodynamics

It states that “It is impossible to design a self acting machine unaided


by an external agency to transfer heat energy from a low temperature
reservoir to a high temperature reservoir”.

In refrigerator working substance absorbs an amount of heat energy


Q2 from sink and will release an energy Q1 to the source. It is aided
by an external work W.

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CHAPTER - 10
OSCILLATIONS

01. Equation for Displacement

x  t   A cos  t   

The graphical variation of displacement with time is shown below

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02. Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion


From figure 01, displacement

From figure 02, displacement

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From figure 03, displacement

03. Velocity and Acceleration of SHM

04. Graphs for velocity and acceleration


Equation representing velocity and acceleration are v  A sin t
and   2 A cos t

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05. Force law for SHM

Torque law for SHM

06. Examples of Simple Harmonic Oscillator


i) Oscillations due to a spring
The time period of oscillation is

m
Then T  2
k

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Brain Pointer - Physics

ii) Oscillations due to coupled springs


a) Springs in series

m
The time period of oscillation T  2
K

K1K 2
where K
K1  K 2

m  K1  K 2 
Then T  2
K 1K 2

b) Springs in parallel

K  K1  K 2
The time period of oscillation

m
T  2
K1  K 2

c) Springs on either side of the mass

This situation is very similar to the parallel combination of springs.

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The time period of oscillation is,

m
T  2
K1  K 2

(ii) Oscillations of a simple pendulum

L
The time period T  2
g

g
where  2
L
07. Energy in simple harmonic motion

08. Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

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Brain Pointer - Physics

The amplitude of oscillation is a  Ae  bt / 2m and the angular frequency


k b2
is  '  
m 4m 2

2
 b 
'    
2
0 
 2m 

2
The period of a damped harmonic oscillator is T 
'

09. Forced Oscillations

Displacement equation is

The amplitude in the above relation is given by

 v0
and tan  
d x 0

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10. Resonance graph

Expressions for Time Period of a simple pendulum


11. Time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is

L
T  2
g
12. Time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum fixed on an
accelerating lift

L
T  2
ga
13. Time period of a simple pendulum fixed on an accelerating car along
a straight line

L
T  2
g  a2 
2 1/ 2

14. Time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum fixed in a car which


is negotiating a curve of radius ‘r’ is:

L
T  2 1/ 2
 2 v4 
g  2 
 r 

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15. Time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum inside a non viscous


fluid is

L
T  2
 
1   g
 d

16. Time period of oscillation of a conical pendulum is:

L cos 
T  2
g
17. If the length of a simple pendulum is comparable to the radius of
earth, time period,

1 LR
T  2  2
1 1 g L  R 
g  
L R

18. If the length of a simple pendulum is equal to the radius of earth, time
period

R
T  2
2g
19. For a simple pendulum having infinite length, time period

R
T  2 = 84 minutes
g
Expressions for Time Period of a loaded spring
20. Time period of oscillation of a loaded spring of considerable mass
ms and spring constant K is:

m 
M s
T  2  2 
K

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21. Time period of oscillation of a loaded spring immersed in a non viscous
fluid is

m
T  2
K
22. Time period of oscillation of oscillation of a two body oscillator is

m1m 2
T  2
 m1  m 2  K
23. Time period of oscillation of a magnet of moment m in a magnetic
field of flux density B is:

I
T  2
mB
Where I represents the moment of inertia of the magnet.
24. Time period of oscillation of a physical pendulum is:

 k2 
 L  
 L I
T  2 OR T  2
g mgd
where d is the distance of centre of mass from the centre of
suspension.
25. Minimum time period of a physical pendulum is

2k
T  2  L  k 
g
26. Time period of oscillation of a torsion pendulum is :

I
T  2
C
I - Moment of inertia, C - Couple per unit twist.

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Brain Pointer - Physics

27. Time period of a particle dropped in a tunnel between two points on


earth’s surface is:

R
T  2
g
28. Time period of oscillation of a liquid in a U tube

h L
T  2  2
g 2g
h - length of liquid in one limb
L - total length of liquid in U tube
29. Time period of oscillation of a rectangular/ cylindrical block floating
on a liquid is

Ld
T  2
g
L - height of the block
d - density of the block
 - density of liquid

30. Each spring separately has time period of oscillations t1 and t 2 . If


they are connected in parallel the new time period of oscillation is t.
Then,

I I I
2
 2 2
t t1 t 2

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CHAPTER - 11
WAVES

Equation for a progressive wave


A progressive wave travelling along positive x-axis is represented by
the equation

y  A sin  t  kx 
Where y is the displacement of a particle at the position x at an instant
of time t
A = amplitude of the wave

  2f angular frequency


2
K angular wave number or propagation constant


 v wave velocity
K

dy
 Slope of wave,   kA cos  t  kx 
dx

dy
 Particle speed, Vparticle   A cos  t  kx 
dt

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   dy
Vparticle    
 k  dx

Vparticle   wave velocity  slope of the wave

d2 y
Particle acceleration, a  2   y
2

dt
 Differential equation of wave motion

d2y 2
2 d y
v
dt 2 dx 2
Different forms of equation of progressive wave

 x
y  A sin   t  
 v

2
y  A sin  vt  x 

2  x 
y  A sin t 
T  v

 t x
y  A sin 2   
T 
Relation between phase difference and path difference

2
Phase difference   x

where x = path difference
Speed of transverse wave on a stretched string

T
v where T = tension on string

 = linear mass density

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Speed of longitudinal wave

E
v where E = modulus of elasticity

 - density of medium
Speed of longitudinal wave in a solid bar

Y
v Y = young’s modulus

Speed of longitudinal wave in a bulk solid

4
B 
v 3 B = bulk modulus

 = Rigidity modulus
Speed of longitudinal wave in a liquid

B
v B = Bulk modulus

 Newton’s formula for the velocity of sound waves in air

p
v where p = pressure

 = density
 Laplace’s equation for the velocity of sound waves in air

p Cp
v where  
 Cv
Factors affecting speed of sound in air
i) Effect of density

p 1
v v 
 

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Brain Pointer - Physics

ii) Effect of pressure

p v RT
v  
 m m

 Speed of sound is independent of pressure


iii) Effect of temperature

rRT
v v  T
m
(iv) Effect of humidity
Sound travels faster in humid air than in dry air

 Intensity of a wave, I  22  2 A 2v

 Energy density of a wave, u  22 A 2  2

Interference of waves
Two waves are represented by

y1  A1 sin  t  kx 
y 2  A 2 sin  t  k 2   

The resultant wave obtained is represented by

y  A sin  t  kx   
Where A = amplitude of the resultant wave

A 2  A12  A 22  2A1A 2 cos 


A sin 
tan  
A1  A 2 cos 

Resultant intensity, I  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos 

Condition for obtaining maximum intensity (constructive interference):

Phase difference   2n

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Path difference x  n
where n = 0,1,2,3
Condition for obtaining minimum intensity (Destructive interference):

Phase difference    2n  1 


Path difference x   2n  1
2
where n = 0,1,2,3,...

   A  A 
2 2
I max  I1  I2 1 2

 
2
  A1  A 2 
2
I min  I1  I2

2 2
I max  I1  I2   A1  A 2 
   
Imin  I1  I 2   A1  A 2 

If I1  I 2  I0
I max  4I0 , I min  0
Stationary Waves

When two waves are represented by y1  A sin  t  kx  and

y 2  A sin  t  kx  superimpose, stationary wave is formed which


is represented as
y  2A cos kx sin t

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 Distance between consecutive nodes or antinodes =
2


 Distance between a node and next antinode =
4
Stationary waves in a stretched string
Consider a string of length  , linear mass density  stretched under
tension T between two fixed points
1) Fundamental mode of vibration

Fundamental frequency or

1 T
first harmonic frequency 1 
2 
2) Second mode of vibration

Second harmonic or first overtone frequency

1 T
2   2  1
 
3) Third mode of vibration

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Third harmonic or second overtone frequency

3 T
3   31
2 

nth overtone =  n  1
th
harmonic

Stationary waves in open organ pipe


Consider a pipe of length  , open at both ends
1) Fundamental mode of vibration

Fundamental frequency or

v
first harmonic frequency 1 
2
Let v be the velocity of sound
2) Second mode of vibration

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Second harmonic frequency or

v
first overtone frequency  2  2   21
2
3) Third mode of vibration

Third harmonic frequency or

v
second overtone  3  3   3 
2

nth overtone =  n  1
th
harmonic

Stationary waves in a closed organ pipe.

Consider a pipe of length  with only one end closed

Let v be the velocity of sound

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
1) Fundamental mode of vibration

Fundamental frequency or

v
first harmonic frequency, 1 
4

2) Third mode of vibration

Third harmonic frequency or


first overtone frequency  3  3   31
4

3) Fifth mode of vibration

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Fifth harmonic frequency or


second overtone frequency  5  5   5  1
4

nth overtone =  2n  1 harmonic


th

End Correction
 End correction depends on internal radius R of the organ pipe
x = 0.6R
 End correction = 2x (for open pipe)
 End correction = x (for closed pipe)
Beats
The two waves of slightly different frequencies
Undergo interference to form beats

Let 1 and  2 represent frequencies

 Beat frequency = number of beats heard per second = 1   2

1
 Beat period = time interval between two beats =   
1 2

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CHAPTER - 12
ELECTROSTATICS

ELECTRIC CHARGE
 The intrinsic property of matter which is responsible for electrical
and magnetic effects.

