INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY CORE BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY

PYTHAGORAS / PYTHAGORAS OF SAMOS 1. Metaphysics

● A sage and mystic during the 6th century BC ○ Derived from Aristotle’s 14 books - Aristotle’s
● Invented the word “Philosophy Metaphysics
● Three groups of people ○ Coined by Andronicus of Rhodes; bibliographer of
○ Lovers of Fame - to become famous Aristotle’s book in the first century BCE
○ Lovers of Gain - to become wealthy ○ Most abstract branch of Philosophy
○ Lovers of Spectacle - to understand what life is all ○ Deals with the “First Principles” of existence
about ○ Seeking to define basic concepts like existence,
PHILOSOPHY being, causality, substance, time, and space
● “Philos” - love | “sophia” - wisdom ○ Ontology, Cosmology, and Philosophical Theology
● Used to denote love of thinking, thinking attitude, reflective ○ Is there such a thing as free will?
attitude towards life ○ Do numbers exist?
● Discipline and field of study that desire to understand and ○ Is the world around us ‘real’?
comprehend the mysteries of reality 2. Epistemology
● Encompasses the examination of the relationships between a ○ Greek words - episteme and logos
person and their environment or society ○ Episteme - “knowledge” or “understanding” or
● Story of people who never cease to wonder, inquire, and “acquaintance”
investigate about everything and anything under the sun ○ Logos - “account” “argument” or “reason”
● Study (science or discipline) of the realities of things ○ Nature of Knowledge - understanding what
● “Mother of all sciences” knowledge is, and how to distinguish between cases
● Way of life in which someone knows something and cases in
● Persistent quest for knowledge and truth which someone does not know something
LOVERS OF WISDOM ○ Extent of human knowledge - how much do we, or
● Pythagoras coined the term “philosophos” to differentiate them can we, know? How can we use our reason, our
from “sophos” senses, the testimony of others, and other resources
● He claimed himself not a sophos, not wise, but only a to acquire knowledge? Are there limits to what we
philosophos a lover of wisdom can know?
SCIENCE & PHILOSOPHY ○ What do people know?
● Science is INVESTIGATION: “going and seeing” ○ What makes justified beliefs justified?
● Philosophy is SPECULATION: “sitting and thinking” ○ How do we know what we know if we know it all?
3. Ethics
○ Concepts of moral right and wrong and moral good
and bad
○ Based on well-founded standards of right and wrong
that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in
terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society,
fairness, or specific virtues.
○ Is getting an abortion immoral?
NATURE & FUNCTIONS ○ Is euthanasia immoral?
Philosophy integrates itself with other disciplines to achieve a 4. Logic
comprehensive and coherent worldview ○ Discipline that aims to distinguish good reasoning
● It never limits itself to a particular facet of human events or a from bad
subset of human experience. Philosophy opens the route for ○ Standard of goodness is not effectiveness in the
one’s comprehension of reality and helps grasp the many sense of persuasiveness but rather correctness
complexities of all disciplines according to logical rules
Philosophy analyzes the very foundations of other disciplines ○ We study the rules and techniques that allow us to
● Philosophy is interested in the origins of several fields (art, distinguish good, correct reasoning from bad,
science, & religion). It investigates and analyzes each of their incorrect reasoning
foundations ○ Is it desirable to put the child in school at 5 or so?
Philosophy analyzes and criticizes treasured beliefs and traditions ○ Should the Philippines make efforts to harness solar
● Philosophy constantly searches for new angles. Can be energy to fulfill its energy requirements?
consistently rational. Emphasizing their importance, and 5. Aesthetics
eliminates irrationality, superstition, and minor inconsistencies. ○ Study of beauty, taste, and sublimity
○ Nature and application of art, beauty, and good taste
○ Why is an object called beautiful
○ How can we prove that all art is good art?

