Physics - Brain Pointer
Physics - Brain Pointer
Physics - Brain Pointer
BRAIN POINTER
PHYSICS
Brilliant
STUDY CENTRE
PALA
www.brilliantpala.org
email: brilliantstudycentre@gmail.com
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Repeaters 2022-NEET - [Physics]
CONTENTS
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CHAPTER - 01
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
The comparison of any physical quantity with its standard unit is called
measurement.
Physical Quantities
All the quantities in terms of which laws of physics are described, and
whose measurement is necessary are called physical quantities
Units
A definite amount of a physical quantity is taken as its standard unit
The standard unit should be easily reproducible, internationally
accepted
Fundamental Units
Those physical quantities which are independent to each other are
called fundamental quantities and their units are called fundamental
units.
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Supplementary Supplementary
Symbol
Fundamental Quantities Unit
Palne angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian Sr
6 C12 .
System of Units
A system of units is the complete set of units, both fundamental and
derived, for all kinds of physical quantities. The common system of
units which is used in mechanics are given below:
1. CGS System : In this system, the unit of length is centimetre, the unit
of mass is gram and the unit of time is second
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2. FPS System : In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of
mass is pound and the unit of time is second
3. MKS System : In this system, the unit of length is metre, the unit of
mass is kilogram and the unit of time is second
4. SI System : This system contain seven fundamental units and two
supplementary fundamental units
Some Practical Units
1. 1 fermi = 10 15 m
2. 1 X-ray unit = 10 13 m
3. 1 astronomical unit = 1.49 1011 m (average distance between sun
and earth)
4. 1 light year = 9.46 1015 m
5. 1 parsec = 3.08 1016 m = 3.26 light year
Dimensions
Dimensions of any physical quantity are those powers which are raised
on fundamental units to express its unit. The expression which shows
how and which of the base quantities represent the dimensions of a
physical quantity, is called the dimensional formula.
Homogeneity Principle
If the dimensions of left hand side of an equation are equal to the
dimensions of right hand side of the equation, then the equation is
dimensionally correct. This is known as homogeneity principle.
Mathematically [LHS] = [RHS]
Applications of Dimensions
1. To check the accuracy of physical equations
2. To change a physical quantity from one system of units to another
system of units
3. To obtain a relation between different physical quantities
Significant Figures
In the measured value of a physical quantity, the number of digits
about the correctness of which we are sure plus the next doubtful
digit, are called the significant figures.
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Rules for Finding Significant Figures
1. All non-zeros digits are significant figures, e.g. 4362m has 4 significant
figures
2. All zeros occuring between non-zero digits are significant figures, e.g.
1005 has 4 significant figures
3. All zeros to the right of the last non-zero digits are not significant, e.g.
6250 has only 3 significant figures.
4. In a digit less than one, all zeros to the right of the decimal point and to
the left of a non-zero digit are not significant, e.g. 0.00325 has only 3
significant figures.
5. All zeros to the right of a non-zero digit in the decimal part are
significant, e.g. 1.4750 has 5 significant figures.
Significant Figures in Algebraic Operations
(i) In addition or Subtraction : In addition or subtraction of the numerical
values the final result should retain the least decimal place as in the
various numerical values.
(ii) In Multiplication or Division : In multiplication or division of the
numerical values, the final result should retain the least significant
figures as the various numerical values.
Rules of Rounding off Significant Figures
1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the preceding digit is left
unchanged. e.g. 1.54 is rounded off to 1.5
2. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is
raised by one. e.g. 2.49 is rounded off to 2.5
3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digit other than zero, then the
preceding digit is raised by one. e.g. 3.55 is rounded off to 3.6
4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding
digit is raised by one, if it is odd and left unchanged if it is even. e.g.
3.750 is rounded off to 3.8 and 4.650 is rounded off to 4.6
Error
The lack in accuracy in the measurement due to the limit of accuracy
of the instrument or due to any other cause is called an error
1. Absolute Error
The difference between the true value and the measure value of a
quantity is called absolute error
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CHAPTER - 02
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
S1 S2 S3
Average speed =
S1 S2 S3
V1 V2 V3
t1v1 t 2 v 2 t 3 v3 ....
Average speed =
t1 t 2 t 3 ....
If a body travels equal distances with speed V1 and V2, then average
2V1V2
speed =
V1 V2
If a body travels for equal time with speed V1 and V2 then average
V1 V2
speed =
2
Kinematic Equations
u at
2 u 2 2as u gt
1 1
S ut at 2 h ut gt 2
2 2
a
Sn u 2n 1 2 u 2 2gh
2
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u2
Max. height reached, h
2g
u
Time of ascent = Time of descent =
g
2u
Total time of flight =
g
u2
Stopping distance =
2g
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CHAPTER - 03
MOTION IN A PLANE
Vectors
R AB
Subtraction
A – B can be written as A+(–B) or A – B is really the vector addition of
A and –B
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mA mA
Resolution of a vector into two perpendicular components
R x R cos
R y R sin
Ry
tan
Rx
A.B ABcos
Vector or Cross Product
A.B ABsin nˆ
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River - boat
a) To cross the river in minimum time :
b
t min
v br
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sin 1 r
br
PROJECTILE MOTION
Oblique Projectile
1 2
For vertical motion y u sin t gt
2
Equation of trajectory
gx 2
y x tan
2u 2 cos 2
Time of flight (T)
2u sin
Time of flight T
g
Maximum Height (H)
R max
H
4
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Horizontal component of velocity
remains constant
through out the motion
Horizontal projection from some height
Time of flight
Horizontal range
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Centripetal Acceleration
v2 42
a 2 r 4 2 n 2 r 2 r
r T
Centripetal force
mv 2 m42 r
F m2 r m42 n 2 r
r T2
Non-Uniform circular Motion
Net acceleration of the particle
a a c2 a T2
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CHAPTER - 04
LAWS OF MOTION
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Lamis theorem
F1 F F
2 3
sin sin sin
Newtons Laws
1. Newtons 1st law Law of inertia
Types of inertia
Momentum
P = mv
It is the product of mass and velocity
2. Newtons second law Law of force
dp
F
dt
F ma
Impulse
I F dt
I F t 2 t1
I mv u
If force is variable
dI F dt
tf
I Fdt
ti
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Special Cases
Case 1 :
Impulse = 2mu
Case 2 :
FAB FBA
Conservation of momentum
Pi system Pf system
m1u1 m 2 u 2 m1v1 m 2 v 2
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Recoil of gun
m b v b
Vg
mg
Rocket propulsion
dm
Fthrust u.
dt
dm
Fnet u. mg
dt
u dm
Acceleration, a g
m dt
u dm
At free space, a
m dt
Motion of a mass inside a Lift
Case 1 : Lift at rest/uniform motion
R = mg
Case 2 : Lift accelerating upward
R m g a
Case 3 : Lift accelerating downward
R m g a
Case 4 : Lift under free fall
R m g g
R=0
CONNECTED BODIES
Case 1:
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F
a
m1 m 2
F
F1 m 2
m1 m 2
Case 2:
F
a
m1 m 2 m3
F1
m 2 m3 F
m1 m 2 m3
m3 F
F2
m1 m 2
Case 3:
F
a
m1 m 2
m1 F
T
m1 m 2
Case 4:
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F
a
m1 m 2 m3
m1F
T1
m1 m 2 m3
T2
m1 m 2 F
m1 m 2 m3
Monkey on a rope
Case 1 :
Monkey at rest
T = mg
Case 2 :
Monkey move up with an acceleration
T m g a
Case 3 :
Monkey move down with m acceleration
T m g a
Pulley System
Case 1
if m1 m 2
a
m1 m 2 g
m1 m 2
2m1m 2 g
T
m1 m 2
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Case 2
m 2g
a
m1 m 2
m1m 2g
T
m1 m 2
Case 3
a
m1 sin m 2 g
m1 m 2
m1m 2 1 sin
T
m1 m 2
Case 4
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a
m1 sin m2 sin g
m1 m 2
m1m 2g sin sin
T
m1 m 2
FRICTION
fN
f N
coefficient of friction
Types of Friction
1. Static friction
f s N
fs g N
2. Kinetic friction
f K N
f K K N
3. Rolling friction
f r N
fr r N
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Graph between applied force and frictional force
OA object at rest
B object tends to move
BC object is in motion
Angle of friction
tan 1 s
Angle of repose
tan 1 s
Acceleration on a rough surface
F fK
a
m
Acceleration on inclined plane
Case 1
When body move up
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Case 2
When block is moving down
a g sin cos
Stopping distance
Case 1
Horizontal surface
u2
S
2g
Time taken to come rest
u
t
g
Case 2
Inclined surface
u2
S
2g sin cos
Tangential acceleration
dv
at
dt
for UCM a t 0
for NUCM a t 0
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Centripetal acceleration
v2
ac
R
Net acceleration
a tot a c2 a 2t
at
tan
ac
Centripetal force
mv 2
Fc
R
Motion of a car on a circular road
Case 1:
Level Road
vmax s Rg
Case 2:
Banked Road
For no skidding
mv 2
mg sin cos
R
angle of banking
v2
tan 1
rg
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mv 2
if mg sin cos
R
Rg tan
Vmax
1 tan
mv 2
if mg sin cos
R
Rg tan
Vmax
1 tan
v2
tan 1
rg
v Rg tan
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Conical pendulum
v Rg tan
Tension in the string
v4
Tm g2
R2
Bike on a circular Bridge
Case1 Case 2
Concave Bridge Convex Bridge
Fc N mg cos Fc mg cos N
mv 2 mv 2
N mg cos N mg cos
R R
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CHAPTER - 05
WORK ENERGY POWER
Dimension of work ML T
2 2
W Fd
xA
x x Fd
yA
y y Fd
zA
z z
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1
Kinetic energy, KE mv 2
2
P2
Relation between KE and momentum KE
2m
1 1
Work-Energy theorem W m 2 m 2
2 2
Gravitational potential energy, PE=mgh
1
Elastic potential energy, PE Kx 2 U
2
Work done can be change in potential energy
KE is always positive, PE can be positive, negative or zero
If the force acting is conservative, KE + PE = a constant
work
Power
time
dw
Instanenous power =
dt
P = Fv
P F.V (Power can be written as the dot product of two vectors)
SI unit of power = watt
Practical unit of power = hose power, 1 hP = 746 watt
Commercial unit of energy = 1 KWh
1
mv 2 mgh
Power of motor P 2
t
Power of heart P pressure volume
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1
P mss of air blown per sec ond velocity
2
When water is flowing through a pipe with a speed v, then its power
is proportional to v3
mu 2
T 2mg 3mg cos
L
v u 2 2g 1 cos
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Minimum velocity to complete the vertical circle
Tension at bottom,
mv 2A
TA mg cos
L
Tension at top,
mv 2B
Tc mg cos
VC 5gR
VB 3gR
VA gR
v1
m1 m 2 u1 2m 2
u2
m1 m 2 m1 m 2
v2
m2 m1 u 2 2m1
u1
m1 m 2 m1 m 2
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v 2 v1
e
u1 u 2
v1 v 2
e
u1 u 2
v cos
e
u cos
Rebounding of a ball
1
h 2 h 0 Initial height
e 1
h0 h1 Height at the first rebound
h n e 2n h 0
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Elastic collision in two dimension
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CHAPTER - 06
ROTATION MOTION
m1 r1 m 2 r2 ...m n rn
r cm ;
M
M m1 m 2 m3 ....