 Total charge in a system, q   ne where n = 1, 2, ........and


e  1.6  1019 C (Quantization Property)
 Total charge in an isolated system of ‘n’ point charges q1, q2 .....qn is
n
Q   qi (additive property)
i1

 Units & Dimension of Electric Charge


Coulomb (SI)
Electrostatic unit (e.a.u) CGS  stat coulomb / Frankline 
1C  3  109 e.s.u
1
1C  ab  Coulomb  e.m.u.of charge 
10
Dimensional Formula     AT 

 Coulomb’s law in Free space

q1 q2
1 q1q2 r
F0 
40 r 2

0  Permittivity free space 8.85  1012 C2 / Nm2 
1
 9  109 Nm2 / c 2 (SI)
40
q1q2
 F0  9  109
r2

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 Coulomb’s law in a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K

1 q1q2 F0  K  1
Fm  Fm 
40K r 2 K Fm  F0

 Vector form of Coulomb’s law

 1 q1q2 q1 r̂21 q2


F21  r̂21 
40 r21 2 F12 
F21
r̂12
 1 q1q2
F12  r̂12
40 r12 2

 Electrostatic force between two point charges q 1 and q 2 if the


separation between them is filled with ‘n’ number of dielectric media
of dielectric constant k1, k2.......kn and respective thickness t1, t2,....tn is

q1q2
F 2
 n 
4  0   k i t 
 i1 

 Equilibrium of charges

Let ‘P’ is a point on the line joining two charge q1 and q2 where the net
force on a third charge ‘q’ is zero. Assume q1  q2 . ‘x’ is the position
of ‘p’ from q1

Case (i) q1 q2 > 0

Point
x
r P
x A
q2
1
q1 q1 q q2
r

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Case (ii) q1 q2 < 0

r P A B
x
q2 q q1 q2
1
q1 x r

 Equilibrium of suspended charges

T sin   F
T cos   mg
At equilibrium F  mg tan 

 ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field is the force per unit positive charge


 F
E  Lt
q0 0 q
0

Units & Dimension


Newton / coulomb Nc 1  
 SI units

Volt / meter Vm1  
`
Dyne / Stat coulomb : CGS unit
Dimensional formula E  MLT3 A1 

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 Electric field due to a point charge

 q0  1C 
y

 r̂ P
Q
Ep  rˆ
40r 2 r
Q
1
Ep  x
r2 O
z

 Motion of charged Particle in a uniform electric field

 
Force on charge F  qE

 Force is acted in the direction of electric field for positively charged


particles and is acted in the opposite direction of electric field for
negatively charged particles.

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 For a positively charged body of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ with initial
velocity zero (  = 0)

qEt
 Velocity acquiredafter a time t,  
m
1 1 q2E2 t 2
 Kinetic energy acquired KE  mv 2 
2 2 m
 If v is the electric potential applied to
1
accelerate the particle, then qv  m2
2
2qv
 
m

 Particle is projected in a direction : Perpendicular to the electric field


with a velocity v

 Deviation of charged particle, parallel to electric field


2
1 1 qE  x 
d  at2  
2 2 m   

 Time period of oscillation of a particle of mass ‘m’ and charge


‘q’

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Brain Pointer - Physics

case (i) Electric field is horizontal

  
Fnet  qE  mg

2
 qE 
Net acceleration g    g
1 2

 m 


T  2 1
  qE 2  2
 T  2 1  g2 
g  
 m  

case (ii) Electric field is vertically upward

qE
g1  g
m


T  2
qE g
m

Case (iii) : Electric filed is vertically downward


qE
g1  g
m

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE


T  2
qE
g
m

ELECTRIC DIPOLE
 
 Dipolemoment P  2qa

 Electric field due to Electric dipole

 At an Axial Point  At an equaterial point

1 2pr
Ep 
40 (r  a2 )2
2

For short dipole r > > a

 
 1 2p  1 p
Ep  Ep 
40 r 3 40 (r 2  a2 )3 2

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Brain Pointer - Physics


 1 p
For short dipole r >>a Ep 
40 r 2

Electric field due to an electric dipole at any arbitrary point P (r, Q) for
a short dipole

p
Ep  1  3 cos2 
40r 3


Torque acted on an electric dipole of dipolemoment p in a uniform
electric field E

 
  p  E  PE sin  ,  is the angle between dipolemoment and
electric field.

max  PE(  900 )   0(   o0 or1800 )

 Force acting on a dipole in non-uniform electric field E

 
  dE dE
F p , where is the spectial change in electric field
dr dr

 
 Electric flux    E  da , when area is non uniform

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

 
For uniform area, flux   E  A

 = EA (  o0 )

   EA

  0 (  900 ) (  1800 )
GAUSS LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS
The electric flux across any closed surface enclosing a net charge q
is

  q
   E  da 
0

Gauss law for continuous charge distributions

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Brain Pointer - Physics

1

0   d (linear ch arg e enclosed)
1

0  dA (surface ch arg e enclosed)
A

1

0  dv (volume ch arg e enclosed

 Electric field due to an infinitely long unifamily charged wire

 1 2
Ep  rˆ
40 r

Electric field is non-uniform


 Electric field due to an infinite, uniformly charged thin sheet

  
Ep  r
2 0

137
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Electric field due to multiple charged thin sheets

 Electric field due to a thin hollow cylinder

 R
For r>R (outside point) Ep  r
0r

 R 
(r= R) (surface) Ep  r
0r

r <R (inside point) Ep  0

138
Brain Pointer - Physics

 Electric field due to a solid cylinder

R 2
For r>R , Ep =
2 0r

R
For r + R, Ep = 20

r
For r <R Ep = 2
0

Electric field due to a charged non-conducting sphere

139
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

 Electric field due to a thin charged spherical shell

140
Brain Pointer - Physics

 Electric field due to a conducting sphere

 Electrostatic pressure acted on a charged conducting surface

2
P outwards
20

Equilibrium of charged soap bubble


On charging, irrespective of polarity, its radius increases

4T 2
At equlibrium  , T surface tension
r 2 0

For equlibrium amount of change required

q = 8 r 2 0rT

141
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
ELECTROSTATICS -II
 Electric potential due to a point-charge “Q” at a distance r

Q
Vp 
40rp

 Electric potential difference between two points P and Q

Q 1 1
VPQ  VP  VQ    
40  rP rQ 

 Electric Potential energy of a charge q at a point P

qQ
Up  qVp 
40rp

 Electric Potential energy difference between two points P and Q is

qQ  1 1
UpQ  qV  Up  UQ    
4  0  rp rQ 

142
Brain Pointer - Physics

 UNIT AND DIMENSIONAL FORMULA FOR ELECTRIC


POTENTIAL
Unit = Volt (SI)
Stat volt (CGS)

Dimensional Formula = [V]   ML T A 


2 3 1

 Electric Potential due to multiple charges ( Additive Property)

1  q1 q2 q 
VP     ......  n 
40  r1 r2 rn 
n
1 qi
VP  
4o i1 ri

 When the sound change is not located at the origin

Q
VP 
40 r2  r1

143
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Potential energy of a two charge system

1 q1 q2
U
40 r1 2

 Potential Energy of a three charge system

1  q1q2 q2q3 q3 q1 
U    
40  r1 2 723 r3 1 

 Potential energy of a system of ‘n’ point charges

 
1 1 n qij 
U 
2  40

i1 rij 

 j i
i j 

144
Brain Pointer - Physics

 Potential due to continuous charge distributions

 Electric Potential due to an electric dipole

1 P cos 
Vp 
40 r 2  a2 cos2 
For short dipole r  a
case(i)on axial po int  (  0o )
1 P
Vp 
4o r 2
Case(ii)on equatorial po int (   90o )
VP  o0
Case(iii) on any arbitrory point (  )
1 P cos 
Vp 
40 r2

145
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

Relation between electric fiels and potential


 Electric potential difference between
A&B

rB
 
V  VB  VA    E  dr
rA

 Electric potential at a point

rB
 
VB    E  dr

whereVA  o
asrA  

146
Brain Pointer - Physics

 General Relation between Electric field and potential at a point

r  
V    E  dr 

r - position vector of point

 Electric field as spatial gradient of Electric Potential

dv
E
dr

 In rectangular components

dv
Ex  
dx
dv
Ey  
dy
dv
Ez  
dz

B  
VB  VA    E  dl
A

 
B
(using line integral)
VB    E  dl

 If the electric field is uniform


VB  VA    AB
  E x
 
VA  VB   E  BA
 E x

147
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Potential due to a uniformly charged ring

Q
Vp 
4 0 R2  r 2
Q
V0 
40R
Whenr  R
Q
Vp 
40r

 Potential due to a charged non conducting sphere

148
Brain Pointer - Physics

 Potential due to a charged spherical shell

149
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

 Work done in rotating an electric dipole from an angle 1 to 2 in a


uniform electric field E

w  U  PE (cos 1  cos 2 )