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 6. Psychology 3. Anaximenes (flourished c. 545 BC)
○ Studies mental states, processes, and behaviors in - Argued that air was the fundamental element
humans and other animals - Substituted aer (“mist”, “vapour, “air”) for his predecessors'
○ The mental characteristics or attitudes of a person or choices
group - Aer is everlastingly in motion suggests that he thought it also
○ Mental factors governing a situation possessed life, took on qualities of divine and became the
○ Does a child develop based on nature or nurture cause of other gods as well as of all matter
○ How do we come to understand ourselves and our - Process of rarefaction or compression, the air surrounds Earth
relationships with others? in a more or less compressed state
4. Heraclitus (540-480 BC)
DEVELOPMENT OF PHILOSOPHY - Metaphysics of becoming rather than being
Pre-Philosophical Period - Universe held together through the Great Logos
● Explain the origin of things and events or occurrences in - Universe constructed through paradox
nature (folklore, myths, and legends) - Health and disease
● These stories are characterized by religious elements or - Mortal and immortal
supernatural powers and not by natural or rational explanations - Good and evil
● Western Philosophy - concerned with uncovering the truth - Universe in constant flux
through systematic argumentation and theory - Fire forms the basic material principle of an orderly universe
● Greater emphasis on the use of reason rather than faith, and - Viewing fire as the essential material uniting all things
increased focus on man as an individual - He also stressed the need for people to live together in social
● Perspective has led to the development of a more scientific and harmony
theory-based approach in philosophy 5. Xenophanes (6th & early 5th centuries BCE)
Pre-Socratic Period - There is single god
● The first philosophers of Ancient Greece were primarily - He did not subscribe to the idea of an anthropomorphic god,
preoccupied with the study of nature and the universe whom many people believed in his time
○ “What is permanent in existence?” - First Greek thinker to offer a complex and at least partially
○ “What is the universe made up of?” systematic account of the divine nature
● Milesians: western philosophy is said to have begun in the 6. Pythagoreans (580-496 BC)
Ionic colonies of Asia Minor (Turkey) around the 6th century - Founder of Geometry as a Systematic Study
BC through Thales of Miletus - Metaphysics based on souls inhabiting different forms of life
1. Thales (624-545 BC) - Transmigration of the soul - souls migrates through different
- First Greek philosopher and the father of philosophy material forms of life - human souls are reincarnated
- By observing nature, he believed that the Earth floats on water, - Morality was based on the harmony of the soul
considered the first or ultimate substance. - Cosmos is a structured system ordered by numbers
- First to engage in inquiry of searching for causes and - Things become knowable because they are structured the way
principles of the natural world and various phenomena without they are
relying on supernatural explanations and divine components - Pre-socratics and their point of view expressed a tendency
- Earliest forms of geometry and math toward observation and analysis
- Predicted a solar eclipse using reason alone - Devoid of any mythical notion = scientific
- Asked first metaphysical questions about the structure of the - The structure can be expressed in a numerical ratio
universe - They believe that nature can be quantified
- Water is the root substance: Necessary for the - Also concerned with religious and ethical thought, the nature
production and sustenance of life of understanding, mathematics, and other areas of concern.
- Political and Military advisor Socratic Period
2. Anaximander (612-545 BC) ● Short but most flourishing
- Pupil of Thales ● Intellectual and moral life of the nation, which was threatened
- More systematic than Thales by materialism and skepticism
- Metaphysic based on the Infinite ● Three Great Greek Triumvirate: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
- No gods or beginning nor end to reality 1. Socrates
- Theory of evolution based on adaption - Best known as a questioner of everything and everyone
- Claimed that the universe was formed from the boundless - Socratic Method - not conveying knowledge, but rather asking
(apeiron) which is both the first principle (arche) and the question after clarifying question until his students arrived at
substance (stoicheion) of the universe their understanding
- First idea of natural laws - Questioning every assumption about virtue, wisdom and good
- Nature follows the dictates of law not Gods life
- Relied on reason rather than suspicion and myth

