El

ect
ron,
Phot
on,
Phot
oel
ect
ri
cEf
fectandX- s1
Ray

60
Chapt
er

25

E3
El
ect
ron,
Phot
on,
Phot
oel
ect
ri
cEf
fectandX-
ray
s
El
ect
ri
cDi
schar
geThr
oughGases wholet
ubeisfi
ll
edwi t
hbrightli
ghtcal
l
edposi
ti
vecol
umnand

theor
dist
Atnor
conduct
malat
orofelect
r
mospher
i
ci
derof30kV)bet
anceoff ew cm f
t
y

r
.I
i
c pr
fweest
weent
essur
abl
woel
om eachot
i
ect
her
e,t
shapot

,el
r
he gases ar
ent
odespl
ect
ri
i
aldi
ff
er
acedi
cconducti
ID
e poor
ence(
nai
onst
of
rata
ar
ts
col
ourofl
showni

Gas
nt
ightdependsupont
hefol
l

Ai
r
owingtabl
Tabl
e.
e25.
H2
henat

1:Col
ourf
ur
eofgasi

ordi
N2
ff
er
nthet

entgases
Cl
2
ubeas

CO2 Neon
U
i
nt hef orm ofspar
ks. Col
our Purpl
e Bl
ue Red Gr
een Bl
uish Dar
k
The dischar
ge of el
ect
ri
cit
ythrough gases can be red white red

systemat
icall
ystudi
edwi
ththehelpofdischar
getubeshown
65mm ofHg:
YG

below (
5)Atapr
essur
eof1.
Skycolourl
ightisproducedatthecat
hodeiti
scall
edas
High
potenti
al
negati
veglow.Positi
vecolumnshr i
nkst
owardst
heanodeand
– di ence+
ff
er Lengt
hoftube thedarkspacebet weenpositi
vecolumnandnegat
ivegl
ow i
s
30to40cm cal
ledFaradaysdarkspace(FDS).
Di
ameter4cm
Gas Negat
iv owPosi
egl ti
vecol
umn
D

– +

Manomet
er
Vacuum pump
U

F.
D.S.
As the pressurei
ns
Fi
d
i
g.e
25t
h
1e di
. schar
ge tube i
s gr
adual
l
y (6)Atapr essureof0.8mm
Fig.25H
.
3g:Att hi
spressure,negat
ive
reduced,thefoll
owingi
sthesequenceofphenomenonthatar
e glow isdet achedfrom thecat hodeandmov est owardst he
observed. anode.Thedar kspacecreatedbet weencathodeandnegat ive
ST

(
1)Atnor
mal
pressur
enodi
schar
get
akespl
ace. glowi scal
ledasCr ook'
sdarkspace.Lengt hofpositi
vecolumn
(
2)Atthepressure10mm ofHg,azig-zagthi
nredspar
k furt
herreduced.Agl owappearatcat hodecal
ledcathodeglow.
r
unsfr
om oneel
ectrodet
ootherandcr
acki
ngsoundishear
d. Negat
ivegl
ow Posi
ti
vecol
umn

– St
reamer
s – +
+

Cat
hodegl
ow C.
D.S. F. D.
S.
Fi
g.25.
2
(
3)Atthepressure4mm.ofHg, anil
l
uminat
ionisobserv
ed (7)Atapressur
eof0. 05
Fimm 4 Hg:Th
g.25.of eposit
ivecol
umn
attheelect
rodesandt herestofthetubeappearsdark.This spl
i
tsint
odar
kandbrightdi
scofl i
ghtcall
edst
ri
ati
ons.
ty
peofdischargeiscall
eddar
kdischar
ge.
(
8)Att
hepr
essur 01or10–2mm ofHgsomei
eof0. nvi
si
ble
(
4)Whent
hepr
essur
efal
l ow 4mm ofHgt
sbel hent
he
 2Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Effect and X-Rays
particles move from cathode which on striking with the glass 
Cathode B
tube on the opposite side of cathode cause the tube to glow.
Anode
P
These invisible rays emerging fromFilament
cathode are called cathode
A X +
rays. C
P
–4
(9) Finally when pressure mm drops
Hg,
of to nearly 10 Y –
there is no discharge in tube. P
V
L.T.
Cathode Rays Magnetic
(H.T.) field
ZnScoated
(1) Cathode rays, discovered by Sir William Crooke
eE=evB = Magn
In this case; Electricforce
screen
(2) They are streams of fast moving electrons. Fig. 25.5
v= velocity
(3) They can be produced by using a discharge tubeof electron