 Potential energy of an electric dipole of dipolemoment P in an electric


field E

 
U  P  E  PE cos 

U = –PE U = PE
(Stable equilibrium) (unstable equlibrium)

150
Brain Pointer - Physics

 Coalescence of charge n drops

Parameter of single drop Parameter of coolescent drop

Electric charge (q) nq


1
Radius (R) n 3r
1
Electric field (E) n 3E
Electric Potential (V) 2
n 3V
1
Capacitance (C) n 3C
1
Charge density () n 3
Electric Potential Energy (U) n
5
3
U

 Uniqueness Theorem

1  R
  or 1  2
R 2 R1

 Capacitance or electrical capacity of a conductor is its ability to store


electric charge

C= q q  charge on conductor
V
V  Voltage across the conductor
C  Capacitance
 Unit of capacitance : Farad (F)
 Dimensional Formula : [C] = [M-1 L-2 T4 A2]
 Energy stored in a capacitor

1 2 qv q2
U cv  
2 2 2c

151
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 When ‘n’ capacitors of capacitance C1, C2, ......... Cn are connected
in series, effective capacitance

1 1 1 1
   ............. 
Ceff C1 C 2 Cn

1 C

 If n capacitors are identical Ceff n

 Voltage across the capacitors connected in series is given by

1 1 1
V1  V2: :................... : Vn  : : .............:
C1 C2 Cn

 If ‘n’ Capacitors of capacitance C1, C2, ..............Cn are connected in


parallel, effective capacitance

Ceff  C1  C2  C3 .............Cn

 If ‘n’ capacitors are identical

Ceff  nC

 Charge across the capacitors connected in parallel

152
Brain Pointer - Physics

Q1 : Q2 :........... : Qn  C1 : C2 :............. : Cn

 Connection of charged capacitors :


Let the capacitors have initial voltage V1 & V2 across their plates

C1V1  C2 V2
Common potential across eacg capacitor V  C1  C2

1 CC
 Loss of electrical energy  U  2 C  C (V1  V2 )
1 2 2

1 2

1
 Energy density of parallel plate capacitor U  0E2 E  Electric
2
field between the plates

153
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Force acted on each plate of a parallel plate capacitor
 2 A Q2
F  (Always attractive)
20 2A0

 On introducing a dielectricmedium of dielectric constant K between


KA0
the plates of a parallel plate capacitor the new capacitance C 
1

d
 If ‘n’ dielectric media each having dielectric constants K1, K2, K3 ........Kn
and respective thickness t1, t2, t3, .......tn are placed between the plates,
such that d = t1 + t2 + .......... + tn, then effective capacitance

A 0 A0
C 
n
ti t1 t t

i 1 Ki
 2  .......... n
K1 K 2 Kn

A 0
C
 t
(d  t) 
K

A 0
 C
(d  t)

154
Brain Pointer - Physics

K 1 A1 0 K 2 A 2 0 K n A n 0
Ceff    ....... 
d d d
 n
C 0
d
K A
i1
i i

1
 Induced charge on the periphery of dielectric medium Q  Q [1 
1
]
K
where Q  charge on capacitor plates
K  dielectric constant
 Change in electrostatic parameters on introducing a dielectric
medium (K) between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor.

With dielectric medium (K)


Electrostatic Without dielectric
parameters medium Battery Battery
connected disconnected

Electric charge Q KQ Q

Capacitance C KC KC

V
Voltage V V
K
E
Electric field E E
K
U
Potential energy U KU K

155
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

CHAPTER - 13
CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Electric Current

q dq
I (charge flow uniform) i (charge flow non uniform)
t dt
q  I t tf

dq  idt q   idt
ti

Drift Velocity & Current


eE
Vd   I  nAeVd
m
Current Density

I
J  neVd
A
Mobility

Vd e
 
E m
Ohm’s Law

VI or V  IR
Resistance of a conductor

 m
R  
A ne 2 
Conductance Conductivity
1 1
G= 
R 
156
Brain Pointer - Physics

Resistance
On stretching wire

 2 V
R    2
A V A
on stretching V remains constant

1  1
R   2 or R A 2  R r 4 
 
Percentage change in resistance

R  
2
R   If change in length or area is less than or equal to 5%

R A 
2
R A 

R R 2  R 1 1
 R  2 , R
R R1 A2

R   2    1 

2 2

 
 1 
2
R 
2 2
 1   1  
    
R  A2   A1   If change in length or area > 5%
 2 
R  1  
  
 A1  

Variation of resistivity of metal with temperature

t  0 1  t  0  resistivity at 0o C

t  resistivity at t o C
  temperature co-efficient of resistivity

157
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Temperature co-efficient of resistance

R 2  R1
 R1  Resistance at t10 C
R 1  t 2  t1 

R 2  Resistance at t 02 C

(anyone temperature is 0o C )

R 2  R1
 t1  0 , t 2  0
R 1 t 2  R 2 t1

 For resistances in series

R eq  R 1  R 2

 In general, for n resistors in series

n
R eq   R i
i 1

 If ‘n’ identical resistances are connected in series

R eq  nR

v
and potential difference across each resistance V 
n
 Sum of the voltages across all resistance is equal to the voltage
applied across circuit i.e. V  V1  V2

158
Brain Pointer - Physics

1 1 1
 The effective conductance G is,  
G G1 G 2

V
 The current I in the circuit, I 
R1  R 2

 By voltage division rule

voltage across resistance R1, V1  IR1


 R1 
 V 
 R1  R 2 

Voltage across resistance R2, V2  IR 2


 R2 
 V 
 R1  R 2 

V1 R1
 In case of resistances in series, 
V2 R 2 as the current through
each resistor is same
 In series combination of resistors
i) Amount of current flowing through each resistor is same
ii) Potential difference across each resistor is directly proportional to
the value of resistance
iii) The value of equivalent resistance of the combination is greater
than the higher value of resistance in series combination
 For resistances in parallel,

1 1 1
 
R eq R1 R 2

 In general, for n resistors in parallel

1 1 1 1
   ... 
R eq R1 R 2 Rn

159
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

 If ‘n’ identical resistances are connected in parallel

R I
R eq  and current through each resistance I 
1

n n

 Main current I is divided equally and main current I equal to sum of


branch current

i.e. I  I1  I2

 The effective conductance of parallel combination

G  G1  G 2

R 1R 2 Multiplication
 If two resistances are in parallel, R eq  
R1  R 2 Addition

 R1R 2 
 The p.d. across the circuit, v  I.R eq  I  
 R1  R 2 

 By current division rule,


Current through any resistance

 Resistance of opposite branch 


I1  I x   
 Total resistance 

where I1 = required current (branch current)

I = main current

160
Brain Pointer - Physics

So, current flows through resistance R1,

V I.R eq I R 1R 2  R2 
I1     I 
R1 R1 R1 R1  R 2  R1  R 2 
and current flows through resistance R2,

V I.R eq I R1R 2  R1 
I2     I 
R2 R2 R 2 R1  R 2  R1  R 2 

I1 R 2
 In case of resistance in parallel, 
I2 R1
 If three resistances are connected in parallel,

R eq   R 11  R 21  R 31 


1

R 1R 2 R 3
or R eq 
R 1R 2  R 2 R 3  R 2 R 1
 In parallel combination of resistors,
i) Potential difference across each resistor is same
ii) Current through any resistance is inversely proportional to its
resistance i.e. V = IR = constant

1
or I 
R
iii) The value of equivalent resistance of this combination of
resistances is less than the lowest value of the resistances connected
in parallel.
 If we have ‘n’ identical conductors, each of equal resistance, then
the number of combination, we can have using all at a time is 2n 1
 If we have ‘n’ different conductors, then the number of possible
combinations are 2 n
 If n identical resistances are first connected in series and then in
Rp n2
parallel, the ratio of the equivalent resistance is given by 
Rs 1

161
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 If equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series and parallel be Rs and
Rp respectively then

1
R1  R s  R s2  4R s R p 
2 

1
and R 2  R s  R s2  4R s R p 
2 

 If a wire of resistance R, cut in ‘n’ equal parts and then these parts
are connected to form a bundle then equivalent resistance of
R
combination will be
n2

 For equivalent resistance of infinite network of resistances

1 1 1/2
 R1  R 2    R1  R 2   4R 3  R1  R 2  
2
R AB 
2 2

1  R 
R AB  R1 1  1  4  2  
2   R1  

162
Brain Pointer - Physics

 Equivalent Resistance in cube (symmetry)

i) Resistance between two nearer corners


7
R 12  r
12
ii) Resistance across face diagonal

3
R13  r
4
iii) Resistance across main diagonal

5
R17  r
6

 Cell - The device which converts chemical energy into electrical


energy

 EMF of a cell (E) - The potential difference across the terminals of


a cell when it is not delivering any current (open circuit)

 Internal resistance (r) - Resistance offered by the electrolyte of the


cell when an electric current flows through it

r  d , d - distance between electrodes

1
r , A - area of electrodes
A

163
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

r  C , C - concentration of electrolyte

1
r , T - temperature of electrolyte
T
 Terminal potential difference (v) - The voltage across the terminals
of a cell when it is supplying current (closed circuit)