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 - Moral Philosopher - Eternal - man’s spiritual goals (free will and reason)
- Quality of soul - Greatest of the Scholastic philosopher
- Examines how we should live - Religion and Science. Faith and Reason
- Virtues, justice, courage, piety, etc. - Everyone can have access to great truths because of reason,
- Systematic doubting and challenging another to come up with not just by faith
- Was open to the idea that knowledge, the most useful ones,
a clear statement of truth
could flourish if we accept that these may come from different
2. Plato
sources
- The Republic - ideal society and political harmony (pure 3. St. Anselm
wisdom of Philosopher-king) - Ontological Argument - attempt to show that we can deduce
- Theory of Forms God’s existence, the very definition of God
- Three parts of the soul: reason, spirit, appetite - Some things strictly exist in our minds and things that
3. Aristotle exist in our minds as well as in reality.
- Human beings philosophize; phainomena (appearances or - Any good thing can be much better if it exists in our
things appearing to be the case) and the collecting the endoxa minds and reality.
(credible opinions handed down regarding matters we find Modern Period
puzzling) ● Separation of reason from faith which eventually led to
the development of science.
- Deductive Reasoning and Inductive Reasoning
● Starting point already where philosophers imbibed a
- If x (necessarily true).. then y (must also be true)...
systematic and empirical perspective in their
- If all mortals die (necessary truth), then
philosophical discourse.
Plato must die.
● Divided into two: Rationalism and Empiricism
- If x… then probably y…
Rationalism
- If all cats I know purr, and Fido is a cat,
● In Western Philosophy, this view regards reason as the
then Fido probably purrs
chief source and test of knowledge
- Causality - “We do not say we know a thing until we know its
1. Rene Descartes
cause” - “I think, therefore, I am” or “Cogito, ergo sum”
- The heart of Aristotle’s scientific and philosophical - Founder of Modern Philosophy
enterprise - Free will - sign of God in human nature and beings can
- 4 Causes (explain natural things we need to postulate be praised or blamed according to their use of it
4 causes (MEFF): - Generosity is the highest virtue - people are good,
1. Material cause - what “stuff” or matter the object is made only to the extent that they act freely for the good of
from eg statue is made of marble others
2. Efficient cause - the primary source of the change - Understanding of the good is automatically
3. Formal cause - idea making it to be the kind of thing it is followed by a desire to do the good
4. Final cause - what the object is for. The final result of its 2. Immanuel Kant
development (in the case of nature) - Human understanding is the source of the general laws
- One of the greatest philosophers who ever lived and the first of nature that structure all our experience
genuine scientist in history - Human reason gives itself the moral law, which is our
Medieval Period basis for belief in God, freedom, and immorality
● Used philosophy to rationalize Christian beliefs - Hypothetical Imperatives - moral command that is
● Focused on the application of philosophy to define and explain conditional on personal desire or motive
religious doctrines - Categorical Imperatives - commands you must follow,
● Seek to prove the existence of the divine, his nature, and regardless of your desires and motives
counterattack heresies Empiricism
1. St. Augustine ● True knowledge comes from experience, that is a
- His worldview includes Christian scriptures as foundation for posterior, or post-experiential
philosophy, including the creation, fall of man, and redemption ● Knowledge is based on experience derived from the
- History is linear senses
- True philosopher is a love of God - Christianity is the true ● “To see is to believe”
philosophy 1. David Hume
- Arrogance or pride (superbia) root of all sins - Dividing all mental perceptions between ideas
- No earthly state can claim to possess true justice, but only (thoughts) and impressions (sensation & feelings), and
some relative by which one state is more just than another then makes two central claims about the relation
2. St. Thomas Aquinas - Copy Thesis - ideas are ultimately copied from
- Material Objects - rocks and streams, plants and animals impressions
- Natural Reason - prove God’s existence - Liveliness Thesis - ideas and impressions differ only in
- Three types of Laws terms of liveliness
- Natural - accordance with achieving goals and 2. John Locke
governs man’s sense of right and wrong - Empiricism was linked to the “blank slate” concept
- Positive - law of state/government, manifestation of (tabula rasa)
natural law - The mind is a tabula rasa on which experiences leave
their imprint

