Lesson 10: Drying and Dehydration General Methods of Drying

Overview
1. Sun drying- accomplished by exposure to the
 Drying is one of man’s oldest methods of food sun; moisture reduced to 25%-26%; solar
preservation which is the partial removal of the drying- use of the sun’s energy to heat air.
moisture content of foods either by natural or
2. Artificial drying or dehydration – drying by
artificial means.
artificially produced heat under carefully
 It accomplishes three things: controlled conditions of temperature,
humidity and air flow.

Advantages of dehydration
A. More nearly resemble the cooked fresh fruits in
flavor and color than cooked sun-dried fruits.
B. Accomplished under more sanitary conditions
permits more careful control of the quality of the
finished product.
C. Requires less area and fewer trays than sun drying
does.
o Enzymatic changes are retarded, growth of m/o
Drying can be accomplished by:
is surely hampered as m/o cannot thrive on a
 Sun drying
low moisture content and microbes themselves  Hot air drying
lose water and are rendered inert or inactive.  Hot oil drying (deep- fat frying)
 Osmotic drying
 Steam drying.
o Air is the drying medium; foodstuff may be
 Low relative humidity drying
dried in: Air, superheated stream, vacuum, inert  Spray drying.
 Drum drying.
gas, and direct application of heat.
 Freeze drying.
 Foam mat drying.
o Plentiful, convenient, and controlled  Fluidized bed drying
overheating. Conduct heat and conveys heat to Types of Driers:
1. Drum drier – milk, veg. Juices, bananas and potato
the food.
flour and flakes. Food slurry is sprayed on a
The advantages are as follows: rotating heated drum. Used in milk, veg. Juices,
 Standpoint of transportation, good substitute bananas and potato flour and flakes.
for fresh foods and are quite satisfactory from 2. Cabinet or compartment drier – drying fruits
the standpoint of health and nutrition, there is and veg. And commonly used in laboratory
economy in use since there is no waste and studies and small-scale operations.
only the amount of dehydrated food necessary 3. Kiln drier – potatoes and apple slices. Oldest
for use at one time need be prepared, with drier, consist of 2 story with furnace on the 1st
proper storage and packaging, dried foods can floor and 2nd floor is the area where foods
be kept even at ordinary room temperature and being dried is placed. Used in copra drying.
from the standpoint of business, dried and 4. Spray drier – Liquid food solution, slurry,
dehydrated foods are concentrated and easy to suspension or sludge is finely atomized in a
distribute. gaseous heating medium (air) under vacuum. milk,

In this lesson, another method of food preservation cream, coffee, tea- horizontal con-current, vertical

method will be given focus and discussion. At the end down-flow con-current, vertical up flow con-current

of the lesson, students are able to demonstrate and vertical up flow counter current.

understanding of the science and technology of drying 5. Tunnel drier – leavening yeasts, fruits and veg. 5-

and dehydration, the different dyers, factors affecting 40 ft long tunnels. Hot air is blown through

drying rate and influence of drying in foods. the food dried inside the tunnel. Used in
leavening yeasts, fruits and veg.
Drying and Dehydration
6. Vacuum shelf-drier - involves reduced pressure 4. It gives an end product that reconstitutes easily to
and tempt ranging from 100-140f–puff–dried, citrus a volume comparable to that of the raw materials.
powder and tomato powders: air-lift drier – potato 5. The texture, appearance, flavour and nutritive
granules. value of freeze-dried products are comparable to
7. Belt-trough drier- diced potato and piece form fresh or frozen foods and the product has a long
veg. Heated air is blown through the conveyor belt shelf -life and requires no refrigeration.
Where diced potato and piece form veg. Are placed.
Advantages of Freeze Drying:
8. Fluidized bed drier – mashed potato.
9. Hot air drier- heated air is blown through trays of 1. Freeze dried products are relatively stable
foods to be dried. because of the lower moisture content
10. Puff and pressure puff driers – fruit juices and obtained.
puff breakfast foods. 2. The temperature used in dehydration is below
11. Tower drying – exposure to dehumidified air at that at w/c many labile substances undergo
0
30 C or lower. chemical change.
12. Foam-mat drying - convection drying in warm air. 3. There is no microbial growth and little
13. Pressure puff driers - fruit juices and puff enzymatic change because of the low
breakfast foods. temperature employed.
14. fluidized bed drier - mashed potato 4. The loss of volatile constituents is also reduced.
5. It gives an end product that reconstitutes easily
Other Methods of Drying
to a volume comparable to that of the raw
1. Osmotic dehydration – use of high sugar materials.
concentration; Foam-mat drying – convection 6. The texture, appearance, flavor and nutritive
drying in warm air; Freeze drying or value of freeze-dried products are comparable
lyophilization – process of drying foods in the to fresh or frozen foods and the product has a
frozen state; and Tower drying – uses long shelf –life and requires no refrigeration.
dehumidified air at 30ºC or lower.
Factors affecting rate of drying.
a. Advantages of Osmotic Drying:
Minimum damage to color and volatile Nature of the product - Compact food like meat,
flavors since high tempt. Are not used; the poultry, and fish will need longer time to dry than
use of sugar as an osmotic agent lessens
fibrous materials of fruits and vegetables. Size of the
food sample to be dried. Thicker and bigger samples dry
the loss of fresh flavor as compared to that
longer whilst thinner and smaller samples dry quicker.
occurring in ordinary air or even vacuum
drying; the high sugar concentration Temperature - This is directly proportional to the rate