 When I current is drawn from cell, the terminal voltage V is less


than it’s emf i.e. V  E  Ir

 When cell is discharging (closed circuit)


current inside the cell is from cathode to anode

E
Current I 
rR
 E  IR  Ir
 v  Ir
or v  E  Ir,

Potential difference is less than the emf of the cell


 When cell getting charged current inside the cell from anode to
cathode

VE
Current, I 
r

 v  E  Ir, potential difference is greater than the emf of the cell

164
Brain Pointer - Physics

 When the cell is in the open circuit


When no current is taken from the cell it is said to be in open circuit

In open circuit R  

E
I  0
Rr

 V = E, i.e. terminal potential difference is equal to emf of the cell


 When the cell is short circuited

In short circuit R = 0

E E
I  and V  IR  0
Rr r

 Let I1 be the current in a circuit with an extreme resistance R1 and I2


be the current in the circuit with external resistance R2, then the emf
of the cell,

 R  R1 
E  I1I 2  2 
 I1  I 2 

 I2 R 2  I1R1 
Internal resistance of the cell used, r 
 I1  I 2 
 Cells in series
i) In series grouping of cells their emfs are additive or subtractive
while their internal resistances are always additive

165
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

E eq  E1  E 2
req  r1  r2

E eq  E1  E 2  E1  E 2 
req  r1  r2

ii) emf of battery = sum of emf of various cells

= E1  E 2  ....  E n

iii) Current in each cell is the same and is equal to the main current
iv) Total internal resistance of battery = Sum of the individual internal
resistance

r  r1  r2  .....  rn

v) Let n cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected
in series with ‘R’
Total emf = nE
Total resistance = R + nr

nE
Main current I 
R  nr

E
vi) If nr > > R, I  i.e. current from any cell when short circuited
r

166
Brain Pointer - Physics

nE
vii) If nr < < R, I  i.e. n times the current due to one cell
R

2
 nE 
viii) power dissipated in the external circuit =  R
 R  nr 

 E2 
ix) condition for max. power, R = nr, and Pmax n 
 4r 

 If ‘n’ cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected in
series and by mistake ‘m’ cells are wrongly connected to an external
resistance R, then

total emf of the combination E   n  2m  E


1

total internal resistance = nr

total resistance of the circuit = R + nr

 n  2m  E
current through the circuit, I 
R  nr

 Cells in parallel

167
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
1) emf of the battery = emf of a single cell

2) reciprocal of total internal resistance of a battery is equal to the


sum of reciprocal of internal resistance of individual cell, i.e.
1 1 1 1
   ..... 
r r1 r2 rn

3) main current is divided equally among various cells


4) If n identical cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are
connected in parallel to an external resistor R

1 n
total internal resistance r  r
eq

r
req 
n
the current through the external resistance, is

E nE
I 
r r  nR
R
n

nE
5) If r > > R, then I   n  current due to single cell
r

E
6) If r < < R, then I  = current due to single cell
R

2
 
 E 
P R
7) Power dissipated in the circuit r
R  
 n

r  E2 
8) Condition for max. power is, R  and Pmax  n  
n  4r 

168
Brain Pointer - Physics

 The strength of current in a wire of resistance R will be the same for


connection in series and in parallel of n identical cells, each of the
internal resistance r if R = r

 If non-identical cells are connected in parallel (with right polarity)

E1r2  E 2 r1
Equivalent emf, E eq 
r1  r2

r1r2
Equivalent internal resistance req 
r1  r2

E1r2  E 2 r1
Main current I 
r1r2  R  r1  r2 

If V is the potential difference across R, then

E1  V E1  IR
I1  
r1 r1
E 2  V E 2  IR
I2  
r2 r2

169
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 If non-identical cells are connected in parallel (with reversed polarity)

E1r2  E 2 r1
E eq 
r1  r2

 Mixed combination of identical cells


If n identical cells are connected in a row and such m row’s are
connected in parallel

1) Equivalent emf of the combination, E eq  nE


2) Equivalent internal resistance of the combination,
1 m

req nr
nr
or req 
m

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Brain Pointer - Physics

E eq
3) current in the circuit or main current I 
R  R eq
nE

nr
R
m
mnE

mR  nr
nr
4) current in the circuit is maximum, when R 
m
E2
5) maximum power Pmax   mn 
4r
6) total number of cell = mn
 Kirchhoff’s law
There are two laws given by Kirchhoff for determination of potential
difference and current in different branches of any complicated
network
 First law (junction rule) : In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of
the currents meeting at any junction is zero i.e.  I  0
While applying this rule, we (arbitrarily) take the currents entering
into a junction as positive and those leaving it as negative

I1  I2  I3  I 4  I5  0
I1  I3  I2  I 4  I5

This is based on conservation of charge

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Second law (loop rule)

In any closed circuit algebraic sum of emfs and algebraic sum of


potential drop is zero

 IR   E  0

This law is based on law of conservation of energy

 Sign convention for the application of Kirchhoff’s law

1) The change in potential in traversing a resistance in the direction


of current is –iR while in the opposite direction is +iR

2) The change in potential in traversing an emf source from negative


to positive terminals is +E while in the opposite direction –E
irrespective of the direction of current in the circuit

 The Wheatstone’s bridge

is an arrangement of four resistances which can be used to determine


one of them interns of the rest

If current in galvanometer is zero (Ig = 0) then bridge is said to be


balanced

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VD = VB

P R
 I1P  I 2 R and I1Q  I 2S  
Q S

P R
If  then VB  VD and current will flow from B to D
Q S

P R
If  then VB  VD and current will flow from D to B
Q S

 Equivalent resistance between points A and B in an unbalanced


Wheatstone’s bridge as shown in the diagram

PQ  R  S   P  Q  RS  G  P  Q  R  S
R AB 
G  P  Q  R  S    P  R  Q  S

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

2PQ  G  P  Q 
R AB 
2G  P  Q

 Metre Bridge or slide wire bridge

works on the principle of Wheatstone’s bridge

P R
At balanced condition 
Q S

 R
 
100   S

S
100    R

 Applications of Metre bridge


1) If an unknown resistance X is used in the left gap and a standard
resistance R in the right gap then if metre bridge is balanced, then

X 

R 100   
2) If two unknown resistances are connected in series in the left gap
and balancing length is  s then

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Brain Pointer - Physics

x1  x 2 s 1 2
  
R 100   s  100  1  100   2 
3) If two unknown resistance are connected in parallel in the left gap
and balancing length is  p , then

x1 x 2
xp x1  x 2 p
 
R R 100   p

R 100   p  100  1  100   2 


or   
xp p 1 2

Thermal effect of current


 Electric power - is the rate at which electrical energy is dissipated
W
into other forms of energy is called electrical power i.e. P   VI
t
 SI unit of electric power is joule/sec or watt
1W  1V 1A
 Bigger unit of electric power
1 kilowatt (kW) = 103 W 1HP = 746 watt
1 megawatt (MW) = 106 W
 Other expression for power

P  I2 R
V2
P
R
 Electric energy is defined as the total electric workdone or energy
supplied by the source of emf in maintaining the current in an electric
circuit for a given time
 Electric energy = electric power  time
= P t

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

 Expression for electric energy

V2
Electric energy = Pt  VIt  I Rt 
2
t
R
 SI unit of electric energy is joule
1 joule = 1 Watt  1 second

= 1 volt  1 ampere  1 sec ond


 Commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh)
1 kWh = 1000 Watt  1 hour

= 1000J / s    3600s   3.6 10 J


6

 The electric energy consumed in kWh is given by

V  in volt   I  in ampere   t  in hour 


W (in kWh) =
1000
 Joules Heating - The amount of heat produced (H) in a conductor
of resistance R, carrying current U for time t is given by

H  I 2 Rt (in joules)
I2 Rt
or H  (in Calories)
J
Where J is Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat (= 4.2 J/cal)

W VIt I2 Rt v2 t
H     cal
J 4.2 4.2 4.2R
 Maximum power theorem - States that the output power of a source
of emf is maximum, when external resistance in the circuit is equal
to the internal resistance of source i.e. R = r

E
 If E is the applied emf of the source, then I 
Rr
At the max. output power, R = r
E E
So, I  
r  r 2r

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Brain Pointer - Physics

E2
and max. output power, Pmax  I r 
2

4r
output power P0 VI V
 Efficiency of a source of emf,     
input power Pi EI E
Where, V - potential drop across the external resistance R
E - emf of the source of current
 Long distance power transmission - When power is transmitted
through a power line of resistance R, power loss will be I 2 R
If the power is transmitted at voltage V then P  VI
P
ie I 
V

P2
So, power loss = 2  R
V
Now as for a given power and line P and R are constant so power
1
loss 
v2
Long distance power transmission is carried out high voltage
 Series combination of bulbs - Current through each bulb will be
same. Now because resistance of lowest wattage bulb is maximum,
 
hence heat produced  I Rt will be maximum in lowest wattage
2

bulb or lowest wattage bulbs glows with maximum brightness

1 1 1
 
Ptotal P1 P2

1
Pconsumed (Brightness) V R
Prated

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Parallel combination of bulbs - voltage across each bulb will be
same. Now, because resistance of highest wattage bulb is minimum

 
hence heat produced  V t / R (or brightness) will be maximum in
2

highest wattage bulb

Ttotal  P1  P2
1
Pconsumed (brightness)  PR  i 
R

 If one heater boils a certain mass of water in time t1 and another


heater boils the same mass of water in time t2, then connecting both
the heaters in series, the same water will boil in time  t1  t 2  ; When
connecting both the heaters in parallel the same water will boil in
t1  t 2
time t 
t1  t 2