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 ● Human experience is defined by the views, emotions, and
actions of individuals
1. Jean-Paul Sartre
- Being and nothingness - which is practically where his ideas of
existentialism lies
- We are Free/”Bad Faith” - term he made referring to living
without taking freedom properly
- No to Capitalism - also believe that we can dismantle
capitalism and money should not control our freedom
- People should explore more possibilities, unfulfilled potential,
Contemporary Period
and create new institutions, ideas, and habits
● 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to
- Existence Precedes Essence
reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge
- Self is a situated activity or way of being whereby
systems
we are always in the process of making or creating
● Gave birth to many schools of thought: Utilitarianism,
who we are as our life unfolds
Pragmatism, Existentialism, Phenomenology
Phenomenology
Utilitarianism = common good/ happiness of all
● Philosophy of experience
● Theory of morality that advocates actions that foster happiness
● Source of meaning and value are the experiences lived by
or pleasure and oppose actions that cause unhappiness or harm
human beings
● Theory of ethics states that an individual should choose to do
● Could also be defined as the study of phenomena or
an action if it provides benefit or to observe “utility” for
structures of experiences or consciousness
everyone being affected by the action
● Phenomenology studies a person’s conscious experience,
● Actions that lean towards happiness are more beneficial to
whether from a subjective or first-person point of view
society than actions that cause sorrow
1. Edmund Husserl
1. John Stuart Mill
- Developed the phenomenological method to make possible
- Equal happiness with “pleasure and the absence of pain” and
“a descriptive account of the essential structures of the directly
unhappiness” with “pain and the lack of pleasure”
given”
2. Jeremy Bentham
- Phenomenology emphasizes the immediacy of experience, the
- Founder of Modern Utilitarianism
attempt to isolate it and set it off from all assumptions of
- Most basic function of government is to provide for the
existence or causal influence and lay bare its essential structure
common good. All other government activities are subsidiary,
Eastern Period
and their priorities should reflect the common good. Hence,
● Consists of schools of thought which are often closely tied
the common good is always the priority for humans.
with religious beliefs
Pragmatism
● Wisdom Literature - stories, sayings, and texts encourage
● Derived from the Greek word “pragma” - meaning action or
people to adopt an ethical and harmonious way of life
work done
● Social relations, and the family and community are considered
● Believes in change. It is the philosophy of practical experience
a central aspect of life
1. Charles Sander Pierce
1. Judaism
- Father of Pragmatism
● Monotheistic religions (4,000 years ago)
- Any statement to be meaningful, it must have practical
● Present in ancient Hebrews, one of the oldest religions
bearings
○ The existence, immateriality, and eternity of God. He
- Attainment of truth comes from taking investigation and
is absolute and unparalleled unity.
inquiry as far as it can go
○ God alone is to be worshiped.
2. John Dewey
○ God communicates to men through prophecies, and
- Truth itself was tied to solving human problems
Moses is the greatest prophet.
- Viewed knowledge as arising from an active adaption of the
○ The Torah was given by God and its immutability
human organism to its environment
○ Divine providence and omniscience
3. William James
○ Divine punishment and reward
- Before we invest much time or effort in seeking the meaning
○ Messiah, and the belief that the dead will be
of anything, we should consider what practical difference it
resurrected
would make if we could find out
2. Hinduism
Existentialism
● One of the oldest and most sophisticated philosophical and
● We are responsible for creating purpose or meaning in our
belief systems in the world
lives
● Diverse customs and philosophies rather than a single religion
● It is the individual who determines their essence, not an
● Divinity of the Soul
omnipotent being
● Control desire - as long as you desire, you will be
reincarnated

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● Proponent: Mahatma Gandhi DETERMINING TRUTH
● Documents: Vedas, Upanishads, Epics
● Teachings:
○ Brahmans should believe the oneness of Brahma,
Vishnu, Shiva
○ Reincarnation: Karma
○ Ahimsa - non-violence in words, thoughts, and
deeds
○ Yoga - mental and physical exercise
3. Shintoism
● “The Way of Kami” - indigenous religion that originated in THEORIES OF TRUTH
Japan Correspondence - reality/objective
● “Kami” is associated with the words “Gods”, “Deities,” or ● Something is true if it corresponds to reality
“Lords” as its counterparts in the English language ● Assumes a direct relationship between an idea and reality to be
● If the body decays, the soul stays able to take a statement as “fact”
● Everything has a spirit - we have to take care of the ○ Ex: Dogs bark
environment Coherence - situation/context
4. Buddhism ● Something is true if it makes sense when placed in a certain
● Dukkha; Suffering situation/context
● Goal is to free yourself from suffering ● Possibility that there will be varied truths from different
○ Nirvana perspectives
● Proponent: Buddha/Sidharta Gautama ● Relativism - contends that there are no absolute truths
○ Used to be a noble blood/prince ○ Ex: Pigs are unclean
○ Went away to meditate Constructivist - history, development, society
○ First to reach “enlightenment” ● Believes that knowledge is gained as part of social experience
● Documents: Pali Canon - authentic teachings of Buddha ● It is possible for knowledge and truth to change, given that
● Samsara is endless, we have to do something about it what is true may be influenced by historical developments &
5. Confucianism social struggles
● Central role in shaping Chinese culture and society ○ Ex: marriage, money, beauty
● Five Confucian Virtues for Leaders: Consensus Theory - agreement of all
○ Ren - benevolence ● Views knowledge based on agreement, and that something is
○ Yi - righteousness true if almost everyone agrees that it is true
○ Li - propriety ● Certain beliefs, traditions, and practices are often the product
○ Zhi - wisdom of consensus
○ Xin - trustworthiness ○ Ex: fairness, progress, justice
● Proponent: Confucius Pragmatic - test/hypothesis
● Document: The Analects, Golden Rule, Meritocracy ● Something is true if we can put it into practice or is useful in
real life
● Ideas should be continually tested to confirm their validity
○ Ex: democracy, education, love

METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING & FALLACIES

Dialect
● Method of argument and inquiry that involves the examination
6. Taoism / Daoism of opposing ideas or viewpoints
● Revolves around the concept of the Dao (the way/path) ● Often used to arrive at a higher level of understanding or truth
● To achieve equality, knowledge, adaptability, acceptance, through the process of questioning, debate, and synthesis
open-mindedness, and balance in life Dialectical Reasoning
● Individuality; you have a specific role in the society 1. Thesis - initial statement that set the argument
● Return to infancy - return to morality 2. Antithesis - contradictory idea to the thesis
● Proponent: Lao Tzu/Chuang Tzu 3. Synthesis - resolution or reconciliation of the thesis and
● Document: Tao Te Ching antithesis
● Tao - path to perfection and harmony Socratic
● Yin and Yang ● Method is a discourse between teacher and students, instigated
● Wu Wei (watercourse way) - letting things flow naturally/fate by the continual probing questions of the teacher
● Five Elements: water, fire, wood, metal, earth ● Concerted effort to explore the underlying beliefs that shape
● Fatalism - prediction of the future / Zodiac the students views and opinions

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Socrates Triple Filter Test ● No outside force compels you to have life or to have motion
● Method of critical thinking that involves evaluating Key Aspects:
information through three filters: ● Soul may have existed before birth
○ Filter of Truth - assess the accuracy and veracity of ● Continues to exist after death, often in a spiritual realm or
the information afterlife
○ Filter of Goodness - consider the impact of the ● Soul may be reborn into a new physical body
information on ourselves and others Human Person as a Body and Soul
○ Filter of Necessary - evaluate the relevance and ● Souls is what makes the natural body
information ● Without the soul, the body does not have life
Phenomenological ● Aristotle distinguished three kinds of substances:
● Looking to “things and facts themselves, as these are given in ○ Matter, shape or form and the product of both
actual experience and intuition” (composite of form and matter)
● Focuses on the subjective experience of consciousness ● Human Person = “ensouled” both body & soul
● Introspection and analysis of one’s own live experiences ● Some argue that the mind and body are fundamentally
LOGICAL FALLACIES interconnected and cannot be separated
● Arguments that deceive and prove nothing Human Person as a Thinking Thing
● Could sound convincing and persuasive to shape other’s ● Descartes argues that the essence of the human person is
opinions and deliver flawed judgment and reason thought
Ad Hominem - attacking the person instead of the argument ○ Mind is thinking thing-distinct and unextended;
Ad Baculum (appeal to fear) - uses threat or force to persuade someone ○ The body is non-thinking thing-distinct and extended
to accept an argument ○ His reality is how distinct he is from the body, and
Ad Misericordiam (appeal to emotion)- persuade someone to accept can exist without it
an argument ● Human nature is pure mind and having a body is an accident
Ad Populum (appeal to the crowd/bandwagon) - majority opinion to HUMAN CONDITION
justify a belief or action ● Nature defines human person, but it is through their condition
Ad Traditionem - custom to justify a belief or action that the nature of the human person is revealed
Begging the Question - fails to provide any new evidence or reasoning
to support claim
Fallacy of Division - when we assume that what is true for the whole Man as a Freedom (Existentialism)
must also be true for the parts ● Human person has no fixed nature-that their reality is their
Fallacy of Equivocation - key term or phrase is used with multiple freedom
meaning within the same argument, leading to confusion reasoning ● We must exercise our free will for our existence to be authentic
● “I am condemned to be free”
THE HUMAN NATURE AND CONDITION ○ Human beings are fundamentally free to choose their
Rene Descartes (Rationalism) - human person is a composite of two paths and destinies
distinct substances: the mind (or soul) and the body
Jean-Paul Sartre (Existentialism) - human person is defined by their HUMAN PERSON AND HIS BODY
choices and actions, and their existence precedes their essence The Body
Edmund Husserl (Phenomenology) - human person is defined by their ● Human existence always implies a bodily existence
subjective experience of the world, which is shaped by their ● Man’s expression of his presence to his fellowmen in the world
consciousness and perception The Spirit
● Intangible element enables us to exercise thought, possess
awareness, interiority, and capacity to reach out to the outside
world and other persons
THE HUMAN BODY PERSPECTIVES
Human Body as Finitude
● Inherent limitations and boundaries of human existence