prevents enzymatic browning w/c makes of evaporation. The best temperature is 110-115F.

sulfiting unnecessary and some acid is Exact temperature is dependent on the nature of

removed w/ the water this results in a more the food and the method of drying.

bland, sweeter fruit. Wind velocity - This is proportional to the transfer of

2. Freeze drying or lyophilization – process of heat from the food to the environment.

drying foods in the frozen state under vacuum. Relative humidity of the air- the less saturated the
air with moisture the faster its absorption of water
Advantages of freeze drying: vapors from the food.

1. Freeze dried products are stable because of the Drying time – The length of drying time is directly

lower moisture content obtained. proportional to the dryness of the product.

2. The temperature used in dehydration is below at Design, volume of air flow, proportion of re-circulated
which many heats labile substances undergo air, temperature, rate of input of wet product, nature of
chemical change. the product and time of drying.
3. No microbial growth and little enzymatic
change because of the low temperature employed, Treatment of food before drying

loss of volatile constituents is also reduced.

 1. Selection and sorting, washing, peeling – sensitive, and Thiamin is heat sensitive and
different methods, subdivision. destroyed by sulfuring.
2. Alkali dipping. 1. For meat: Dried meat contain less vitamin than
3. blanching/scalding and sulfuring- fruits fresh with losses in Thiamin at high drying
and vegetables- purposes: temperature and loss of Vit. C lost in dried meat
i. prevents darkening and brown discoloration and small losses of riboflavin and niacin.
during dehydration and subsequent storage, 2. For Fruits: Sun drying causes large losses in
tends to conserve vit. C, carotene content; spray little loss; Vit. C great
ii. makes the plant cell membrane more loss in sun drying; freeze drying retains greater
permeable to water thus hastening the drying proportion of vit. C and other nutrients and
process. Retention of vitamins in dehydrated foods is
iii. sulfur dioxide at certain levels acts as a generally superior to in sun dried foods.
fumigant for insects. 3. For vegetables: Same as in fruits; Carotene
4. Drying/dehydration – done for definite time content decreased as much as 80% if w/o
and temperature. enzyme inactivation- dehydration – 5% losses;
5. Sweating – equalization of moisture or the re- Thiamin in blanched tissues – 15%; unblanched-3/4
addition of moisture to a desired level. of the nutrients; Ascorbic acid- rapid drying retains
6. Packaging and storage greater amount than slow drying; Vit. C content lost
in slow sun drying and in all events, vit. Potency will
Procedures after Drying
decrease on storage of dry foods.
1. Sweating – equalization of moisture or re- 4. Milk products (depending on the level of nutrient
addition of moisture to a desired level; in raw & method of processing): Vitamin A –
packaging and pasteurization retained in good proportion in drum-dried and
spray-dried milk; Vacuum packaged dried milk can
Problems encountered in drying.
be stored w/ good retention of Vit. A; Thiamin
1. Case hardening, - a condition wherein the outer losses on both spray and drum drying but of lower
surface is dry, but the inside layer is still wet. order than fruits and vegetables; Riboflavin –
2. Browning/discoloration or heat damage same as thiamin; Ascorbic acid – losses; Vit. C –
3. Loss of volatile constituents. totally lost; Vacuum drying & freeze drying –
4. Loss of ability to rehydrate completely. ascorbic acid may be retained as in the fresh milk;
5. Loss or destruction of nutrients (refer to discussion Vit. D content- generally greatly decreased by