r1 , r2 , r3 ...... are the position vectors of respective masses m1, m2, m3
........
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COMPONENT FORM
mr1 mr2 r1 r2
R cm
mm 2
Thus centre of mass of two equal masses lies exactly at the centre of
the line joining the two masses.
r r r
R cm 1 2 3
3
For two particle system lies on same line
m1x1 m 2 x 2 0
m1 r1 m 2 r2 0
m1r1 m 2 r2
NOTE 1 : The centre of mass of two particles lies on the line joining
them.
NOTE 2 : The centre of mass divides the distance between two
particles in the inverse square the ratio. Means centre of mass will be
more close to the massive body.
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rcm
rdM
dM
X cm
rdM
Ycm
ydM
dM dM
CENTRE OF MASS OF REGULAR RIGID BODIES
OBJECT
LOCATION OF CENTRE OF MASS
2R
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
4R
Xcm = 0 , Ycm =
3
3. HEMISPHERICAL SHELL
R
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
2
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4. SOLID HEMISPHERE
3R
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
8
5. CONICAL SHELL
h
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
3
6. SOLID CONE
h
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
4
7. TRIANGULAR PLATE
h
Xcm = 0 ; Ycm =
3
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VELOCITY OF
ACCELERATION OF
ma
We know that A cm
M
MA cm m1a 2 m1a 2 ..... m n a n F1 F2 ..... Fn Fext
MA cm Fext i.e., CM of a system of particles moves as if the entire
mass of the system were concentrated at the centre of mass and all
the external forces were applied at that point
LINEAR MOMENTUM OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES
For a system of particle
P1 P2 P3 ..... m11 m 2 2 m3 3 ..... MVcm
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CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
V cm = constant.
Note: Velocity of CM will remains constant when total external force
acting on the system is zero.
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THEOREM OF PERPENDICULAR AXIS :
This theorem is applicable only for lamina.
Iz Ix Iy
THEOREM OF PARALLEL AXIS
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ˆi ˆj kˆ
0 r F r1 r2 r3
F1 F2 F3
Angular momentum ( L ) : Is a measure of rotation motion contained
in a body.
L r P ; where P is linear momentum ; r radial distance of CM
from the axis of rotation
angular velocity
L Iw ; I : moment of inertia , w
Relation between Torque and L
dL
dt
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Law of conservation of angular momentum: If no external torque is
acting on the system, the total angular momentum remains conserved.
L1 L 2 L3 L 4 ....... = constant
MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM OF RIGID BODY
For 3 Dimensional condition; body should satisfy
Fx 0, Fy 0, Fz 0
Fx 0, Fy 0, M 0
COUPLE : A pair of equal and opposite force with different line of
action is called couple. A couple produce pure rotation without any
translation
PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT
F1 the load, d1 loard arm, F2 is the effort, d2 effort arm
R F1 F2 0 & d1F1 d 2 F2
Mechanical advantage is ratio of Load to the Effort
F1 d 2
M.A. =
F2 d1
Note : Higher the effort arm higher the mechanical advantage. So as
the lever length increases easy to lift/move the load.
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w w 0 t v u at
1 1
w 0 t at 2 s ut at 2
2 2
w w 0 2 v u 2as
2 2 2 2
d ds
w v
dt dt
dw d 2 wdw
dt dt 2 d
Angular Impulse
Linear impulse, J F t m V P
A.I. J r Iw
CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Is the point at which gravitational force is concentrated. The CG of a
body is that point where the total gravitational torque on the body is
zero.
Centre of gravity will coincide with centre of mass if the body placed
in a uniform gravitational field.
WORK DONE BY TORQUE
WD Td
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P F V )
Also : P Iw
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K rolling K t K r cm
1 2 K2
K rolling MVcm 1 2
2 R
2
Let 1 K
R2
Rt 1
K rolling K t
K rolling
Kr 1
1
K rollin g
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ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF COMBINED MOTION
L0 = ORBITAL ANGULAR MOMENTUM + SPIN ANGULAR
MOMENTUM
Orbital angular momentum = M Vcm r!
Spin angular momentum = Iw : I = moment of inertia about centre of
mass.
L t mVcm r
L r Icm w
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1 2h
t
sin g
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CHAPTER - 07
GRAVITATION
m1m 2
Gravitational force F
r2
Gm1m2
F : Gravitational constant, G 6.67 1011 Nm 2 kg 2
r2
Dimensional formula M 1L3T 2
Acceleration due to Gravity [g]
GM 4
(i) At surface of earth , g RG
R2 3
GM g
(ii) At a height h, g h
R h
2 2
h
1 R
2h g 2h
If h < < R, g h g 1
R g R
d
(iii) At a depth d, g d g 1
R
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d
g
g
R
(iv) At centre of earth, g = 0
Acceleration due to gravity is same at a certain height (h) and depth
(d), then d = 2h
(v) At a latitude , effective value [due to rotation]
F
Intensity of gravitational field, E
m
GM
For a point mass, E
r2
If E1 , E 2 , E 3 ,... are the fields due to a number of masses then the
resultant field = E1 E 2 E 3 .....
For earths gravitational field, ‘E’ and ‘g’ are same, unless the effect
of rotation is to be considered
GM
For a point mass, v
r
If v1 , v 2 , v3 ,.... are the potential due to a number of masses.
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n
= mgR
n 1
2GM
Escape Velocity; ve
R
v ' n 2 1 ve
v ' v 2 ve2
Satellites
GM
Orbital velocity, v 0
r
GM
v0
Rh
If h < < R, minimum orbit, v0 gR 7.92 km / s
ve
v0 or v e 2 v0
2
r3
Time period T 2 GMT 2 42 r 3
GM
T 2 r 3
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R
For minimum orbit (h < < R), T 2
g
1 1 GMm
Energy of Satellite, KE mv 02
2 2 r
GMm
PE
r
1 GMm
Total energy = KE + PE =
2 r
Total energy = –kinetic energy
1 GMm
i.e. Binding energy =
2 r
Kepler’s Laws
1. Law of orbit : Planets are revolving in elliptical orbits with the sun at
one of its foci
A L
= a constant
t 2m
T 2 a 3
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CHAPTER - 08
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
SOLIDS & FLUIDS
2. STRESS
Re storing force
Area
F
A
unit - N/m2 or Pa
Dimension - ML–1T–2
Tensile stress
i. Normal stress
Compressive stress
ii. Hydraulic stress or volume stress
iii. Shear or tangential stress
3. STRAIN
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L
L
V
V
x
L
4. HOOKE’S LAW
Stress strain
stress = E strain
stress
Modulus of elasticity, E
strain
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Slope = tan = E
Stress. Strain graph for materials which obeys Hooke’s law is a straight
line.