 A fuse wire is generally prepared from tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37%
lead). A fuse wire should have high resistance and low melting point
 The length of fuse wire is immaterial
 The safe current in a fuse wire is directly proportional to the (3/2)
power of radius of the wire i.e. I  r 3/2

Since area of cross-section A  r 2  I  A 3/4

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Brain Pointer - Physics

CHAPTER - 14
MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

Biot Savart’s law

 

  0 I d  r
dB 

4 r3

Applications of Biot Savart’s law


1. Magnetic field due to a current carrying straight conductor

0 I
B sin 1  sin 2 
4r
 0 I sin 
 If 1  2  , B 
2r

 For a conductor of infinite length, 1  2  90o

0I
B
2r

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
2. Magnetic field due to a circular coil carrying current
 At any point on the axis of the coil

0 2nIr 2
Baxial 
4  x 2  r 2 3/ 2

n = number of turns, r = radius of coil, I = current


x = distance from the centre of the coil to the point
 0 nI
 At the centre of the coil B 
r
 Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular arc
0 I
B 
4r
where  = angle subtended by the arc at its centre
 
 Magnetic moment of a current loop, m  IA
I = current through the loop

A = area vector of the loop
 of a current carrying circular loop.
 Relation between Baxial and m
 
 2m
Baxial  0 3 for x > > > r
4 x
 Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
evr
m
m
e = charge of an electron
v = velocity of an electron
r = radius of circular path
e
Gyromagnetic ratio of electron =
2m
m = mass of electron
eh
Bohr magneton,  B   9.27 1024 Am 2
4m

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Ampere’s circuital law


 
   0 I
B.d

I = net current crossing the area which is bounded by the amperean


loop
Magnetic field due to a solenoid

 For a long solenoid, B   0 nI

n = number of turns of the solenoid per unit length


I = current through the solenoid

 0 nI
 At the ends of a long solenoid, B 
2

 Magnetic field due to a toroid

N
B   0 nI where n 
2r
N = total number of turns
r = mean radius of toroid
Magnetic field due to infinite long current carrying conductor

0I
 Case I : Outside the conductor, B 
2r

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
 Case II : Inside the conductor

0I
B r
2R 2

Along the axis, r = 0


 Baxis  0
Lorentz force
  
Lorentz force, F  Felectric  Fmagnetic
   
F  qE  q v  B 
q = charge

E = electric field intensity

B = magnetic field intensity

v = velocity of the charge

 
Magnetic Lorentz force, Fmagnetic  q v  B
F  qvB sin 
 
 = angle between v and B
 Radius of the circular path of a charged particle entering perpendicular
to a uniform magnetic field
mv
r
qB
Angular speed of the charged particle
qB

m

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Period of circular motion,

2m
T
qB

qB
Frequency,  
2m

 If a charged particle moves with a velocity v making an angle  with


the magnetic field.

Where   0o ,90o ,180o , it moves in helical path

mv sin 
radius of helical path, r 
qB

2mv cos 
pitch of the helix  
qB

Magnetic force betw een two parallel current carrying


conductors.....

 0 I1I 2
Magnetic force per unit length of the conductor, F 
2 d

 If currents are in the same direction force is attractive

 If currents are in the opposite direction, force is repulsive

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Torque acting on a current loop

  
  mB
  

  NI A  B 

  NIABsin 

N = Number of turns

A = Area enclosed by the current loop

B = Magnetic field intensity

I = Current through the coil


 
 = Angle between A and B
Moving coil galvanometer

Current flowing through the galvanometer,

C
I 
NAB

C = couple per unit twist

N = number of turns of the coils

A = area of the coil

B = magnetic field intensity

 = angle of deflection of the coil

 NBA
 Current sensitivity = 
I C

 NBA
 Voltage sensitivity = 
V CR

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Brain Pointer - Physics

 Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter

IS
Full scale deflection current I g 
G S
Where I = maximum current to be measured
G = resistance of the galvanometer
S = shunt resistance

Ig G
S
I  Ig
 Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter
High resistance to be connected in series to convert the galvanometer
into a voltmeter

V
R G
Ig

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

CHAPTER - 15
MAGNETISM AND MATTER

 A freely suspended magnet will come along north-south direction


 Poles exists in pairs
 Pole strength of north and south poles of a magnet is conventionally
represented by +m and –m respectively
 Pole strength is a scalar quantity
 Pole strength of a magnet depends on area of cross section

 Magnetic dipole moment M  
M  m  2

2  Magnetic length
 Directed from south to north
Inverse square law
The magnetic force between two isolated magnetic poles of strength
m1 and m 2 lying at a distance ‘r’ is given by:

0 m1m 2
F
4 r 2
Magnetic field due to a bar magnet
a) At an axial point

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Brain Pointer - Physics

 0 2Mr
Baxial 
4  r 2   2 2

when r   [short dipole]



 0 2M
B
4 r 3
b) At an equatorial point

0 M
Beq 
4  r 2   2 3/ 2

when r   [short dipole]



Beq 
0 M  
4 r 3

c) At any point

0 M
B 1  3cos 2 
4 r 3

1
tan   tan 
2

  angle between resultant field and direction of r .

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

 Torque on a dipole placed in a uniform magnetic field B is

  
  MB
  MBsin 

 Time period of oscillation of a dipole of dipole moment M placed in

a uniform magnetic field B is

I
T  2
MB

I  M.I. of the dipole


 Work done in rotating a dipole in a uniform magnetic field from angular
position 1 to 2 is

W  MB  cos 1  cos 2 

 Potential energy of a dipole of dipole moment M placed in a uniform

magnetic field B is
 
u  M.B
u  MB cos 

 Intensity of magnetisation (I)

M net V  volume
I
V M net  net dipole moment

 Magnetic susceptibility

I

H

H  intensity of magnetising field OR applied field

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Brain Pointer - Physics

 Relate permeability

r  1  

 Diamagnetic Materials
1) when placed in an external magnetic field, weakly repelled by the
field

2) 1    0

3) If   1  perfect diamagnet

4)  is independent of temperature
 Paramagnetic materials
1) when placed in an external magnetic field, weakly attracted by the
field

C
2)  
T

 Ferromagnetic materials
1) strongly attracted by the field
2)  is very large and positive
3) above curie temperature ferromagnetic material behaves as a
paramagnet.
Magnetic Hysteresis
 Retentivity OR remanence
Magnetic field remaining in the specimen when the magnetising field
is removed
 Coercivity
Magnetic field required to destroy the remaining magnetism of the
specimen.
 Hysteresis - loss
The area of B–H curve is a measure of energy dissipated per cycle
per unit volume.

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CHAPTER - 16
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & AC

Synopsis
 
01. Magnetic flux.   B.A  BAcos  , Where  is the angle between B

and A

d
02. Faraday’s law, magnitude of induced emf ,   . For ‘N’ turns
dt
d
N
dt

N d
Induced current , i  - where ‘R’ is the resistance of the coil.
R dt

Change in flux
Induced Charge, Q 
Re sis tan ce
03. Lenz’s law is the direct consequence of the law of conservation of
d
energy. It gives the direction of the iduced emf .   
dt
04. Motional e.m.f is,   Bv

1 2
05. Rotational e.m.f is,   B 
2

di
06. The induced e.m.f. due to self induction is given by    L
dt

0 N 2 A
07. Self inductance of a solenoid = L =  0 n A or L 
2

Where N is the total number of turns.

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Brain Pointer - Physics

di
08. The induced e.m.f. due to mutual induction is given by    M
dt

0 N p Ns A
09. Mutual iductance between a pair of coils is M 

Where Np & Ns are the total number of turns in the primary and
secondary coils respectively.

10. Mutual inductance between a pair of coils is M  k L1L 2


Where L1 and L2 are the self inductance of the pair of coils and k is
the coefficient of coupling.
11. Applications of eddy currents :
Dead beat action in moving coil galvanometer. Speedometers,
Magnetic brakes, Energy measuring meters, Induction furnace,
Induction Cooker etc ... are based on eddy currents.

1 2
12. Energy stored in a solenoid carrying current ‘I’ ampere is W  LI
2
13. Mechanical and Electrical analogue
1) Velocity (v)  Current (I)
2) Mass (m)  Self inductance (L)
3) Displacement (s)  Charge (q)
4) Force (F)  Voltage (  )

1
5) Spring constant (k)  Reciprocal of capacitance  
C
6) Kinetic energy  Magnetic energy stored in inductor
7) Friction  Resistance
14. Magnetic energy density (energy stored per unit volume) in a solenoid
B2
=
2 0
15. If mutual induction between the coils is ignored, the effective self
inductance in series combination is, L

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
16. If mutual induction between the coils is considered, the effective self
inductance in series combination is ,

L  L1  L 2  2M

L  L1  L 2  2M

17. i) If coefficient of coupling is ignored

1 1 1
 
L L1 L 2

ii) If coefficient of coupling is considered

1 1 1 M
  
L L1 L 2 L1L 2

18. The direction of induced current can be determined by using Fleming’s


Right Hand Rule. Stretch the forefinger, Central finger and the thumb
in the left hand in three mutually perpendicular directions. If the
forefinger represents the magnetic field and the thumb indicates the
motion of the conductor then the central finger will indicate the direction
of induced current in the conductor.