below). drying; Fluid milk should be enriched w/ vit. D
before drying and Pyridoxine and niacin are not
Influence of Dehydration on the Nutritive Value
materially lost.
of Food
5. Iinfluence of drying on protein: Dependent on
1. Losses of moisture which results in increasing the method of drying. Prolonged exposure to high
the concentration of nutrients in the temperature renders the protein less useful and
remaining mass; proteins, fats and carbohydrates Low temperature may increase digestibility.
are present in larger amount per weight in dried 6. Influence of drying on fats: Rancidity-
products than fresh counterpart. problem; oxidation of fats is greater at higher
2. there is a loss in vitamin content; water temperature than at lower temperature of
soluble vitamins are partially oxidized, dehydration and use of an antioxidant may control.
diminished during blanching and enzyme 7. Influence on carbohydrates: Discoloration may
inactivation- destruction depends on: Caution be due to enzymatic browning or to caramelization
exercised during preparation, dehydration types of reactions; Due to the reaction of organic
process selected and conditions of storage; acids and reducing sugars; Addition of sulfur
Ascorbic acid and carotene – damage by dioxide is a means of controlling; Low moisture
oxidation process; Riboflavin is light content is necessary; Slow sun drying permits
 extensive deterioration unless protected by and reached. The brine causes some thickening of the flesh
Critical level moisture is 1-30% cellular fluid resulting into some stiffening of the flesh.
8. Influence on microorganism: In 12% moisture- Through the process plasmolysis salt destroys
molds will grow and less than 5% will be microorganisms. However, the salt concentration
inhibited; 30%- bacteria and yeasts; Grains- 16% must be high as some bacteria grow best at 10-15%
moisture- molds grow on storage; Fruits- 16-25% salt. Salt impurities such as magnesium and calcium
moisture- molds may grow with high humidity and salts cause the fish to become white, hard and brittle.
exposed to air; Sodium chloride is commonly It does not soften completely, and the taste is bitter
employed at 5%; Pathogenic bacteria occasionally and strong, when freshened. General salting methods
can withstand, and Parasites survive- control before include: drying-salting, dry-salting to make brine, brine
drying. salting and fermenting-bagoong and patis are
9. Influence on enzyme activity: A minute at examples.
212ºF (boiling temperature)- renders inactive-
a. 2 enzymes as indicators: Catalase- less
resistant to heat and Peroxidase and
b. Nil at moisture levels below 1%.
10. Influence on Pigments in Foods: Carotenoid-
altered- the higher the temperature and the
longer – the more it is altered;
a. Anthocyanins too are injured.
b. Chlorophyll alpha and beta- magnesium -
retention – in moist heating it is converted to
pheophytin. Alter brown olive green rather than
grass green.
11. Salting (my discussion is limited to fish but
application of learning to other foods is on the
laboratory class)

It has been widely used for centuries as a

method of preservation. Salting and drying are
dependent on the removal of moisture in foods thus
rendering them less perishable. Salt in effect
lowers the moisture content of the product through
osmosis, the process which involves the passage of
water through a semipermeable membrane from a
region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration until equilibrium is attained. Nowadays,
salting and the use of high concentration of sugar is
term concentration. Concentration by water
evaporation or removal from foods thereby the
remaining solid mass with less moisture content.
Salting can be used for meat, fish and some
vegetables.

