(TYPE 10: SENTENCE COMPLETION)

Test 2
Pine Trees
A I am looking at a very thick twisted trunk, rising to medium height, at which point appears a stumpy
canopy of spiky needles. It’s a tree, but a very special one. Ron Simonson, a park ranger explains. “It’s a
bristlecone pine, and it’s been given the name, Methuselah”. I ask the obvious question, and Ron replies,
“Because like Methuselah from the bible, this tree is very old, one of the oldest living things on Earth in
fact.” I ask the next obvious question, and Ron replies, “Basically Methuselah has existed throughout
virtually all of recorded human history.” I look again at this quiet and unassuming tree, beginning to
realise it is worthy of great respect.

B Being in a cold climate, facing limited summer seasons, rooted in nutrient poor and dry soil, and
subject to high winds and withering winters, bristlecone pines mature very slowly indeed. Yet mature they
do, as with all pines becoming fractionally thicker every year as another growth ring is added to their
truck. By counting these, we can accurately state that, as of 2011, Methuselah was 4,842 years old,
meaning that it sprouted as a seedling in 2832 BC, centuries before the ancient Egyptians began building
their pyramids. And that’s just one fascinating fact about that well-known species of tree – the pine.

C Pines trees are native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. Several species have adapted to the harsh
conditions of high elevations and latitudes, including Methuselah himself, growing among the peaks of
the White Mountains of Northern California.

D Pines can be small, such as the Siberian Dwarf Pine, or huge, such as the Ponderosa Pine in the wilds
of Oregon, and there are over 100 varieties in all. They have been introduced into the more temperate
portions of the Southern Hemisphere, where they are now grown widely, becoming a familiar feature in
parks and gardens. It would not be too much of an exaggeration to say that almost everyone knows pines.

E These trees certainly have many telltale characteristics. They are evergreen, usually with needle-like
foliage and a sharp pleasant pine smell. They are often large and imposing, with thick scaly bark, and
always produce their signature pine cones. These formations are certainly not simple. They can be male
(small, inconspicuous, and shedding pollen) or female (large, woody, and containing seeds), even when
appearing on the same tree. They have numerous scales arranged in a spiral, with seeds (on the female)
tucked within. As the cone opens, the seeds eventually fall out, mostly to be dispersed by the wind, or
sometimes by birds. In some varieties, the cones remain closed until their binding resin is melted by forest
fires.

F This last fact – the need for wildfires for regeneration – is another fascinating aspect of many pine
species. In fire-prone areas, it can result in extensive stands of pines, a good example being in ‘pine
barrens’. These are eco-regions of sandy nutrient-poor soil dominated by pines, since the frequency of
natural (usually lightning-induced) fires weeds out the less fire-tolerant species. It is perhaps sad that
modern fire prevention methods have resulted in the decline of many pine species in the wild, and most
ancient pine barrens are now being taken over by other forest vegetation.

G However, the situation is very different for home and commercial use, which has seen pines become a
very common sight. As these trees grow fast, can be planted in dense arrays, and produce attractive and
easily moulded wood, they are favourites for commercial plantations. The wood is fragrant, but prone to
decay, so it is most suitable for indoor or dry carpentry, rather than outdoors, where more durable varieties
are necessary. As for other uses of pines, their branches are valued as Christmas trees, and their wood is
also pulped in factories for paper and chipboard production. Pine resin is a byproduct, and this is collected
for distillation into turpentine, an important industrial solvent.

H In a more homely sense, perhaps what people most like are the cones, the largest of which are regularly
used by children and craft enthusiasts. With the widespread distribution of pines across the Northern
Hemisphere, cones form part of the many traditional cultures there, where they are used for decorative
purposes, fire starters, bird feeders, or just intriguing natural playthings for young children. Many people
lament that modern manufactured toys in the more affluent of these countries have displaced cones,
although some Nordic communities still teach traditional ‘cone-craft’ in high schools.

I For some reason, I always come back to Methuselah. Ron tells me a story. In 1964, a student was taking
a coring sample from another bristlecone pine in the area. His coring toll broke, so the tree was cut down
to allow dating by an examination of a cross-section of its trunk. Upon doing this, to the astonishment of
all, 4,844 rings were counted, signifying that the tree was even older than Methuselah. Ron smiles wryly
at the thought. ‘We deliberately killed the oldest life on Earth. That’s one reason why we keep the location
of Methuselah a secret. This tree is precious, and must be kept free from all human interference.’

Questions 1- 4
Complete the sentences.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Every year, pine trees gain another 1… ……………..

The pyramids were built hundreds of years after 2 …… …………..
Typical of all pines are their 3 … ……………..
The wood from the pines is not very 4 …… …………..

Test 3
Marketing Advice for New Businesses
If you’re setting up your own business, here’s some advice on getting customers.

Know where your customers look

Your customers aren’t necessarily where you think they are. So if you’re advertising where they’re just
not looking, it’s wasted money. That’s why it pays to do a bit of research. Every time someone contacts
your company, ask them where they found out about you. And act on this information so you’re
advertising in the right places.

Always think like a customer

What makes your customers tick? Find out, and you’re halfway to saying the right things in your
advertising. So take the time to ask them. A simple phone or email survey of your own customers, politely
asking why they use you, what they really like and what they don’t, is invaluable.

Make sure customers know you’re there

If a customer can’t see you, they can’t buy from you. There are loads of opportunities to promote your
business — print, press, direct mail, telemarketing, email and the internet — and using a mix of these
increases your chances of being seen (and remembered).

Ignore your customers and they’ll go away

It sounds obvious, but companies that talk to their customers have much better retention rates than those
that don’t, so it’s worth staying in touch. Capture your customers’ email addresses upfront. Follow up a
transaction to check they’re happy with the service and, if possible, send them updates that are helpful,
informative and relevant.