5. STRESS-STRAIN CURVE
1) OA
a) Elastic region
b) Hooke’s law is obeyed
c) A is known as proportional limit
(2) AB
a) B is known as elastic limit or yield point
b) Sy is known as yield strength
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(3) BCDE
a) Su is known as ultimate strength
b) E is known as fracture point
Breaking load
6. BREAKING STRESS
Area
Breaking load Area
7. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS BASED ON STRESS-STRAIN
CURVE
a) b)
(c) Elastomers
Longitudinal stress
Y
Longitudinal strain
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F
FL
Y A
L AL
L
unit - N/m2 or Pa
b) Bulk modulus (B)
Volume stress
B
volume strain
F
P PV
B A
V V V (Numerically)
V
V
unit - N/m2 or Pa
Compressibility (k)
1
K unit N1m2 or Pa 1
B
Dimension M1LT2
Variation of density of liquid with the effect of pressure
P
' 1
B
' 1 KP
Shear stress
G
Shear strain
F
G A FL
x Ax Unit N/m2 or Pa
L
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9. POISSON’S RATIO
Lateral strain
Longitudinal strain
D R
D R
L L
L L
theoretical = –1 to 1 2
1
practical 0 to
2
If there is no lateral strain, 0
1
If there is no volume change,
2
10. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Y,B,G AND
Y 3B 1 2
Y 2G 1
3B 2G
6B 2G
9 3 1
Y G B
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1
Work done, W FL
2
This work is stored as the elastic Potential energy,
ELASTIC POTENTIAL ENERGY STORED IN A STRETCHED WIRE,
1
U F L
2
Energy density of a wire (u)
1 F L
u
2A L
1
u stress strain
2
1
Y strain
2
u
2
1 Stress
2
u
2 Y
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Interatomic force constant (K)
It is the restoring force per unit extension
F YA
K
L L
1
Elastic potential energy, U KL2
2
Case I : When two wires connected in parallel
K effective K1 K 2
1 1 1
K effective K1 K 2
K1K 2
K effective
K1 K 2
T.S. = Y T
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1 WL
L
2 AY
gL2
L
2AY
Density of material
W3
Depression,
4Ybd3
2) Maximum height of a mountain on earth can be estimated from the
elastic behaviour of earth.
At the base of mountain, the pressure (hsg) produced must be less
than yield strength of rock y
h g y rock
rock
y
h max 10km
g
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
SYNOPSIS
A. HYDROSTATICS
1. DENSITY
mass unit kg / m 3
volume dim ension ML3
water 103 kg / m 3 At 4o C 1 g / cm 3
body
Relative density =
o
water at 4 C
Density of Mixtures
total mass
mixture
total volume
12 m1 m 2
m1 2 m 21
212
mixture
1 2
1V1 2 V2 ...
mixture
V1 V2 ...
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1 2
mixture
2
2. FLUID PRESSURE
fluid thrust
P
area
F
P unit - N/m2 or Pa
A
Dimension - ML1T 2
Pressure exerted by a liquid column
W
Pr essure, P
A
P hg
density of liquid
P1 P2
F1 F
2
A1 A 2
A
F2 F1 2
A1
where A 2 A1
Hence F2 F1
4. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
h
cos
h
cos
6. 7 0 MANOMETER
Brain Pointer - Physics
PA PB
P Patm hg
P Patm hg
= density of manometric liquid
7. LAW OF FLOTATION
Case-1
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Weight > upthrust, the body will sink to the bottom.
Case-2
Weight will be equal to upthrust so the body will float fully submerged
Case-3
Weight will be less than upthrust. The body will rise above the liquid.
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For flotation,
Weight Upthrust
Vg Vi g
Vi
Fractional submerged volume,
V
Vi
percentage of submerged volume, 100 10
V
V0
Fraction of volume outside the liquid, 1
V
B. SURFACE TENSION (T)
Unit - N/m or dyne/cm
Force
Surface tension, T
length
Dimension, MT 2
1. Surface energy
Work done
Surface energy = ; unit - J/m2
Area
73
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Surface energy is numerically equal to surface tension
A liquid film has two free surfaces
Work done in forming a liquid drop of radius ‘r’
W T.dA
W 4r 2 T
Work done in forming a bubble of radius ‘r’
Pi P0
P Pi P0
2T
P
r
4T
For a soap bubble in air, P [Two free surface]
r
2T
P
r
For a bubble at a depth ‘h’ from a liquid surface
2T
P h g
r
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Brain Pointer - Physics
r1r2
r
r1 r2
r r12 r22
5. Angle of contact
Case-1
90o
Concave meniscus
Eg. water and glass
75
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Case-2
76
Brain Pointer - Physics
2T cos
h
rg
h capillary oise
r radius of tube
angle of contact
2T
Also h
R g
Also hR = constant
h1 h 2 h 3
R1 R 2 R 3
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
For clean glass tube in pure water
0o
cos 1
2T
h
rg
1
As h
r
liquid rises more in a narrow tube than wider one
C. VISCOSITY
1. Newton’s viscous formula
78
Brain Pointer - Physics
Units of
1 P = 10 poise
2
Its other units are Nm s or Pa s
Dimension ML1T 1
shear stress
Rate of change of shear strain
2. Stoke’s law
Fv 6rv
Fb Upthrust
Fv viscous force
2 r g
2
Vt
9
79
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
4. Critical velocity (vC)
R e
vC
d
Reynold’s no. :
vd
Re
A1v1 A 2 v 2
80
Brain Pointer - Physics
1
Area
velocity
A = Area of cross section
v = velocity of flow
A1V1 A 2 V2 A 3 V3
2. Bernoulli’s principle
1
P v 2 gh = constant
2
81
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
1 1
P1 v12 gh1 P2 v 22 gh 2
2 2
P v2
h = constant
g 2g
Pressure head P g
2
Velocity head v 2g
Potential head h
h1 = h2
1
P v 2 = constant
2
As A1 A 2 v1 v 2
P1 P2
82
Brain Pointer - Physics
a) Venturimeter
83
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Special vases :
P > > Pa
H
For maximum range, h
2
R max H
84
Brain Pointer - Physics
85
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER - 09
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
Thermometry
Heat
Heat is the form of energy which gives the sensation of hotness or
coldness of a body. It is the physical cause of sensation of hotness
or coldness.
Temperature
Degree of hotness or coldness of a body is temperature. It determines
the direction of heat flow.
Thermometry is the technique for the quantitative determination of
thermodynamic temperature
Different temperature Scale
x xLFP C F 32 R K 273
xUFP xLFP 100 180 80 180
86
Brain Pointer - Physics
Thermometers
Devices used for the measurement of temperature
Principle : Linear variation of thermometric property with temperature
Eg : Pressure of a gas
Volume of a liquid
Resistance of metal
Light Intensity
Thermo emf, magnetic properties
Liquid Thermometers
Mercury and alcohol are thermometric liquids advantages of Hg
Advantages of Hg
High conductivity, high boiling point, low specific heat, high visibility,
high sensitivity to heat, high angle of contact
Gas Thermometers (Most Sensitive)
Constant Volume Gas Thermometers
x t x0
t 100
x100 x 0
87
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Thermal Expansion
Expansion of Solids
Three types of Expansion is possible in solids
1) Linear Expansion (in length)
2) Areal Expansion (in area)
3) Volume Expansion (in volume)
Expansion of Liquids
For heating a liquid, it has to be kept in a container. On heating, the
container will also expand.
88
Brain Pointer - Physics
Volume
Pmax
0
0C 0
4C Temp
W
J or W JQ
Q
89
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Specific heat capacity (C)
It is the amount of heat energy required to rise the temperature of unit
mass (1 g on 1 kg) of any substance by 10C or 1 K
for a given mass m
heat required is H = m C
H is called heat capacity or thermal capacity .
For a given mass m and t rise in temperature
Amount of heat required dQ = mcdt
t2
Q mct Q mcdt
t
Q Joule
C SI unit : J Kg–1K–1
mt kg K
Q Calorie
C
mt g 0C CGS unit : Calg–1 0C–1
Eg : 1 g ice @ 00 C
L
1 g water @ 00C
f
Lf of ice = 80 cal/g
90
Brain Pointer - Physics
H = mC mC mC
for water
mC
H mC m
C
91
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Heat Current (H)
Rate of flow of heat energy through a conductor
Q
H unit : Watt
t
Thermal Conductivity
The ability of a conductor to allow the passage of heat energy through
it
Expression for Thermal conductivity
Q
H area of cross section
t
Q
temperature gradient
t
Q Q T1 T2
A
t t
Temp diff
Temperature gradient
length
T1 T2
92
Brain Pointer - Physics
Q (T T2 ) Q K A T
KA 1
t t
K A T
H
H Watt m
K 2
A T m Kelvin
Temperature difference
Heat Current
Thermal Resistance
T
H (1)
RT
K A T
We have H
T
H (2)
[ / KA]
Thermal Resistance R T / KA
T
H
RT
T Kelvin
RT
H Watt
Radiation
Radiation is the fastest mode of heat transfer
93
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Properties of heat radiations
It travels in straight lines
It is universal, invisible
All bodies above zero kelvin will emit radiations
It belongs to IR Region
It shows reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarisation
They are em waves with speed 3 × 108 m/s
Absorptive Power (absorptance) [a]
A
a
Q
for a perfect black body a = 1
for a non black body a < 1
Emissive Power [E]
Radiant energy emitted per unit area per unit time
Q Energy Power
E E unit : Watt / m2
At area time area
Emissive power
= Constant
Absorptive power
E
=Constant
a
Ea
A good absorber is a good emitter
A bad absorber is a bad emitter
94
Brain Pointer - Physics
E
e E e EB
EB
EB T 4 T absolute temperature
EB T 4 Stefan's constant
5.68 10 8 wm2k 4
Q
Power P AT 4
t
for a non black body
E e T 4 e emissivity
P e AT 4
When temperature difference between body and surrounding is very
large
Stefan - Boltzmann’s Law
1
m
T
95
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
T b a constant
b = Wien’s constant
b = 0.29 cm K
1T1 2 T2
Newton’s Law of Cooling
When temperature difference between the surrounding is not very
large, rate of cooling is proportional to temperature difference between
body and surroundings
R Body Surroundings
Q 1 2
0 1 Initial temperature of body
t 2
mcd 1 2
0 2 Final temperature of body
t 2
mc(1 2 ) 1 2
0 0 Surrounding temperature
t 2
mc(1 2 ) 2
K 1 0 t time of cooling
t 2
Solar Constant
It is the amount of solar radiant energy received by unit area of earth
surface in unit time
Solar constant
S = 1400 W/m2
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Postulates
1. Molecules in a gas are in a random irregular motion.
2. During the motion they collide with each other and also with the walls
of the container.