19. The force needed to move a conductor out from a uniform magnetic
field

B2  2 v
F  BI 
R
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Brain Pointer - Physics

20. The power needed to move a conductor out from a uniform magnetic
field

B2  2 v 2
P
R
Alternating Current

21. Alternating voltage is    m sin t and Alternating current is


i  i m sin t

BAN
22. Peak emf ,  m  BAN and Peak current, i m 
R
23. RMS value of emf and current are respectively

m i
 rms   0.707 m and i rms  m  0.707i m
2 2

24. The average value of emf / current in a positive half cycle are
2 2i
respectively  av half   and i av half  
m m
 

1 2
25. The average value of power in a complete cycle = i m R  i 2rms R
2

26. AC voltage applied to an inductor is    m sin t

  m
Now current in the inductor is i  i m sin  t   where i m 
 2 L


Current lags behind the emf by
2

27. Inductive reactance X L  L  2f L

28. Phasor diagram of pure inductive circuit is shown below

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

29. AC voltage applied to a capacitor is    m sin t

  
Now current in the capacitor is i  i m sin  t   where i m  m
 2 I
C


Current leads the emf by
2

1
30. Capacitive reactance X C 
2f C

31. Phasor diagram of pure capacitive circuit is shown below.

32. AC voltage applied to a series LCR circuit is    m sin t

Now current in the circuit is i  i m sin  t    where

m
im 
2
 1 
R 2   L  
 C 

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Brain Pointer - Physics

 1 
 L 
  tan 1  C 
Phase difference , 
 R 
 

2
 1 
Impedence Z  R   L 
2

 C 

33. Phasor diagram of series LCR circuit is shown below.

1
34. i) At very low frequency L  . Then tan    ve or    ve
C

The current in the LCR circuit is i  i m sin  t    . The circuit behaves


as a capacitive circuit.

1
ii) At very large frequency L  . Then tan    ve or    ve
C

The current in the LCR circuit is i  i m sin  t    . The circuit behaves


as an inductive circuit.

1
iii) At an intermediate frequency L  . Then tan   0 or   0
C

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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE

The current in the LCR circuit is i  i m sin t . Now the circuit behaves
as a pure resistive circuit.

1 1
35. At resonance L  ,
C LC

1
Resonant frequency f 
2 LC

m
Current in the circuit at resonance is i m 
max

0 L0
36. Q - factor of the LCR circuit is Q   where 0 is the
2 R
resonant frequency.

L 1 1 L
Then Q   
R LC R C

37. Average power in AC circuit is P   rms  i rms  cos 

The term cos  is called power factor..

38. Power consumed by a pure resistive circuit is rms rms P  rms  i rms

39. Power consumed by pure capacitive or pure inductive circuit is zero


40. Current in the pure inductor or capacitor is called ‘idle current’ or
‘wattless a.c’.

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CHAPTER - 17
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

 I  ic  id where, i c  conduction current


 ic  id i d  displacement current
d dE dV
 id  0  0 A C
dt dt dt

 Maxwell’s Equations

q
1)  E.ds  
S 0
 Gauss theorem in electrostatics

 
2)  B.ds  0  Gauss theorem in magnetism
S


dB   dB 
, E.d 
dt 
3) e A
dt
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction

  dE
4)  B.d    i
c
0 c  i d    0i c   0 0 A
dt
 Maxwell-Ampere law

 Equation of plane progressive EM wave

 c
E  E 0 sin  t  x

B  B sin   t  x 
where,   2f
0 c

1 E
 Speed of EM wave, C   0
 0  0 B0

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Where,  0 = permeability of free space, 0 = permittivity of free


space, E 0 and B0 are maximum values of electric and magnetic
field vector

 Poynting vector S , the power transported by an EM wave per unit
 1  
area, S   E  B
0  

cB 2 EB
S   0 cE 2  
0 0

1 1 2 EB E B
= c 0 E 02  B 0 c = 0 0  rms rms
2 2 0 2 0 0

Energy u 0
 Momentum, P  
Velocity v
 Energy per unit volume,

1
= 0 E 02 (in electric field)
2

1 B20
= (in magnetic field)
2 0

1 1 B02
 Total energy =  E
0 0
2

2 2 0

 Electromagnetic spectrum
Range of wavelength (in m)

Radio waves  10 1  10 4

Micro waves  10 3  101

Infrared waves  7.5  10 7  103

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Visible light  4  10 7  7.5  107


Ultraviolet light  10 8  4  107

X-rays  1011  10 8
Gamma rays  10 14  10 11
 When a wave passes from one material to another, frequency remains
constant but the wavelength changes
0
  where,  0 = wavelength in vacuum
n
n = refractive index
c
 n v = speed of light in the material
v
 Average energy density of electric field,

1
ue   0 E 02
4
 Average energy density of magnetic field,

1 B02 B2
uB  
4 0 2 0
 Average energy density of EM wave

1 1 2
u EM   0 E 02  B0
2 2 0
B2rms
u EM   0 E 2
rms 
0

 Intensity of EM waves,

power 1 1 2
I   0 E 02 c  B0 c
area 2 2 0
B2rms
I c   0 E 2rms c
0

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 Radiation pressure

I
Prad   for perfectly absorbing surface
C

2I
Prad   for perfectly radiating surface
C

I S
or, Prad    absorbing surface
C C

2I 2S
Prad    reflecting surface
C C
where, I = intensity
S = Poynting vector
C = speed of light

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CHAPTER - 18
RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

Real and virtual images


If light rays, after reflection or refraction, actually meets at a point
then real image is formed and if they appears to meet virtual image
is formed.
(1) Deviation : Deviation produced by a plane mirror and by two
inclined plane mirrors

(2) Rotation : If a plane mirror is rotated in the plane of incidence


through angle  , by keeping the incident rat fixed, the reflected ray
turned through an angle 2 .

(3) Images by two inclined plane mirrors : When two plane mirrors
are inclined to each other at an angle  , then number of images (n)
formed of an object which is kept between them.

 360  60
(i) n    1 ; If = even integer
   

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60
(ii) If = odd integer then there are two possibilities

(i) When the object moves with speed u towards (or away) from the
plane mirror then image also moves toward (or away) with speed u.
But relative speed of image w.r.t. object is 2u.
(ii) When mirror moves towards the stationary object with speed u,
the image will move with speed 2u.

Curved Mirror
Relation between f and R :

R
f
2
 fconcave  ve, f convex   ve, f plane   

(i) All distances are measured from the pole


(ii) Distances measured in the direction of incident rays are taken as
positive while in the direction opposite of incident rays are taken
negative
(iii) Distances above the principle axis are taken positive and below
the principle axis are taken negative
Position, size and nature of image formed by the spherical mirror

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1 1 1
Mirror formula :   ; (use sign convention while solving the
f v u
problems)
size of object
Magnification : m 
size of image
Snell’s law
The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction (r)
is a constant called refractive index
sin i
i.e.   (a constant). For two media, Snell’s law can be written
sin r
 2 sin i
as 1  2  
1 sin r

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Optical Path
It is defined as distance travelled by light in vacuum in the same time
in which it travels a given path length in a medium.
Real and Apparent Depth
If object and observer are situated in different medium then due to
refraction, object appears to be displaced from it’s real position. There
are two possible conditions

Total Internal Reflection

1
  cos ecC ; where  Rarer  Denser
sin C
(iv) Field of vision of fish (or swimmer) : A fish (diver) inside the water
can see the whole world through a cone with.

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a) Apex angle = 2C = 98o

h
b) Radius of base r  h tan C 
2  1

h 2
c) Area of base A 
 2  1
Refraction from curved surface
u = Distance of object, v = Distance of image, R = Radius of curvature
 2  1  2 1
Refraction formula :   (use sign convention while
R v u
solving the problem)
Lens

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Lens maker’s formula

The relation between f , , R 1 and R 2 is known as lens maker’s


’s

1  1 1 
formula and it is     1   
f  R1 R 2 

Lens in a liquid

Focal length of a lens in a liquid  f   can be determined by the


following formula

f   a g  1

f a    g  1 (Lens is supposed to be made of glass)

Lens formula and magnification of lens

1 1 1
(i) Lens formula :   ; (use sign convention)
f  u
(ii) Magnification : The ratio of the size of the image to the size of
object is called magnification.

I  f f 
(a) Transverse magnification : m     (use sign
O u f u f
convention while solving the problem)
(10) Cutting of lens
(i) A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal parts. Intensity
of image formed by each part will be same as that of complete lens
(ii) A symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal parts.
Intensity of image formed by each part will be less compared as that
1
of complete lens. (aperture of each part is times that of complete
2
lens)
In case when two thin lens are in contact :Combination will behave
as a lens, which have more power or lesser focal length.