60
–2
mm of
containing gas at a low pressureHg.of the order of 10
(5) As electron beam accelerated f
(4) The cathode rays in the discharge tube are the electrons
loss in potential energy appears as g
produced due to ionisation of gas and that emitted by cathode
V is the potential difference b
If suppose
due to collision of positive ions.
anode then, loss ine V
potential energy

E3
(5) Cathode rays travel in straight lines.
(6) Cathode rays are emitted normally And gain
fromin kinetic
the energy at anod
cathode
surface. Their direction is independent of the position of the
anode. i
.e.  
(7) Cathode rays exert mechanical force on the objects they
strike.

surface.
ID Thomson found,
(8) Cathode rays produce heat when they strikes a metal
If one includes the relativistic v
(9) Cathode rays produce fluorescence.
, then specific charge o
U
(10) When cathode rays strike a solid object, specially a
decreases with the increase in its ve
metal of high atomic weightX-rays
and high
aremelting point
emitted from the objects. (6) The deflection of an electron i
YG

(11) Cathode rays are deflected by an electric

given by field
; and also
l=where
Length y=
of each pl
by a magnetic field.
deflection
(12) Cathode rays ionise the gases of electron
through which v =in
they are speed
the field
of th
passed. electron.
(13) Cathode rays can penetrate through thin foils of metal.
+
y
(14) Cathode rays are found to have velocity
 ranging
D

–
E e
–
to of velocity of light. l
Fig. 25.6
Millikans Oil Drop Experiment
U

J.J. Thomson's Experiment

(1) Millikan
(1) It's working is based on the fact that if aperformed
beam of the pionee
for the precise measurement of the ch
electron is subjected to the crossed electric field and
ST

(2) By applying suitable electri

magnetic field , it experiences a force due
plates, theto each field.
charged In
oil droplets cou
case the forces on the electrons in the electron beam due to
even held stationary in the field o
these fields are equal and opposite, the
time. He beamthat
found remains
the charge on an o
undeflected. –19
10 C.
integral multiple of an elementary c
(2) When no field is applied, the electron beam produces
(3) In this experiment charge on th
P.
illuminations at point
(3) In the presence of any field (electric and magnetic)
electron beam deflected up or down (illumination at or )
(4) If both the fields are applied simultaneously Atomizerand
Oil drops
adjusted such that electron beam passes undeflected and X-ray tube
V+
P.
produces illumination at point arc light
+ + + + ++ ++ + + + +
+ P
–––– – – –– ––––
– V–
Microscope
S
 Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Ef

gas. This is doneq/

m of
by measuring
singly ionised
ion of the gas.

where = Coefficient of vviscosity

1 = Terminalof air,
velocity of drop when no electric field (1)is applied
The between
positive theproduce
ions are
v2 = Terminal velocity of drop hand
plates, when side. These
electric ionsis
field are accelerate

60
applied between the plates. of the positive ions pass through th
This fine ray of positive ions Eand
is sub
V = Potential difference d between
= the
magnetic plates,
Band
field
then allowed to strike a
= density
Separation between =of
plates,
Density
oil, of air.
( but or ).
Positive Rays (2) If the initial motion of the io

E3
When potential difference is appliedelectric and the
across magnetic fields are ap
electrodes
–3
of a discharge mmtube
Hg),
of electrons are force
(10 due
emitted to electric field
from y-axis
is and
in the
due
magnetic fieldz-direction.
it is along
the perforated cathode. As they move towards anode, they gain
Y
energy. These energetic electrons when collide with the atoms
S
of the gas in the discharge tube, they ionize the atoms. The
y
ID
positive ions so formed at various places between cathode and
+q v
anode, travel towards the cathode. Since during their motion,
the positive ions when reach the cathode, some pass through
the holes in the cathode and a faint luminous glow comes out
N
z
Z

from each hole on the backside of the cathode. It is called

U
D
positive rays, which are coming out from the holes.
The deflection Fig. due
25.10 to electr
 ⊝  ⊝ .....(i)
⊝  ⊝
YG