3. These collisions are perfectly elastic in nature.
4. Size of the molecules is negligible compared to average separation
between the molecules.
96
Brain Pointer - Physics
1
P C RMS
2
R / NA K Boltzmann's constant
K = 1.38 10 23 J/K
M / NA m, mass of molecule
3PV 3RT
CRMS CRMS
M M
3KT
RMS
m
CRMS T
C1 C2 C3 C4 ... Cn
Cavg
n
8RT
Cavg Cavg T
M
8KT
Cavg
m
Most Probable Velocity (Cmp)
Velocity possessed by maximum fraction of molecules
97
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
2RT
Cmp
M
2KT
Cmp Cmp T
m
8
CRMS : Cavg : Cmp 3 : : 2
CRMS Cavg Cmp
3 3 3
KE PV RT KE KT for a molecule
2 2 2
KE T
98
Brain Pointer - Physics
CP C V R Mayers Relation
CP 2
1
CV ; f
f = 3n – r = 3 × 1 – 0 = 3 (translational) f = 3n – r = 3 × 2 – 1 = 5
3 translational + 2 rotational
2 2 5 2 2 7
1 1 1 1
f 3 3 f 5 5
1.67 1.4
CP C V R
dividing by CV
CP CV R R
1
CV CV CV ;
CV
R CP
CV C P C V
1 CV
R
CP
1
99
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Law of Equipartition of Energy
An ideal gas divides its total energy equally among all degrees of
freedom
1
KE of a molecule / degree of freedom KT
2
1
TotalKE of a molecule f KT
2
1
KE of n molecules n f KT
2
1
KE of 1 mole / degree of freedome RT
2
1
Total KE of 1 mole f RT
2
1
Total KE of n moles n f RT
2
Thermodynamics
Zero’th Law of Thermodynamics
It defined the existence of thermodynamic temperature. It states that
“when two systems A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third system C then the systems A and B will also be in thermal
equilibrium with each other”.
First Law of Thermodynamics
It is another form of “Law of conservation of Energy”
It states that
dW pdV
Q U W
dW F dx F
dQ dU dw P
dW p Adx A
dQ dU pdV
dW pdV
Heat Energy (dQ)
When heat is added to a system dQ ve
When heat is removed from a system dQ ve
100
Brain Pointer - Physics
du nC V dT
dW pdV W pdV
V1
Expansion Compression
Volume increases Volume decreases
Work done by the system Work done on the system
W = +ve W = –ve
101
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Thermodynamic Process
Isobaric Process
Constant Pressure
V
V T =constant
T
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
du nC V dT CV 1
d nCP dT CP
dW 1
1
dQ
dQ nCp dT
dU nCv dT
dW p d V
102
Brain Pointer - Physics
Work done
W P(V2 V1 )
W nR (T2 T1 )
Isochoric Process
Constant volume
P
P T =constant
T
dQ nCV dT
P1 P2
du nCV dT
T1 T2
dw 0
dQ du dV 0
PdV 0
Isothermal Process
Constant temperature dT = 0
1
PV = a constant du nCV dT p
V
du 0
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 V2
P2 V1
103
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Slope of isothermal graph
PV = a constant du = 0
V2
PdV + VdP = 0 W nRT n
V1
P1
PdV = –VdP W nRT n
P2
dP P
Specific heat capacity
dV V
P
Slope
V
Adiabatic Process
dP P
dV V
104
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Slope of adiabatic
slope of isothermal
105
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER - 10
OSCILLATIONS
x t A cos t
106
Brain Pointer - Physics
107
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
108
Brain Pointer - Physics
109
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
m
Then T 2
k
110
Brain Pointer - Physics
m
The time period of oscillation T 2
K
K1K 2
where K
K1 K 2
m K1 K 2
Then T 2
K 1K 2
b) Springs in parallel
K K1 K 2
The time period of oscillation
m
T 2
K1 K 2
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
The time period of oscillation is,
m
T 2
K1 K 2
L
The time period T 2
g
g
where 2
L
07. Energy in simple harmonic motion
112
Brain Pointer - Physics
2
b
'
2
0
2m
2
The period of a damped harmonic oscillator is T
'
Displacement equation is
v0
and tan
d x 0
113
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
10. Resonance graph
L
T 2
g
12. Time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum fixed on an
accelerating lift
L
T 2
ga
13. Time period of a simple pendulum fixed on an accelerating car along
a straight line
L
T 2
g a2
2 1/ 2
L
T 2 1/ 2
2 v4
g 2
r
114
Brain Pointer - Physics
L
T 2
1 g
d
L cos
T 2
g
17. If the length of a simple pendulum is comparable to the radius of
earth, time period,
1 LR
T 2 2
1 1 g L R
g
L R
18. If the length of a simple pendulum is equal to the radius of earth, time
period
R
T 2
2g
19. For a simple pendulum having infinite length, time period
R
T 2 = 84 minutes
g
Expressions for Time Period of a loaded spring
20. Time period of oscillation of a loaded spring of considerable mass
ms and spring constant K is:
m
M s
T 2 2
K
115
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
21. Time period of oscillation of a loaded spring immersed in a non viscous
fluid is
m
T 2
K
22. Time period of oscillation of oscillation of a two body oscillator is
m1m 2
T 2
m1 m 2 K
23. Time period of oscillation of a magnet of moment m in a magnetic
field of flux density B is:
I
T 2
mB
Where I represents the moment of inertia of the magnet.
24. Time period of oscillation of a physical pendulum is:
k2
L
L I
T 2 OR T 2
g mgd
where d is the distance of centre of mass from the centre of
suspension.
25. Minimum time period of a physical pendulum is
2k
T 2 L k
g
26. Time period of oscillation of a torsion pendulum is :
I
T 2
C
I - Moment of inertia, C - Couple per unit twist.
116
Brain Pointer - Physics
R
T 2
g
28. Time period of oscillation of a liquid in a U tube
h L
T 2 2
g 2g
h - length of liquid in one limb
L - total length of liquid in U tube
29. Time period of oscillation of a rectangular/ cylindrical block floating
on a liquid is
Ld
T 2
g
L - height of the block
d - density of the block
- density of liquid
I I I
2
2 2
t t1 t 2
117
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER - 11
WAVES
y A sin t kx
Where y is the displacement of a particle at the position x at an instant
of time t
A = amplitude of the wave
v wave velocity
K
dy
Slope of wave, kA cos t kx
dx
dy
Particle speed, Vparticle A cos t kx
dt
118
Brain Pointer - Physics
dy
Vparticle
k dx
d2 y
Particle acceleration, a 2 y
2
dt
Differential equation of wave motion
d2y 2
2 d y
v
dt 2 dx 2
Different forms of equation of progressive wave
x
y A sin t
v
2
y A sin vt x
2 x
y A sin t
T v
t x
y A sin 2
T
Relation between phase difference and path difference
2
Phase difference x
where x = path difference
Speed of transverse wave on a stretched string
T
v where T = tension on string
119
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Speed of longitudinal wave
E
v where E = modulus of elasticity
- density of medium
Speed of longitudinal wave in a solid bar
Y
v Y = young’s modulus
Speed of longitudinal wave in a bulk solid
4
B
v 3 B = bulk modulus
= Rigidity modulus
Speed of longitudinal wave in a liquid
B
v B = Bulk modulus
Newton’s formula for the velocity of sound waves in air
p
v where p = pressure
= density
Laplace’s equation for the velocity of sound waves in air
p Cp
v where
Cv
Factors affecting speed of sound in air
i) Effect of density
p 1
v v
120
Brain Pointer - Physics
p v RT
v
m m
rRT
v v T
m
(iv) Effect of humidity
Sound travels faster in humid air than in dry air
Interference of waves
Two waves are represented by
y1 A1 sin t kx
y 2 A 2 sin t k 2
y A sin t kx
Where A = amplitude of the resultant wave
121
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Path difference x n
where n = 0,1,2,3
Condition for obtaining minimum intensity (Destructive interference):
Phase difference 2n 1
Path difference x 2n 1
2
where n = 0,1,2,3,...
A A
2 2
I max I1 I2 1 2
2
A1 A 2
2
I min I1 I2
2 2
I max I1 I2 A1 A 2
Imin I1 I 2 A1 A 2
If I1 I 2 I0
I max 4I0 , I min 0
Stationary Waves
122
Brain Pointer - Physics
Distance between consecutive nodes or antinodes =
2
Distance between a node and next antinode =
4
Stationary waves in a stretched string
Consider a string of length , linear mass density stretched under
tension T between two fixed points
1) Fundamental mode of vibration
Fundamental frequency or
1 T
first harmonic frequency 1
2
2) Second mode of vibration
1 T
2 2 1
3) Third mode of vibration
123
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
3 T
3 31
2
nth overtone = n 1
th
harmonic
Fundamental frequency or
v
first harmonic frequency 1
2
Let v be the velocity of sound
2) Second mode of vibration
124
Brain Pointer - Physics
v
first overtone frequency 2 2 21
2
3) Third mode of vibration
v
second overtone 3 3 3
2
nth overtone = n 1
th
harmonic
125
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
1) Fundamental mode of vibration
Fundamental frequency or
v
first harmonic frequency, 1
4
first overtone frequency 3 3 31
4
126
Brain Pointer - Physics
second overtone frequency 5 5 5 1
4
End Correction
End correction depends on internal radius R of the organ pipe
x = 0.6R
End correction = 2x (for open pipe)
End correction = x (for closed pipe)
Beats
The two waves of slightly different frequencies
Undergo interference to form beats
1
Beat period = time interval between two beats =
1 2
127
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER - 12
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC CHARGE
The intrinsic property of matter which is responsible for electrical
and magnetic effects.