Know what works (and what doesn’t)

Do what the professionals do, and measure all your advertising. That’ll tell you what you’re doing right –
and where there’s room for improvement. You never know, it might just throw up some information that
could change your business for the better.

Remember word-of-mouth: the best advertising there is

A recent survey found that consumers are 50% more likely to be influenced by word-of-mouth
recommendations than by TV or radio ads. So your reputation is your greatest asset. If your current
customers are impressed with your company, they’ll be more inclined to recommend you to others. On the
flip side, if they experience bad service they probably won’t complain to you – but you can be sure they
will to their friends.

Questions 15-20
Complete the sentences below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-20 on your answer sheet.

15 Some ……… ………………… will help you to discover the most effective places to advertise.
16 A ……… ………………… of your customers will show you how they feel about your company.
17 A ……… ………………… of forms of advertising will make it more likely that potential customers
will find out about you.
18 lf you can, provide customers with useful …… …………………… about your business.
19 Measuring the effects of your advertising can give you …… …………………… that will improve
your business.
20 Success in finding new customers largely depends on your ……… ………………… .

Test 1
The Spice of Life
A When thinking of the most popular restaurant dish in the UK, the answer ‘chicken tikka masala’ does
not spring readily to mind. But it is indeed the answer, often now referred to as a true ‘British national
dish’. It may even have been invented by Indian immigrants in Scotland, who roasted chicken chunks
(tikka), mixed them with spices and yoghurt, and served this in a bowl of masala sauce. The exact
ingredients of the sauce vary from restaurant to restaurant, but the dish usually includes purced tomatoes
and cream, coloured orange by turmeric and paprika. British cuisine? Yes, spices have come a long way.

B Spices are dried seeds, fruit, roots, bark, or vegetative parts of plants, added to food in small amounts to
enhance flavour or colour. Herbs, in contrast, are only from the leaves, and only used for flavouring.
Looking at the sources of some common spices, mustard and black pepper arc from seeds, cinnamon from
bark, cloves from dried flower buds, ginger and turmeric from roots, while mace and saffron are from
seed covers and stigma tips, respectively. In the face of such variety, it is becoming increasingly common
for spices to be offered in pre-made combinations. Chili powder is a blend of chili peppers with other
spices, often cumin, oregano, garlic powder, and salt. Mixed spice, which is often used in baking, is a
British blend of sweet spices, with cinnamon being the dominant flavour. The ever-popular masala, as
noted, could be anything, depending on the chef.
C Although human communities were using spices tens of thousands of years ago, the trade of this
commodity only began about 2000 BC, around the Middle Last. Farly uses were less connected with
cooking, and more with such diverse functions as embalming, medicine, religion, and food preservation.
Eventually, extensive overland trade routes, such as the Silk Road, were established, yet it was maritime
advances into India and East Asia which led to the most dramatic growth in commercial activities. From
then on, spices were the driving force of the world economy, commanding such high prices that it pitted
nation against nation, and became the major impetus to exploration and conquest. It would be hard to
underestimate the role spices have played in human history.

D Originally, Muslim traders dominated these routes, seeing spice-laden ships from the Orient crossing
the Indian Ocean to Red Sea and Persian Gulf ports, from where camel caravans transported the goods
overland. However, although slow to develop, European nations, using aggressive exploration and
colonisation strategies, eventually came to rule the Far East and, consequently, control of the spice trade.
At first, Portugal was the dominant power, but the British and Dutch eventually gained the upper hand, so
that by the 19th century, the British controlled India, while the Dutch had the greater portion of the East
Indies (Indonesia). Cloves, nutmeg, and pepper were some of the most valuable spices of the time.

E But why were spices always in such demand? There are many answers. In the early days, they were
thought to have strong medicinal properties by balancing ‘humours’, or excesses of emotions in the blood.
Other times they were thought to prevent maladies such as the plague, which often saw prices of
recommended spices soar. But most obviously, spices flavoured the bland meat-based European cuisines.
Pepper, historically, has always been in highest demand for this reason, and even today, peppercorns
(dried black pepper kernels) remain, by monetary value, the most widely traded spice in the world.
However, saffron, by being produced within the small saffron flower, has always been among the world’s
most costly spice by weight, valued mostly for its vivid colour.

F Predictably, the majority of the world’s spices are produced in India, although specific spices are often
produced in greater amounts in other countries. Vietnam is the largest producer and exporter of pepper,
meeting nearly one third of the world’s demand. Indonesia holds a clear lead in nutmeg production, Iran
in saffron, and Sri Lanka in cinnamon. However, exportation of such spices is not always simple. Most
are dried as a whole product, or dried and ground into powder, both forms allowing bulk purchase, easier
storage and shipping, and a longer shelf life. For example, the rhizomes (underground stems) of turmeric
are boiled lor several hours, then dried in ovens, after which they are ground into the yellow powder
popular in South-Asian and Middle-Eastern cuisines.

G However, there are disadvantages in grinding spices. It increases their surface area many fold,
accelerating the rate of evaporation and oxidation of their flavour-bearing and aromatic compounds. In
contrast, whole dried spices retain these for much longer. Thus, seed-based varieties (which can be
packaged and stored well) are often purchased in this form. This allows grinding to be done at the
moment of cooking or eating, maximising the flavour and effect, a fact which often results in pepper
‘grinders’, instead of ‘shakers’, gracing the tables of the better restaurants around the world.

Questions 7-9
Complete the sentence.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Saffron, from the small 7………………. of flowers, has a 8……………… , and is mostly grown in
9……………… .