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1 1 1 ff
   F  1 2 and P  P  P
F f1 f 2 f1  f 2 1 2

(iv) When two lenses are placed co-axially at a distance d from each
other then equivalent focal length (F)

1 1 1 d
  
F f1 f 2 f1f 2 and P  P1  P2  dP1P2

Silvering of lens

On silvering the surface of the lens it behaves as a mirror. The focal


1 2 1
 
length of the silvered lens is
F f  f m where f  = focal length of
lens from which refraction takes place (twice)

f m = focal length of mirror from which reflection takes place.

Spherical aberration : Inability of a lens to form the point image of a


point object on the axis is called spherical aberration.

Chromatic aberration : Image of a white object is coloured and


blurred because  (hence f) of lens is different for different colours.
This defect is called chromatic aberration.

Astigmatism : The spreading of image (of a point object placed away


from the principal axis) along the principal axis is called Astigmatism.

Refraction through a prism

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A  r1  r2 and i  e  A  
sin i
For surface AC  
sin r1
sin r2
For surface AB  
sin e

i - Angle of incidence, e - Angle of emergence,


A - Angle of prism or refracting angle of prism,
r1 and r2 - Angle of refraction,  - Angle of
Deviation through a prism

For thin prism      1 A . Also deviation is different for different

colour light eg.  R   V so R  V . And  Flint   Crown so F  C

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Dispersion through a prism


The splitting of white light into it’s constituent colours is called
dispersion of light.

(i) Angular dispersion    : Angular separation between extreme

colours i.e.   V  R    V   R  A . it depends upon  and A

  
(ii) Dispersive power   :       1
V R

y y

 V  R 
where e  y  
 2 

 It depends only upon the material of the prism i.e.  and it doesn’t
depends upon angle of prism A
Scattering of Light
Molecules of a medium after absorbing incoming light radiations,
emits them in all direction. This phenomenon is called Scattering.

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1) According to scientist Rayleigh : Intensity of scattered light
1

4
2) Some phenomenon based on scattering : (i) Sky looks blue
due to scattering
(ii) At the time of sunrise or sunset it looks i reddish (iii) Danger signals
are made from red.
3) Elastic scattering : When the wavelength of radiation remains
unchanged, the scattering is called elastic.
4) Inelastic scattering (Raman’s effect) : Under specific condition,
light can also suffer inelastic scattering from molecules in which it’s
wavelength changes
Rainbow
Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light suffering
Refraction and TIR in the droplets present in the atmosphere
1) Primary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and one TIR (ii) Innermost
arc is violet and outermost is red (iii) Subtends an angle of 42o at the
eye of the observer. (iv) More bright
2) Secondary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and two TIR. (ii) Innermost
arc is red and outermost is violet (iii) Subtends an angle of 52.5o at
the eye. (iv) Comparatively less bright.
(1) Simple microscope

(i) It is a single convex lens of lesser focal length

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(ii) Also called magnifying glass or reading lens


(iii) Magnification’s, when final image is formed at D and
  i.e. m D and m 

 D D
m D  1   and m    
 f max  f min

Note : m max  m min  1

Da
If lens is kept at a distance a from the eye then m D  1  and
f
Da
m 
f
(2) Compound microscope

(i) Consist of two converging lenses called objective and eye lens.

(ii) f eyelens  f objective and  diameter eyelens   diameter objective

(iii) Final image is magnified, virtual and inverted

(iv) u 0 = Distance of object from objective (0), v 0 = Distance of

image  A ' B'  formed by objective from objective, u e = Disgtance

of A ' B ' from eye lens, f 0 = Focal length of objective, f e = Focal length

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of eye lens.
Magnification :

mD  
0  D  f0  D   0  f 0  1  D 
1     1      
u 0  fe   u 0  f0   fe  f0  fe 

m  
0 D

f 0  D   0  f0  D
 
u 0 Fe  u 0  f 0   f e  f0 Fe

Length of the tube (i.e. distance between two lenses)

u 0f0 fD
When final image is formed at D; L D   0  u e   e
u 0  f0 fe  D

uf fD
When final images is formed at  ; L    0  f e   e
0 0

u 0  f0 fe  D
(Do not use sign convention while solving the problems)
Telescope

By telescope distant objects are seen


(1) Astronomical telescope
(i) Used to see heavenly bodies

(ii) f objective  f eyelens and d objective  d eyelens

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(iii) Intermediate image is real, invered and small.


(iv) Final image is virtual, inverted and small

f0  fe  f0
(v) Magnification : m D   1   and m    f
fe  D  e

feD
(vi) Length : L D  f 0  u e  f 0 
f e  D and L   f 0  f e
(2) Terrestrial telescope

(i) Used to see far off object on the earth


(ii) It consists of three converging lens : objective, eye lens and
erecting lens
(iii) It’s final image is virtual erect and smaller

f 0  fe  f0
(iv) Magnification : m D  1   and m   f
fe  D  e

feD
(v) Length : L D  f 0  4f  u e  f 0  4f 
f e  D and L   f 0  4f  f e

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CHAPTER - 19
WAVE OPTICS

Wave front
Locus of points of same vibration. The phase difference between
two adjacent points in a wave front is zero
Types of wave fronts

1. Wave front Intensity Amplitude


a. Spherical 1 1
1 A
r2 r
b. Cylindrical 1 1
I A
r r
c. Plane
I  ro A  ro

2
2. Relation between phase difference and path difference   L

Interferences - Superposition of waves
3. Amplitude of the resultant wave

A  A12  A 22  2A1A 2 cos 


IA 2


i.e. I A1  A 2  2A1A 2 cos 
2 2

Resultant Intensity

I  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos 

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Brain Pointer - Physics

 
2
I1  I 2  A  A2 
2
I max
  1
4.
   A1  A 2 
2 2
Imin I1  I 2

Intensity at a given point


5. I  Imax cos2
2
Relation between slit width and intensity

W1 I1 A12
6.    W  slit width 
W2 I 2 A 22
Condition for maxima and minima

7. For constructive interference   2n (n = 0,1,2,3,...)

L  n  n  0,1, 2,3,...

8. For destructive interference    2n  1   n  1, 2,3,...


   2n  1  n  1, 2,3,...
2

9. In YDSE for constructive interference d sin   n  n  0,1, 2,3,...


and for destructive interference d sin    2n  1  n  0,1, 2,3,...
2
Distance to the nth bright fringe from central maximum

nD
y nb   n  0,1, 2,3,... and to the n th dark fringe
d
D
y nd   2n  1  n  1, 2,3,...
2d

D
Fringe width,  
d

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 
Angular fringe width   
D d

Imax  I min 2 I1I2


10. Fringe visibility V  
I max  I min I1  I2

11. n = a constant n11  n 2  2

 
12. 
D d


If YDSE is performed in a medium  
1
13.


Angular width  
1


14. If transparent sheet is introduced in the path of one of the two waves,
shift produced is given by

D 
y0     1 t; y0     1 t
d 

y    1 t
no. of fringes shifted n  
 
15. Diffraction : Bending of light around the corners of opaque obstacles
and apertures

Position of the secondary minimum a sin   n  n  1, 2,3,...

Position of the secondary maximum


a sin    2n  1  n  1, 2,3,...
2

 x D
First sec. min    i.e. x 
a D a

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Brain Pointer - Physics

2
Angular width of the central maximum 2 
a

2D
Linear width of the central maximum 2x    2  D
a
The first minimum for the diffraction pattern of circular aperture of
1.22
diameter d is located by sin  
d
16. Doppler effect of light

v
  
c
17. Polarization : [Process of restriction of light vectors into a particular
plane]

I0
Malu’s law (cosine squared law) I 2  I1 cos  I1 
2

if   90 (i.e. polaroids are crossed) I2  0 if   0 I 2  I1


Brewsters law (Polarisation by Reflection)

nd 1
 tan B ; tan B 
nr sin C

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CHAPTER - 20
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

 Work function  0 

The minimum energy require by an electron to liberate itself from


metal surface is called the work function of that metal. It is measured
in electron volt [eV]. 1eV  1.6  10 J 
19

It is maximum for platinum (5.65 eV)


minimum for cesium (2.14 eV)
 Quantum theory of light
Light consists of tiny packets of energy called photons. The energy
(E) of photon is proportional to its frequency   

hc
E  h 

c = velocity of light

 = wave length
h = 6.63  10 34 Js

 Rest mass of photon is zero

E h
 Effective mass of photon, m  c 2  c 2

h h
Photon momentum, P  mc  
c 

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If ‘P’ is the power of a source of light, the number of photons emitted

P P
per second, N  
h hc

 Photoelectric effect
When light of suitable frequency incident on metal, electrons are
emitted from its surface.

 Threshold frequency   0  : Minimum frequency of incident light


for photoelectric emission

 Threshold wavelength   0  : Maximum wavelength of incident light


for photoelectric emission.

hc
work function 0  h 0  
0

 Experimental observations of photoelectric emission


 Variation of photocurrent [ i ] with intensity [ I ] of light

 Variation of photo current [ i ] with collector potential [ V ] for different


intensities I1, I2, I3, .....

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 Variation of photo current [ i ] with collector potential [ V ] for different


frequencies 1 ,  2 ,  3 ,....