q1 q2
1 q1q2 r
F0
40 r 2
0 Permittivity free space 8.85 1012 C2 / Nm2
1
9 109 Nm2 / c 2 (SI)
40
q1q2
F0 9 109
r2
128
Brain Pointer - Physics
1 q1q2 F0 K 1
Fm Fm
40K r 2 K Fm F0
q1q2
F 2
n
4 0 k i t
i1
Equilibrium of charges
Let ‘P’ is a point on the line joining two charge q1 and q2 where the net
force on a third charge ‘q’ is zero. Assume q1 q2 . ‘x’ is the position
of ‘p’ from q1
Point
x
r P
x A
q2
1
q1 q1 q q2
r
129
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Case (ii) q1 q2 < 0
r P A B
x
q2 q q1 q2
1
q1 x r
T sin F
T cos mg
At equilibrium F mg tan
ELECTRIC FIELD
Electric field is the force per unit positive charge
F
E Lt
q0 0 q
0
Newton / coulomb Nc 1
SI units
Volt / meter Vm1
`
Dyne / Stat coulomb : CGS unit
Dimensional formula E MLT3 A1
130
Brain Pointer - Physics
q0 1C
y
r̂ P
Q
Ep rˆ
40r 2 r
Q
1
Ep x
r2 O
z
Force on charge F qE
131
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
For a positively charged body of mass ‘m’ and charge ‘q’ with initial
velocity zero ( = 0)
qEt
Velocity acquiredafter a time t,
m
1 1 q2E2 t 2
Kinetic energy acquired KE mv 2
2 2 m
If v is the electric potential applied to
1
accelerate the particle, then qv m2
2
2qv
m
132
Brain Pointer - Physics
Fnet qE mg
2
qE
Net acceleration g g
1 2
m
T 2 1
qE 2 2
T 2 1 g2
g
m
qE
g1 g
m
T 2
qE g
m
133
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
T 2
qE
g
m
ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Dipolemoment P 2qa
1 2pr
Ep
40 (r a2 )2
2
1 2p 1 p
Ep Ep
40 r 3 40 (r 2 a2 )3 2
134
Brain Pointer - Physics
1 p
For short dipole r >>a Ep
40 r 2
Electric field due to an electric dipole at any arbitrary point P (r, Q) for
a short dipole
p
Ep 1 3 cos2
40r 3
Torque acted on an electric dipole of dipolemoment p in a uniform
electric field E
p E PE sin , is the angle between dipolemoment and
electric field.
dE dE
F p , where is the spectial change in electric field
dr dr
Electric flux E da , when area is non uniform
135
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
For uniform area, flux E A
= EA ( o0 )
EA
0 ( 900 ) ( 1800 )
GAUSS LAW IN ELECTROSTATICS
The electric flux across any closed surface enclosing a net charge q
is
q
E da
0
136
Brain Pointer - Physics
1
0 d (linear ch arg e enclosed)
1
0 dA (surface ch arg e enclosed)
A
1
0 dv (volume ch arg e enclosed
1 2
Ep rˆ
40 r
Ep r
2 0
137
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Electric field due to multiple charged thin sheets
R
For r>R (outside point) Ep r
0r
R
(r= R) (surface) Ep r
0r
r <R (inside point) Ep 0
138
Brain Pointer - Physics
R 2
For r>R , Ep =
2 0r
R
For r + R, Ep = 20
r
For r <R Ep = 2
0
139
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
140
Brain Pointer - Physics
2
P outwards
20
4T 2
At equlibrium , T surface tension
r 2 0
q = 8 r 2 0rT
141
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
ELECTROSTATICS -II
Electric potential due to a point-charge “Q” at a distance r
Q
Vp
40rp
Q 1 1
VPQ VP VQ
40 rP rQ
qQ
Up qVp
40rp
qQ 1 1
UpQ qV Up UQ
4 0 rp rQ
142
Brain Pointer - Physics
1 q1 q2 q
VP ...... n
40 r1 r2 rn
n
1 qi
VP
4o i1 ri
Q
VP
40 r2 r1
143
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Potential energy of a two charge system
1 q1 q2
U
40 r1 2
1 q1q2 q2q3 q3 q1
U
40 r1 2 723 r3 1
1 1 n qij
U
2 40
i1 rij
j i
i j
144
Brain Pointer - Physics
1 P cos
Vp
40 r 2 a2 cos2
For short dipole r a
case(i)on axial po int ( 0o )
1 P
Vp
4o r 2
Case(ii)on equatorial po int ( 90o )
VP o0
Case(iii) on any arbitrory point ( )
1 P cos
Vp
40 r2
145
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
rB
V VB VA E dr
rA
rB
VB E dr
whereVA o
asrA
146
Brain Pointer - Physics
r
V E dr
r - position vector of point
dv
E
dr
In rectangular components
dv
Ex
dx
dv
Ey
dy
dv
Ez
dz
B
VB VA E dl
A
B
(using line integral)
VB E dl
VB VA AB
E x
VA VB E BA
E x
147
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Potential due to a uniformly charged ring
Q
Vp
4 0 R2 r 2
Q
V0
40R
Whenr R
Q
Vp
40r
148
Brain Pointer - Physics
149
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
w U PE (cos 1 cos 2 )
U P E PE cos
U = –PE U = PE
(Stable equilibrium) (unstable equlibrium)
150
Brain Pointer - Physics
Uniqueness Theorem
1 R
or 1 2
R 2 R1
C= q q charge on conductor
V
V Voltage across the conductor
C Capacitance
Unit of capacitance : Farad (F)
Dimensional Formula : [C] = [M-1 L-2 T4 A2]
Energy stored in a capacitor
1 2 qv q2
U cv
2 2 2c
151
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
When ‘n’ capacitors of capacitance C1, C2, ......... Cn are connected
in series, effective capacitance
1 1 1 1
.............
Ceff C1 C 2 Cn
1 C
If n capacitors are identical Ceff n
1 1 1
V1 V2: :................... : Vn : : .............:
C1 C2 Cn
Ceff C1 C2 C3 .............Cn
Ceff nC
152
Brain Pointer - Physics
Q1 : Q2 :........... : Qn C1 : C2 :............. : Cn
C1V1 C2 V2
Common potential across eacg capacitor V C1 C2
1 CC
Loss of electrical energy U 2 C C (V1 V2 )
1 2 2
1 2
1
Energy density of parallel plate capacitor U 0E2 E Electric
2
field between the plates
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Force acted on each plate of a parallel plate capacitor
2 A Q2
F (Always attractive)
20 2A0
d
If ‘n’ dielectric media each having dielectric constants K1, K2, K3 ........Kn
and respective thickness t1, t2, t3, .......tn are placed between the plates,
such that d = t1 + t2 + .......... + tn, then effective capacitance
A 0 A0
C
n
ti t1 t t
i 1 Ki
2 .......... n
K1 K 2 Kn
A 0
C
t
(d t)
K
A 0
C
(d t)
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K 1 A1 0 K 2 A 2 0 K n A n 0
Ceff .......
d d d
n
C 0
d
K A
i1
i i
1
Induced charge on the periphery of dielectric medium Q Q [1
1
]
K
where Q charge on capacitor plates
K dielectric constant
Change in electrostatic parameters on introducing a dielectric
medium (K) between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor.
Electric charge Q KQ Q
Capacitance C KC KC
V
Voltage V V
K
E
Electric field E E
K
U
Potential energy U KU K
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER - 13
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Electric Current
q dq
I (charge flow uniform) i (charge flow non uniform)
t dt
q I t tf
dq idt q idt
ti
I
J neVd
A
Mobility
Vd e
E m
Ohm’s Law
VI or V IR
Resistance of a conductor
m
R
A ne 2
Conductance Conductivity
1 1
G=
R
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Brain Pointer - Physics
Resistance
On stretching wire
2 V
R 2
A V A
on stretching V remains constant
1 1
R 2 or R A 2 R r 4
Percentage change in resistance
R
2
R If change in length or area is less than or equal to 5%
R A
2
R A
R R 2 R 1 1
R 2 , R
R R1 A2
R 2 1
2 2
1
2
R
2 2
1 1
R A2 A1 If change in length or area > 5%
2
R 1
A1
t 0 1 t 0 resistivity at 0o C
t resistivity at t o C
temperature co-efficient of resistivity
157
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Temperature co-efficient of resistance
R 2 R1
R1 Resistance at t10 C
R 1 t 2 t1
R 2 Resistance at t 02 C
(anyone temperature is 0o C )
R 2 R1
t1 0 , t 2 0
R 1 t 2 R 2 t1
R eq R 1 R 2
n
R eq R i
i 1
R eq nR
v
and potential difference across each resistance V
n
Sum of the voltages across all resistance is equal to the voltage
applied across circuit i.e. V V1 V2
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Brain Pointer - Physics
1 1 1
The effective conductance G is,
G G1 G 2
V
The current I in the circuit, I
R1 R 2
V1 R1
In case of resistances in series,
V2 R 2 as the current through
each resistor is same
In series combination of resistors
i) Amount of current flowing through each resistor is same
ii) Potential difference across each resistor is directly proportional to
the value of resistance
iii) The value of equivalent resistance of the combination is greater
than the higher value of resistance in series combination
For resistances in parallel,
1 1 1
R eq R1 R 2
1 1 1 1
...