THEORIES OF HUMAN NATURE

● Confined to a particular beginning (birth) and inevitable end
Human Person as an Immortal Soul
(death)
● Non-physical, spiritual aspect of a person that transcends the
● Man’s bodily existence cannot occur in two places at the same
physical body and continues to exist after death
time
● Source of movement

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 ● Accidental Constituents - shape, size, height, weight, color… BIOCENTRISM
Transcendence ● Humans are not the only significant species on the planet
● Ability to surpass limits ● Other organisms have inherent value and should be protected
● Mind is an important tool that allows us to go beyond many of ● This advocates the ethical treatment for animals
our physical limit ● Example: Opposing Genetic Engineering, Practicing
● Can transcend because of our spiritual dimension vegetarianism or veganism, Sustainable practices for Animal
Human Body as Gesture of Encounter rights
● How man makes himself accessible to others
● Vested in the embodiment of the man’s subjectivity
● Encounters of two subjects enable them to unconceal each
other’s worlds. One’s encounter of another person makes him
part of the meaning of the world and vice-versa
Embodiment
● Mediator between the material and spiritual world
● Encounter the world of objects in a manner that transcends
the physical
● Form intimate relationship with those outside him
● Attach certain feelings or ideas not only to people but also to
objects TECHNOCENTRISM
Human as an Embodied Spirit ● Technology can provide solutions to all environmental
● Human body is embedded in man’s personhood or subjectivity. problems
● Concept of how individuals experience the world through their ● Nature is present to benefit human beings
physical bodies ● Scientific and technological expertise are the answers to the
● Interconnectedness of the body and the mind in shaping growing problems in the environment.
perceptions and interactions with the environment.
Merleau-Ponty - man is a subject and since man’s body is infused in his LAUDATO SI: A Call for Care for Our Common Home
subjectivity, it necessarily follows that man’s body is not reducible to ● Man is the steward of the environment
become an object body but a subject body. ● Encyclical letter written by Pope Francis in 2015
HUMAN PERSON AND THE ENVIRONMENT ● Views the climate crisis and massive poverty in the light of
● Erratic and disorder biblical faith and Catholic Social Doctrine
● Depends on how we perceive the environment Key Ideas:
● Commodity or property to be used and disposed for one's own 1. Interconnectedness of all things in creation
individual welfare 2. Address the urgent threat of climate change
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS 3. Poor are disproportionately affected by environmental
● Environmental Philosophy problems
● Deals with the ethical relationship and responsibilities between 4. Adopting more sustainable lifestyles
a person and their environment. 5. Cooperation to address environmental challenges
● Awareness of Effects = Moral Obligation
ECOCENTRISM
● Humankind is a part of a greater biological system or
community
● Stewards or guardians of nature
● Promotes the idea that order and balance in nature brings
about stability and beauty
● Individual person as a dynamic source of change within his
particular environment.
● Example: Protecting Endangered Species:
○ Conservation of the Philippine eagle, a critically
endangered bird, by restricting logging and
deforestation in its natural habitat
ANTHROPOCENTRISM
● Significant role of humankind in the world
● Nature as the source of needs and survival
● Free to transform the nature, and use it for their resources
● Humans are the most important species on the planet
● Example: Mining and Deforestation, Transformation of Rural
areas to Urban, Animal Testing, Habitat destruction