 Variation of stopping potential  V0  with frequency    for different


cathode metals.

 Einstein’s photoelectric equation

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Brain Pointer - Physics

Energy of incident photon = work function + maximum kinetic energy


of photoelectron

i.e. E  0  K max ; K max  E  0


K max  h  0  h  h 0
K max  h     0 

1 1 1 
mv 2max  h     0   h   
2   0 
Where ‘Vmax’ is the velocity of the fastest photoelectron.
If V0 is the stopping potential, K max  eV0

eV0  h  0

h  0
V0   . This is of the form y = mx + c
e e
h
So V0 versus  graph is a straight line with slope = and
e
0
Y intercept =
e

BC h
slope  tan   
AB e

o
If  is in A, the energy of photon
12375
in eV is given by

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De-Broglie wave equation
The wavelength  associated with a particle of mass ‘m’ moving
with velocity ‘v’ is given by

h h h
   (P - momentum, K - kinetic energy)
mv P 2mK
When an electron accelerated by a potential difference V,

h 12.27 o
  A This is verified by Davisson & Germer
2meV V

X-Rays

Electrons emitted from the hot filament are accelerated through


potential difference ‘V’ and the energetic electron strikes the tungston
target (T). The energy of the incident electron [eV] is converted to X-
ray photon, of energy h

eV  h
eV

h

hc
Cut-off wavelength,  0 
eV

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CHAPTER - 21
ATOMS & NUCLEI

ATOMS
Dalton’s atomic theory
 All elements are composed of invisible particles called atoms
 Compounds are formed of atoms of two or more elements
Thomson’s atomic model
 Atom consists of positively charged protons and negatively charged
electrons
 Atom is neutral
Rutherford’s atomic model
 Atoms contains a positively charged tiny particle at its centre known
as nucleus
 Inside the nucleus there are protons and neutrons
 Outside the nucleus there are the electrons

 Size of nucleus is about 1015 m to 1014 m


 Said the electrons orbit around the nucleus like the planets orbit around
the sun
 Could not explain why the electrons were not falling into the nucleus
Distance of closest approach

1 1  z1e  z 2e 
 mv 2  r-distance of closest approach
2 4 0 r
Impact parameter

    scattering angle
Ze2 cot  
 2 E K  kinetic energy
b
40 EK b  impact parameter

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Rutherford’s scattering formula

Ni nt z 2 e4
N   

 8 0 
2
r 2 E K2 sin 2  
2

N    = Number of alpha particles per unit area that reach the screen
at a scattering angle 
Ni = Total number of alpha particles that reach the screen
n = Number of atoms per unit volume in the foil
Bohr’s atomic model
 The electrons in an atom are revolving in certain fixed orbits for which
the angular momentum of the electrons is an integral multiple of h or
h
2
L = nh

nh
L
2
 The electrons in the stationary orbits do not radiate energy
 If an electron jumps from initial state of energy En to a final state of
lower energy Em, energy of emitted photon is given by

h  E n  E m
Bohr’s formulae

4 0 n 2 h 2 0.529n 2 o
 Radius of nth orbit = rn  , rn  A
42 mZe 2 Z

1 2ze2
 Velocity of electron in the nth orbit v n 
4 0 nh

2
2.2  106  m / s
n

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 KE of electron in the nth orbit


2
1 ze 2  1  22 me4 z 2 13.6z 2
 KE n     eV
4 0 2rn  4 0  n 2h 2 n2

 PE of electron in nth orbit


2
1 ze 2  1  42 me 4 z 2 27.2z 2
 PE n  Un       eV
4 0 rn  4 0  n 2h 2 n2

 TE of electron in nth orbit


2
 1  22 me 4 z 2 13.6z 2
E n  U n   KE n     eV
 4 0  n 2h 2 n2

 2KE = –PE, PE = 2TE, KE = –TE


 Frequency of electron in nth orbit
2
 1  42 z 2 e 4 m 6.62  1015 z 2
fn    
 4 0  n 3h 3 n3

 Wavelength of radiation in the transition from n 2  n1

1 1 1
is given by  Rz 2  2  2 
  n n2 
R is called Rydberg’s constant
2
 1  22 me 4
R    1.097  107 m 1
 4  0  ch 3

13.6z 2
 Ionisation energy = eV
n2

13.6z 2
 Ionisation potential = volt
n2

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 When an electron makes a transition from n 2 th orbit to n1th orbit

 n 2  n1  , If E2 and E1 are the energies in n2 and n1 respectively


1 z 2 me 4  1 1 
E 2  E1  h    
8 20 h 2  n12 n 22 

z 2 e4 m 1 1 2  1 1
  2  2     Rcz  2  2 
8 02 h 3  n1 n 2   n1 n 2 

Series n1 n2 Spectral region


Lyman 1 2,3,4,…. Ultra violet
Balmer 2 3,4,5,…. Visible
Paschen 3 4,5,6…. Near infra-red
Brackett 4 5,6,7,…. Mid infra-red
Pfund 5 6,7,8,…. For infra-red

 Maximum number of spectral lines obtained due to transition of


electrons present in nth orbit

n  n  1
N
2
 Time period of revolution of electron in nth orbit

n3
Tn 
22
 Angular momentum of electron in nth orbit

nh
Ln 
Z2
NUCLEI (SYNOPSIS)
1. Atomic mass uni (amu)

1 amu = 1.660565  10 27 kg

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mass of proton, mp = 1.0073 u

= 1.67262 10 27 kg

mass of neutron, mn = 1.0086 u

= 1.6749 10 27 kg

mass of electron, m e  0.00055u

9.1 1031 kg

2. Isotopes  Eg. 1H1 , 1H 2 ,1 H 3

Isobars  Eg. 6 C14 , 7 N14

Isotones  Eg. 80 Hg198 , 79 Au197

3. Nuclear size
1
R  R0A 3 R  Radius of nucleus
R 0  1.2 1015 m
A  mass number

Density of nucleus = 2.3  1017 kg / m3

Radius of nucleus  10 15 m

4. Electron volt (eV)

1 eV = 1.6  10 19 J

MeV = Million electron volt

1 MeV = 1.6  10 13 J

5. Einstein’s mass - energy relation


E = mc2 c = velocity of light in vacuum
Mass energy equivalent to 1 amu,
1 amu = 931.5 MeV
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6. Mass defect  m 

m   Zm p   A  Z  m n   M

Z - atomic number
A - mass number
mp - mass of proton
mn - mass of neutron
M - actual mass of nucleus
Binding energy of a nucleus (Eb)

E b  m  931.5 MeV

Binding energy per nucleon (Ebn)

binding energy E b
E bn  
mass number A

Binding energy curve

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7. Nuclear reaction
Nuclear fission
In nuclear fission a heavier nucleus when bombarded with neutron
splits into two or more lighter nuclei, with the emission of large amount
of energy.

Eg. 0 n1  92 U 235 92 U 236 56 Ba144  36 Kr 89  3 0 n1

Nuclear reactor  controlled chain reaction


Uncontrolled chain reaction  Atom bomb
Multiplication factor (K)

No. of neutrons in one generation


K
No. of neutrons in preceeding generation
Case 1 : K < 1, No. of neutrons is decreasing (subcritical state)
Case 2 : K = 1, self-sustaining chain reaction (critical state)
Case 3 : K > 1, Results explosion (super critical state)
Nuclear reactor
1. Fuel  Uranium 235, Plutonium 239
2. Neutron source  Berilium and polonium powder
3. Moderator  Grafite and heavy water
4. Control rod  Cadmium & boron
5. Coolant  Liquid sodium and heavy water
Nuclear fusion
In nuclear fusion, when two light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus,
energy is released.

Eg. 1 H 1 H 1 H  e    0.42 MeV
1 1 2

1 H 2 1 H 2 2 H3  n  3.27 MeV

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CHAPTER - 22
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

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Digital Electronics

 Deals with digital signals

 Digital signal :  Discretized in magnitude domain

 Continuous in time domain

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Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra

General AND OR NOT


form of
primary
A.0 = 0 A+0=A

laws A A
A.1 = A A+1=1

Commutative Associative law Distributive

A+B=B+A A + (B + C) = (A + B)+C A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C

A.B = B.A A.(B.C) = (A.B).C A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A+C)

Idempotent law Basic Identities Absorption law



A+A=A A  A 1 A + AB = A

A.A=A A.A  0 A.(A + B) = A

AA

Universal Gates : NAND & NOR

Implementation table (universal gates)

Gate used/
NAND NOR
Imple me nted
NOT 1 1
AND 2 3 Number of
universal
OR 3 2
gates required
NAND X 4 to implement
15 complementary
NOR 4 X universal gates
XOR 4 5 is 4

XNOR 5 4

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I.C. Technology

 Analogue & Digital ICs

 Monolithic Fabrication - Batch process

Different I.C. Technologies

No. of components in
Name I.C. Technology
1mm x 1mm Area
Less than 10 Small scale Integration (SSI)
< 100 Medium scale Integration (MSI)
< 1000 Large scale Integration (LSI)
> 1000 Very large scale Integration (VLSI)

Moores Law : Number of components that can be packed in the


standard dimension will double in every one and half years

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