R eq R1 R 2 Rn
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
R I
R eq and current through each resistance I
1
n n
i.e. I I1 I2
G G1 G 2
R 1R 2 Multiplication
If two resistances are in parallel, R eq
R1 R 2 Addition
R1R 2
The p.d. across the circuit, v I.R eq I
R1 R 2
I = main current
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Brain Pointer - Physics
V I.R eq I R 1R 2 R2
I1 I
R1 R1 R1 R1 R 2 R1 R 2
and current flows through resistance R2,
V I.R eq I R1R 2 R1
I2 I
R2 R2 R 2 R1 R 2 R1 R 2
I1 R 2
In case of resistance in parallel,
I2 R1
If three resistances are connected in parallel,
R 1R 2 R 3
or R eq
R 1R 2 R 2 R 3 R 2 R 1
In parallel combination of resistors,
i) Potential difference across each resistor is same
ii) Current through any resistance is inversely proportional to its
resistance i.e. V = IR = constant
1
or I
R
iii) The value of equivalent resistance of this combination of
resistances is less than the lowest value of the resistances connected
in parallel.
If we have ‘n’ identical conductors, each of equal resistance, then
the number of combination, we can have using all at a time is 2n 1
If we have ‘n’ different conductors, then the number of possible
combinations are 2 n
If n identical resistances are first connected in series and then in
Rp n2
parallel, the ratio of the equivalent resistance is given by
Rs 1
161
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
If equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 in series and parallel be Rs and
Rp respectively then
1
R1 R s R s2 4R s R p
2
1
and R 2 R s R s2 4R s R p
2
If a wire of resistance R, cut in ‘n’ equal parts and then these parts
are connected to form a bundle then equivalent resistance of
R
combination will be
n2
1 1 1/2
R1 R 2 R1 R 2 4R 3 R1 R 2
2
R AB
2 2
1 R
R AB R1 1 1 4 2
2 R1
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Brain Pointer - Physics
3
R13 r
4
iii) Resistance across main diagonal
5
R17 r
6
1
r , A - area of electrodes
A
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Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
r C , C - concentration of electrolyte
1
r , T - temperature of electrolyte
T
Terminal potential difference (v) - The voltage across the terminals
of a cell when it is supplying current (closed circuit)
E
Current I
rR
E IR Ir
v Ir
or v E Ir,
VE
Current, I
r
164
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In open circuit R
E
I 0
Rr
In short circuit R = 0
E E
I and V IR 0
Rr r
R R1
E I1I 2 2
I1 I 2
I2 R 2 I1R1
Internal resistance of the cell used, r
I1 I 2
Cells in series
i) In series grouping of cells their emfs are additive or subtractive
while their internal resistances are always additive
165
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
E eq E1 E 2
req r1 r2
E eq E1 E 2 E1 E 2
req r1 r2
= E1 E 2 .... E n
iii) Current in each cell is the same and is equal to the main current
iv) Total internal resistance of battery = Sum of the individual internal
resistance
r r1 r2 ..... rn
v) Let n cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected
in series with ‘R’
Total emf = nE
Total resistance = R + nr
nE
Main current I
R nr
E
vi) If nr > > R, I i.e. current from any cell when short circuited
r
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Brain Pointer - Physics
nE
vii) If nr < < R, I i.e. n times the current due to one cell
R
2
nE
viii) power dissipated in the external circuit = R
R nr
E2
ix) condition for max. power, R = nr, and Pmax n
4r
If ‘n’ cells each of emf E and internal resistance ‘r’ are connected in
series and by mistake ‘m’ cells are wrongly connected to an external
resistance R, then
n 2m E
current through the circuit, I
R nr
Cells in parallel
167
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
1) emf of the battery = emf of a single cell
1 n
total internal resistance r r
eq
r
req
n
the current through the external resistance, is
E nE
I
r r nR
R
n
nE
5) If r > > R, then I n current due to single cell
r
E
6) If r < < R, then I = current due to single cell
R
2
E
P R
7) Power dissipated in the circuit r
R
n
r E2
8) Condition for max. power is, R and Pmax n
n 4r
168
Brain Pointer - Physics
E1r2 E 2 r1
Equivalent emf, E eq
r1 r2
r1r2
Equivalent internal resistance req
r1 r2
E1r2 E 2 r1
Main current I
r1r2 R r1 r2
E1 V E1 IR
I1
r1 r1
E 2 V E 2 IR
I2
r2 r2
169
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
If non-identical cells are connected in parallel (with reversed polarity)
E1r2 E 2 r1
E eq
r1 r2
170
Brain Pointer - Physics
E eq
3) current in the circuit or main current I
R R eq
nE
nr
R
m
mnE
mR nr
nr
4) current in the circuit is maximum, when R
m
E2
5) maximum power Pmax mn
4r
6) total number of cell = mn
Kirchhoff’s law
There are two laws given by Kirchhoff for determination of potential
difference and current in different branches of any complicated
network
First law (junction rule) : In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of
the currents meeting at any junction is zero i.e. I 0
While applying this rule, we (arbitrarily) take the currents entering
into a junction as positive and those leaving it as negative
I1 I2 I3 I 4 I5 0
I1 I3 I2 I 4 I5
171
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Second law (loop rule)
IR E 0
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VD = VB
P R
I1P I 2 R and I1Q I 2S
Q S
P R
If then VB VD and current will flow from B to D
Q S
P R
If then VB VD and current will flow from D to B
Q S
PQ R S P Q RS G P Q R S
R AB
G P Q R S P R Q S
173
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
2PQ G P Q
R AB
2G P Q
P R
At balanced condition
Q S
R
100 S
S
100 R
X
R 100
2) If two unknown resistances are connected in series in the left gap
and balancing length is s then
174
Brain Pointer - Physics
x1 x 2 s 1 2
R 100 s 100 1 100 2
3) If two unknown resistance are connected in parallel in the left gap
and balancing length is p , then
x1 x 2
xp x1 x 2 p
R R 100 p
P I2 R
V2
P
R
Electric energy is defined as the total electric workdone or energy
supplied by the source of emf in maintaining the current in an electric
circuit for a given time
Electric energy = electric power time
= P t
175
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
V2
Electric energy = Pt VIt I Rt
2
t
R
SI unit of electric energy is joule
1 joule = 1 Watt 1 second
H I 2 Rt (in joules)
I2 Rt
or H (in Calories)
J
Where J is Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat (= 4.2 J/cal)
W VIt I2 Rt v2 t
H cal
J 4.2 4.2 4.2R
Maximum power theorem - States that the output power of a source
of emf is maximum, when external resistance in the circuit is equal
to the internal resistance of source i.e. R = r
E
If E is the applied emf of the source, then I
Rr
At the max. output power, R = r
E E
So, I
r r 2r
176
Brain Pointer - Physics
E2
and max. output power, Pmax I r
2
4r
output power P0 VI V
Efficiency of a source of emf,
input power Pi EI E
Where, V - potential drop across the external resistance R
E - emf of the source of current
Long distance power transmission - When power is transmitted
through a power line of resistance R, power loss will be I 2 R
If the power is transmitted at voltage V then P VI
P
ie I
V
P2
So, power loss = 2 R
V
Now as for a given power and line P and R are constant so power
1
loss
v2
Long distance power transmission is carried out high voltage
Series combination of bulbs - Current through each bulb will be
same. Now because resistance of lowest wattage bulb is maximum,
hence heat produced I Rt will be maximum in lowest wattage
2
1 1 1
Ptotal P1 P2
1
Pconsumed (Brightness) V R
Prated
177
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Parallel combination of bulbs - voltage across each bulb will be
same. Now, because resistance of highest wattage bulb is minimum
hence heat produced V t / R (or brightness) will be maximum in
2
Ttotal P1 P2
1
Pconsumed (brightness) PR i
R
A fuse wire is generally prepared from tin-lead alloy (63% tin + 37%
lead). A fuse wire should have high resistance and low melting point
The length of fuse wire is immaterial
The safe current in a fuse wire is directly proportional to the (3/2)
power of radius of the wire i.e. I r 3/2
178
Brain Pointer - Physics
CHAPTER - 14
MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM
0 I d r
dB
4 r3
0 I
B sin 1 sin 2
4r
0 I sin
If 1 2 , B
2r
0I
B
2r
179
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
2. Magnetic field due to a circular coil carrying current
At any point on the axis of the coil
0 2nIr 2
Baxial
4 x 2 r 2 3/ 2
180
Brain Pointer - Physics
0 nI
At the ends of a long solenoid, B
2
N
B 0 nI where n
2r
N = total number of turns
r = mean radius of toroid
Magnetic field due to infinite long current carrying conductor
0I
Case I : Outside the conductor, B
2r
181
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Case II : Inside the conductor
0I
B r
2R 2
182
Brain Pointer - Physics
2m
T
qB
qB
Frequency,
2m
mv sin
radius of helical path, r
qB
2mv cos
pitch of the helix
qB
0 I1I 2
Magnetic force per unit length of the conductor, F
2 d
183
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Torque acting on a current loop
mB
NI A B
NIABsin
N = Number of turns
C
I
NAB
NBA
Current sensitivity =
I C
NBA
Voltage sensitivity =
V CR
184
Brain Pointer - Physics
IS
Full scale deflection current I g
G S
Where I = maximum current to be measured
G = resistance of the galvanometer
S = shunt resistance
Ig G
S
I Ig
Conversion of a galvanometer into a voltmeter
High resistance to be connected in series to convert the galvanometer
into a voltmeter
V
R G
Ig
185
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER - 15
MAGNETISM AND MATTER
2 Magnetic length
Directed from south to north
Inverse square law
The magnetic force between two isolated magnetic poles of strength
m1 and m 2 lying at a distance ‘r’ is given by:
0 m1m 2
F
4 r 2
Magnetic field due to a bar magnet
a) At an axial point
186
Brain Pointer - Physics
0 2Mr
Baxial
4 r 2 2 2
0 M
Beq
4 r 2 2 3/ 2
Beq
0 M
4 r 3
c) At any point
0 M
B 1 3cos 2
4 r 3
1
tan tan
2
angle between resultant field and direction of r .