Salting Fish. When fish is salted, moisture is withdrawn

from the flesh by osmosis to dilute the concentrated
salt solution that forms around the grains of salt. Soon
this salt solution gets into the fish flesh until a balance
of the salt concentration in and outside the flesh is
Smoking (my discussion limited also to fish but The science of Fish Smoking. Originally,
application of learning in other foods is in the laboratory smoking of food was done to preserve it wherein the
class) smoked product was extremely dried and heavily
slated. Nowadays, fish is smoked to impart to it a
Drying and smoking is one of the oldest
pleasant taste rather than prolonged the its shelf life. It
methods of preserving foods. Partial removal of water
is usually mildly salted and hardly dried.
or moisture from the food that would prevent bacterial
and mold growth. Smoking is a method of drying that Fuel for smoking: wood. The only suitable fuel
imparts flavour to food and smoke helps keep away for the production of smoke in food. Soft types of wood
bacterial carrying insects during the drying process. But are avoided for fish and meat- produce smoke impart
some would separate smoking from drying. Smoking undesirable flavour to the smoke product, more
adds flavour to meat, fish and poultry and provides a constituents believed to be carcinogenic than the hard
small preservation effect. Smoking is a method of types of wood. Sawdust obtained from most local
cooking meat and other foods over a fire. Woodchips lumberyards are from hard woods which are
are added to the fire to give a smoky flavour to the recommended for smoking.
food. Hot smoking is where meat is slowly cooked and
Smoke production from wood. Considerable
smoked at the same time, a smoker or smokehouse can
amount of smoke from wood must be produced to
be use. Liquid smoke is another way to add flavour to
effectively smoke fish as well as meat. Complete
meat and fish- amount of smoke flavour is completely
combustion of wood results only to carbon dioxide and
controlled and immediate.
water but no smoke. It should be controlled in order
Fish Smoking: Tinapa. In the Philippines, that incomplete combustion predominates. This can be
smoked fish is called tinapa wherein our country done by: lowering somewhat the burning or pyrolysis
produce tons of this. Tinapa making is a combination of temperature and restricting the supply of air.
salting, smoking, cooking and drying. Fishes commonly
Smoke constituents and their effects on the
used are silinyasi, tunsoy, tamban and bangus. Brief
smoke products. The main constituents of smoke are
procedure is: the washed fish is place in a vat of
formaldehydes, other aldehydes, ketones, formic acid,
saturated salt solution for 5-10mins or even up to two
acetic acid and other acids, methyl alcohol, tar, phenol
hours depending on the size of the fish- clean the fish
and water. There maybe others yet to be discovered.
and as a spoilage preventive measures. The fish are
These constituents are distributed in two phases: the
then cooked in boiling brine while suspended in wooden
dispersed liquid particles-colloidal particles of small
or bamboo immersion baskets until the fish eye turn
size-Tyndall effect of scattering light which impart a
white and fall apart which varies from 1-10mins
fuzzy, cloudy appearance of smoke and dispersion
depending on the size of the fish. The fish are then
vapors which are immiscible- absorption of vapors
drained, cooled and smoked over bamboo smoking
rather than disposition of liquid particles- principal
trays. Between brine cooking and smoking the fish may
absorbent is the surface and interstitial water of the
be allowed to stand overnight during which partial
fish. The distribution of the smoke in the two phases
drying takes place and somewhat hardens the fish
varies depending upon the air that enters constantly
flesh, preventing it from breakage during handling with
into the smoking chamber. The well known antiseptic
the smoking trays. Smoking may take from 45 mins to
properties of smoke has been attributed to
6 hours depending on the size of the fish and smoke
formaldehyde, acids and phenols. The color
used. Small fish shorter and bigger fish longer. Tinapa
formation to the deposition and oxidation of phenols.
is not a fully dried product hence it keeps without
The glossy surface to the dried soluble proteins-
refrigeration only for about 3 days to a week without
dissolved during brining and dries on the surface of the
deterioration in quality. The moisture content ranges
fish on smoking and drying. Wood smoke is an effective
from 55-64%. In few days after smoking the belly
antioxidant , providing useful protection against
maybe not be the same as those that are smoked
oxidation of the oil in fish-appears due to absorption by
whole or eviscerated.
the fish of guaiacol and its homologs and to a lesser
extent dimethyl pyrogallol from the vapor phase. The
possible carcinogenicity of smoked products is well nutritive value of specific foods? On specific
known- trace amount of 3,4 benzopyrene in smoke nutrients?
has been implicated with it – favoured by higher 5. Explain the principle behind salting and smoking.
pyrolysis temperature. Reason why cold smoking is The science of fish smoking.
more recommended than hot smoking.

Learning activity/ assessment questions No. 10:

1. 1.Explain the difference between drying and

dehydration. Give some advantages of dehydration,
osmotic drying and freeze drying.
2. Explain the importance of pre-treatment in
vegetables before drying. Give some problems
encountered in drying and what do you think are
the causes.
3. A company is to produce powdered malunggay,
squash and mung bean, what type of dryer would
you recommend and explain why.
4. How would you scientifically explain to a group of
mothers the influence of dehydration on the