187
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Torque on a dipole placed in a uniform magnetic field B is
MB
MBsin
Time period of oscillation of a dipole of dipole moment M placed in
a uniform magnetic field B is
I
T 2
MB
W MB cos 1 cos 2
Potential energy of a dipole of dipole moment M placed in a uniform
magnetic field B is
u M.B
u MB cos
M net V volume
I
V M net net dipole moment
Magnetic susceptibility
I
H
188
Brain Pointer - Physics
Relate permeability
r 1
Diamagnetic Materials
1) when placed in an external magnetic field, weakly repelled by the
field
2) 1 0
3) If 1 perfect diamagnet
4) is independent of temperature
Paramagnetic materials
1) when placed in an external magnetic field, weakly attracted by the
field
C
2)
T
Ferromagnetic materials
1) strongly attracted by the field
2) is very large and positive
3) above curie temperature ferromagnetic material behaves as a
paramagnet.
Magnetic Hysteresis
Retentivity OR remanence
Magnetic field remaining in the specimen when the magnetising field
is removed
Coercivity
Magnetic field required to destroy the remaining magnetism of the
specimen.
Hysteresis - loss
The area of B–H curve is a measure of energy dissipated per cycle
per unit volume.
189
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
CHAPTER - 16
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION & AC
Synopsis
01. Magnetic flux. B.A BAcos , Where is the angle between B
and A
d
02. Faraday’s law, magnitude of induced emf , . For ‘N’ turns
dt
d
N
dt
N d
Induced current , i - where ‘R’ is the resistance of the coil.
R dt
Change in flux
Induced Charge, Q
Re sis tan ce
03. Lenz’s law is the direct consequence of the law of conservation of
d
energy. It gives the direction of the iduced emf .
dt
04. Motional e.m.f is, Bv
1 2
05. Rotational e.m.f is, B
2
di
06. The induced e.m.f. due to self induction is given by L
dt
0 N 2 A
07. Self inductance of a solenoid = L = 0 n A or L
2
Where N is the total number of turns.
190
Brain Pointer - Physics
di
08. The induced e.m.f. due to mutual induction is given by M
dt
0 N p Ns A
09. Mutual iductance between a pair of coils is M
Where Np & Ns are the total number of turns in the primary and
secondary coils respectively.
1 2
12. Energy stored in a solenoid carrying current ‘I’ ampere is W LI
2
13. Mechanical and Electrical analogue
1) Velocity (v) Current (I)
2) Mass (m) Self inductance (L)
3) Displacement (s) Charge (q)
4) Force (F) Voltage ( )
1
5) Spring constant (k) Reciprocal of capacitance
C
6) Kinetic energy Magnetic energy stored in inductor
7) Friction Resistance
14. Magnetic energy density (energy stored per unit volume) in a solenoid
B2
=
2 0
15. If mutual induction between the coils is ignored, the effective self
inductance in series combination is, L
191
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
16. If mutual induction between the coils is considered, the effective self
inductance in series combination is ,
L L1 L 2 2M
L L1 L 2 2M
1 1 1
L L1 L 2
1 1 1 M
L L1 L 2 L1L 2
19. The force needed to move a conductor out from a uniform magnetic
field
B2 2 v
F BI
R
192
Brain Pointer - Physics
20. The power needed to move a conductor out from a uniform magnetic
field
B2 2 v 2
P
R
Alternating Current
BAN
22. Peak emf , m BAN and Peak current, i m
R
23. RMS value of emf and current are respectively
m i
rms 0.707 m and i rms m 0.707i m
2 2
24. The average value of emf / current in a positive half cycle are
2 2i
respectively av half and i av half
m m
1 2
25. The average value of power in a complete cycle = i m R i 2rms R
2
m
Now current in the inductor is i i m sin t where i m
2 L
Current lags behind the emf by
2
193
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Now current in the capacitor is i i m sin t where i m m
2 I
C
Current leads the emf by
2
1
30. Capacitive reactance X C
2f C
m
im
2
1
R 2 L
C
194
Brain Pointer - Physics
1
L
tan 1 C
Phase difference ,
R
2
1
Impedence Z R L
2
C
1
34. i) At very low frequency L . Then tan ve or ve
C
1
ii) At very large frequency L . Then tan ve or ve
C
1
iii) At an intermediate frequency L . Then tan 0 or 0
C
195
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
The current in the LCR circuit is i i m sin t . Now the circuit behaves
as a pure resistive circuit.
1 1
35. At resonance L ,
C LC
1
Resonant frequency f
2 LC
m
Current in the circuit at resonance is i m
max
0 L0
36. Q - factor of the LCR circuit is Q where 0 is the
2 R
resonant frequency.
L 1 1 L
Then Q
R LC R C
37. Average power in AC circuit is P rms i rms cos
38. Power consumed by a pure resistive circuit is rms rms P rms i rms
196
Brain Pointer - Physics
CHAPTER - 17
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Maxwell’s Equations
q
1) E.ds
S 0
Gauss theorem in electrostatics
2) B.ds 0 Gauss theorem in magnetism
S
dB dB
, E.d
dt
3) e A
dt
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
dE
4) B.d i
c
0 c i d 0i c 0 0 A
dt
Maxwell-Ampere law
c
E E 0 sin t x
B B sin t x
where, 2f
0 c
1 E
Speed of EM wave, C 0
0 0 B0
197
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
cB 2 EB
S 0 cE 2
0 0
1 1 2 EB E B
= c 0 E 02 B 0 c = 0 0 rms rms
2 2 0 2 0 0
Energy u 0
Momentum, P
Velocity v
Energy per unit volume,
1
= 0 E 02 (in electric field)
2
1 B20
= (in magnetic field)
2 0
1 1 B02
Total energy = E
0 0
2
2 2 0
Electromagnetic spectrum
Range of wavelength (in m)
Radio waves 10 1 10 4
198
Brain Pointer - Physics
X-rays 1011 10 8
Gamma rays 10 14 10 11
When a wave passes from one material to another, frequency remains
constant but the wavelength changes
0
where, 0 = wavelength in vacuum
n
n = refractive index
c
n v = speed of light in the material
v
Average energy density of electric field,
1
ue 0 E 02
4
Average energy density of magnetic field,
1 B02 B2
uB
4 0 2 0
Average energy density of EM wave
1 1 2
u EM 0 E 02 B0
2 2 0
B2rms
u EM 0 E 2
rms
0
Intensity of EM waves,
power 1 1 2
I 0 E 02 c B0 c
area 2 2 0
B2rms
I c 0 E 2rms c
0
199
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Radiation pressure
I
Prad for perfectly absorbing surface
C
2I
Prad for perfectly radiating surface
C
I S
or, Prad absorbing surface
C C
2I 2S
Prad reflecting surface
C C
where, I = intensity
S = Poynting vector
C = speed of light
200
Brain Pointer - Physics
CHAPTER - 18
RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
(3) Images by two inclined plane mirrors : When two plane mirrors
are inclined to each other at an angle , then number of images (n)
formed of an object which is kept between them.
360 60
(i) n 1 ; If = even integer
201
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
60
(ii) If = odd integer then there are two possibilities
(i) When the object moves with speed u towards (or away) from the
plane mirror then image also moves toward (or away) with speed u.
But relative speed of image w.r.t. object is 2u.
(ii) When mirror moves towards the stationary object with speed u,
the image will move with speed 2u.
Curved Mirror
Relation between f and R :
R
f
2
fconcave ve, f convex ve, f plane
202
Brain Pointer - Physics
1 1 1
Mirror formula : ; (use sign convention while solving the
f v u
problems)
size of object
Magnification : m
size of image
Snell’s law
The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the angle of refraction (r)
is a constant called refractive index
sin i
i.e. (a constant). For two media, Snell’s law can be written
sin r
2 sin i
as 1 2
1 sin r
203
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Optical Path
It is defined as distance travelled by light in vacuum in the same time
in which it travels a given path length in a medium.
Real and Apparent Depth
If object and observer are situated in different medium then due to
refraction, object appears to be displaced from it’s real position. There
are two possible conditions
1
cos ecC ; where Rarer Denser
sin C
(iv) Field of vision of fish (or swimmer) : A fish (diver) inside the water
can see the whole world through a cone with.
204
Brain Pointer - Physics
h
b) Radius of base r h tan C
2 1
h 2
c) Area of base A
2 1
Refraction from curved surface
u = Distance of object, v = Distance of image, R = Radius of curvature
2 1 2 1
Refraction formula : (use sign convention while
R v u
solving the problem)
Lens
205
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
Lens maker’s formula
1 1 1
formula and it is 1
f R1 R 2
Lens in a liquid
f a g 1
f a g 1 (Lens is supposed to be made of glass)
1 1 1
(i) Lens formula : ; (use sign convention)
f u
(ii) Magnification : The ratio of the size of the image to the size of
object is called magnification.
I f f
(a) Transverse magnification : m (use sign
O u f u f
convention while solving the problem)
(10) Cutting of lens
(i) A symmetric lens is cut along optical axis in two equal parts. Intensity
of image formed by each part will be same as that of complete lens
(ii) A symmetric lens is cut along principle axis in two equal parts.
Intensity of image formed by each part will be less compared as that
1
of complete lens. (aperture of each part is times that of complete
2
lens)
In case when two thin lens are in contact :Combination will behave
as a lens, which have more power or lesser focal length.
206
Brain Pointer - Physics
1 1 1 ff
F 1 2 and P P P
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2 1 2
(iv) When two lenses are placed co-axially at a distance d from each
other then equivalent focal length (F)
1 1 1 d
F f1 f 2 f1f 2 and P P1 P2 dP1P2
Silvering of lens
207
Brilliant STUDY CENTRE
A r1 r2 and i e A
sin i
For surface AC
sin r1
sin r2
For surface AB
sin e
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(ii) Dispersive power : 1
V R
y y
V R
where e y
2
It depends only upon the material of the prism i.e. and it doesn’t
depends upon angle of prism A
Scattering of Light
Molecules of a medium after absorbing incoming light radiations,
emits them in all direction. This phenomenon is called Scattering.
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1) According to scientist Rayleigh : Intensity of scattered light
1
4
2) Some phenomenon based on scattering : (i) Sky looks blue
due to scattering
(ii) At the time of sunrise or sunset it looks i reddish (iii) Danger signals
are made from red.
3) Elastic scattering : When the wavelength of radiation remains
unchanged, the scattering is called elastic.
4) Inelastic scattering (Raman’s effect) : Under specific condition,
light can also suffer inelastic scattering from molecules in which it’s
wavelength changes
Rainbow
Rainbow is formed due to the dispersion of light suffering
Refraction and TIR in the droplets present in the atmosphere
1) Primary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and one TIR (ii) Innermost
arc is violet and outermost is red (iii) Subtends an angle of 42o at the
eye of the observer. (iv) More bright
2) Secondary rainbow : (i) Two refraction and two TIR. (ii) Innermost
arc is red and outermost is violet (iii) Subtends an angle of 52.5o at
the eye. (iv) Comparatively less bright.
(1) Simple microscope
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D D
m D 1 and m
f max f min
Da
If lens is kept at a distance a from the eye then m D 1 and
f
Da
m
f
(2) Compound microscope
(i) Consist of two converging lenses called objective and eye lens.
of A ' B ' from eye lens, f 0 = Focal length of objective, f e = Focal length
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of eye lens.
Magnification :
mD
0 D f0 D 0 f 0 1 D
1 1
u 0 fe u 0 f0 fe f0 fe
m
0 D
f 0 D 0 f0 D
u 0 Fe u 0 f 0 f e f0 Fe
u 0f0 fD
When final image is formed at D; L D 0 u e e
u 0 f0 fe D
uf fD
When final images is formed at ; L 0 f e e
0 0
u 0 f0 fe D
(Do not use sign convention while solving the problems)
Telescope
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f0 fe f0
(v) Magnification : m D 1 and m f
fe D e
feD
(vi) Length : L D f 0 u e f 0
f e D and L f 0 f e
(2) Terrestrial telescope
f 0 fe f0
(iv) Magnification : m D 1 and m f
fe D e
feD
(v) Length : L D f 0 4f u e f 0 4f
f e D and L f 0 4f f e
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CHAPTER - 19
WAVE OPTICS
Wave front
Locus of points of same vibration. The phase difference between
two adjacent points in a wave front is zero
Types of wave fronts
2
2. Relation between phase difference and path difference L
Interferences - Superposition of waves
3. Amplitude of the resultant wave
i.e. I A1 A 2 2A1A 2 cos
2 2
Resultant Intensity
I I1 I 2 2 I1I 2 cos
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2
I1 I 2 A A2
2
I max
1
4.
A1 A 2
2 2
Imin I1 I 2
5. I Imax cos2
2
Relation between slit width and intensity
W1 I1 A12
6. W slit width
W2 I 2 A 22
Condition for maxima and minima
L n n 0,1, 2,3,...
2n 1 n 1, 2,3,...
2
and for destructive interference d sin 2n 1 n 0,1, 2,3,...
2
Distance to the nth bright fringe from central maximum
nD
y nb n 0,1, 2,3,... and to the n th dark fringe
d
D
y nd 2n 1 n 1, 2,3,...
2d
D
Fringe width,
d
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Angular fringe width
D d
12.
D d
If YDSE is performed in a medium
1
13.
Angular width
1
14. If transparent sheet is introduced in the path of one of the two waves,
shift produced is given by
D
y0 1 t; y0 1 t
d
y 1 t
no. of fringes shifted n
15. Diffraction : Bending of light around the corners of opaque obstacles
and apertures
a sin 2n 1 n 1, 2,3,...
2
x D
First sec. min i.e. x
a D a
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2
Angular width of the central maximum 2
a
2D
Linear width of the central maximum 2x 2 D
a
The first minimum for the diffraction pattern of circular aperture of
1.22
diameter d is located by sin
d
16. Doppler effect of light
v
c
17. Polarization : [Process of restriction of light vectors into a particular
plane]
I0
Malu’s law (cosine squared law) I 2 I1 cos I1
2
nd 1
tan B ; tan B
nr sin C
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CHAPTER - 20
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION
Work function 0
hc
E h
c = velocity of light
= wave length
h = 6.63 10 34 Js
E h
Effective mass of photon, m c 2 c 2
h h
Photon momentum, P mc
c
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P P
per second, N
h hc
Photoelectric effect
When light of suitable frequency incident on metal, electrons are
emitted from its surface.
hc
work function 0 h 0
0
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1 1 1
mv 2max h 0 h
2 0
Where ‘Vmax’ is the velocity of the fastest photoelectron.
If V0 is the stopping potential, K max eV0
eV0 h 0
h 0
V0 . This is of the form y = mx + c
e e
h
So V0 versus graph is a straight line with slope = and
e
0
Y intercept =
e
BC h
slope tan
AB e
o
If is in A, the energy of photon
12375
in eV is given by
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De-Broglie wave equation
The wavelength associated with a particle of mass ‘m’ moving
with velocity ‘v’ is given by
h h h
(P - momentum, K - kinetic energy)
mv P 2mK
When an electron accelerated by a potential difference V,
h 12.27 o
A This is verified by Davisson & Germer
2meV V
X-Rays
eV h
eV
h
hc
Cut-off wavelength, 0
eV
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CHAPTER - 21
ATOMS & NUCLEI
ATOMS
Dalton’s atomic theory
All elements are composed of invisible particles called atoms
Compounds are formed of atoms of two or more elements
Thomson’s atomic model
Atom consists of positively charged protons and negatively charged
electrons
Atom is neutral
Rutherford’s atomic model
Atoms contains a positively charged tiny particle at its centre known
as nucleus
Inside the nucleus there are protons and neutrons
Outside the nucleus there are the electrons
1 1 z1e z 2e
mv 2 r-distance of closest approach
2 4 0 r
Impact parameter
scattering angle
Ze2 cot
2 E K kinetic energy
b
40 EK b impact parameter
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Rutherford’s scattering formula
Ni nt z 2 e4
N
8 0
2
r 2 E K2 sin 2
2
N = Number of alpha particles per unit area that reach the screen
at a scattering angle
Ni = Total number of alpha particles that reach the screen
n = Number of atoms per unit volume in the foil
Bohr’s atomic model
The electrons in an atom are revolving in certain fixed orbits for which
the angular momentum of the electrons is an integral multiple of h or
h
2
L = nh
nh
L
2
The electrons in the stationary orbits do not radiate energy
If an electron jumps from initial state of energy En to a final state of
lower energy Em, energy of emitted photon is given by
h E n E m
Bohr’s formulae
4 0 n 2 h 2 0.529n 2 o
Radius of nth orbit = rn , rn A
42 mZe 2 Z
1 2ze2
Velocity of electron in the nth orbit v n
4 0 nh
2
2.2 106 m / s
n
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1 1 1
is given by Rz 2 2 2
n n2
R is called Rydberg’s constant
2
1 22 me 4
R 1.097 107 m 1
4 0 ch 3
13.6z 2
Ionisation energy = eV
n2
13.6z 2
Ionisation potential = volt
n2
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z 2 e4 m 1 1 2 1 1
2 2 Rcz 2 2
8 02 h 3 n1 n 2 n1 n 2
n n 1
N
2
Time period of revolution of electron in nth orbit
n3
Tn
22
Angular momentum of electron in nth orbit
nh
Ln
Z2
NUCLEI (SYNOPSIS)
1. Atomic mass uni (amu)
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9.1 1031 kg
3. Nuclear size
1
R R0A 3 R Radius of nucleus
R 0 1.2 1015 m
A mass number
1 eV = 1.6 10 19 J
6. Mass defect m
m Zm p A Z m n M
Z - atomic number
A - mass number
mp - mass of proton
mn - mass of neutron
M - actual mass of nucleus
Binding energy of a nucleus (Eb)
E b m 931.5 MeV
binding energy E b
E bn
mass number A
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7. Nuclear reaction
Nuclear fission
In nuclear fission a heavier nucleus when bombarded with neutron
splits into two or more lighter nuclei, with the emission of large amount
of energy.
1 H 2 1 H 2 2 H3 n 3.27 MeV
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CHAPTER - 22
SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS
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Digital Electronics
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Basic Laws of Boolean Algebra
AA
Gate used/
NAND NOR
Imple me nted
NOT 1 1
AND 2 3 Number of
universal
OR 3 2
gates required
NAND X 4 to implement
15 complementary
NOR 4 X universal gates
XOR 4 5 is 4
XNOR 5 4
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I.C. Technology
No. of components in
Name I.C. Technology
1mm x 1mm Area
Less than 10 Small scale Integration (SSI)
< 100 Medium scale Integration (MSI)
< 1000 Large scale Integration (LSI)
> 1000 Very large scale Integration (VLSI)
237