The deflection due to magnetic f
Positive rays
(1) PositiveFig.
rays are positive ions
25.8 having same mass if the
.....(ii)
experimental gas does not have isotopes. However if the gas
From equation
has isotopes then positive rays are group of positive (i) and (ii),
ions having
different masses.
D

(2) They travel in straight lines and cast shadows of objects

where ; This is the equation o
placed in their path. But the speed of the positive rays is much
smaller than that of cathode rays. means all the charged particles movi
butand
(3) They are deflected by electric q/
of samem value will
magnetic strike
fields buttheyzplane
scree
U

on a parabolic track
the deflections are small as compared to that for cathode rays. as shown in the ab
(3) All the positive q/m moving
ions of with
same.
dif
(4) They show a spectrum of velocities. Different positive
velocity lie on the same parabola. Hi
ions move with different velocities. Being heavy, their velocity is
yand z.The ions of different spec
ST

the value of
much less than that of cathode rays.
on different parabola.
q/
(5)m ratio of these rays depends on the nature of the
gas in the tube (while in caseq/
m is Y
of the cathode rays q/m q/
m q/
m q/m
V4 Light
large
small
constant and doesn't depend on the nature V2 V3 of gas in the
mass tube). smalllarge
q/
m for hydrogen is maximum. V1
Z Heavy
(6) They carry energy and momentum. The kinetic energy mass of
V
positive rays is more than that of cathode rays.1>V2>V3>V4

(7) The value of charge on positive rays is an integral

multiple of electronic charge. (A) (B)
(8) They cause ionisation (which is much Fig. 25.11
(4) The more
number thanof that
parabola tells t
produced by cathode rays). present in the given ionic beam.
Thomson's Mass Spectrograph
Bainbridge Mass Spectrograph
It is used to measure atomic masses of various isotopes in

S Screen or
– Photo plate
Low Cathode
–
P
pressure
gas
 4Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Effect and X-Rays
In Bainbridge mass spectrograph, field particles of same
Hence de-Broglie wavelength
velocity are selected by using a velocity selector and then they
are subjected to a uniform magnetic field perpendicular to the
velocity of the particles. The particles corresponding
Å, to
Å, different
isotopes follow different circular paths as shown in the figure.
(1)
Velocity selector
The positive
: ions having a certainÅ, Å
vgets isolated from all other velocity particles. In this
velocity
chamber the electric and magnetic fields
(3) are so balanced
de-Broglie that associa
wavelength
the particle moves undeflected. For this Neut
the
particles
For ro:
nde-Broglie
necessary condition
wavelength is

is E,Band
and vshould be mutually perpendicular to

60
each other.
Energy of thermal neutrons at ordi
(2)Analysing chamber
In this chamber
: B
magnetic
is field
applied perpendicular to the direction of motion of the T = Absolute
; where
particle.
As a result the particles move along a circular path of radius
k= Boltzman's constant
Joul
e/kel
vi
n,

E3
temperature, =
also So,

In this way the particles of different masses gets deflected on

circles of different radii and reach on different points on the photo
plate. (4)Ratio of wavelength of photon
The

m
+q
v
Velocity spectrum

 
 

2r
2
 

2r
1
m
  
 

B
  
1 


ID
given by
Eis given
wavelength of a photon of energy
by

Kis
While the wavelength of an electro
. Therefore, for the s
U
  

E B m2  
r   the ratio
 
 
Photographic plate
Characteristics of Matter Wav
YG

Separation between two traces

Fig. 25.12 (1) Matter wave represents the pr
particle in space.
.
(2) Matter waves are not electroma
(3) de-Brogile or matter wave is in
Matter Waves (de-Broglie Waves)
on the material particle. It means,
According to de-Broglie a moving material
wave is particle
associated with every moving
sometimes acts as a wave and sometimes as a particle.
or uncharged).
D

The wave associated with moving particle is called

(4) Practical matter
observation of matt
wave or de-Broglie wave and it propagates
when thein the form of
de-Broglie wave
wavelength is of
packets with group velocity. particles.
U

(1)
de-Broglie wavelength
According to : de-Broglie theory,
(5) Electron microscope works on
the wavelength of de-Broglie wave is given by
waves.
(6) The phase velocity of the matt
ST

than the speed of the light.

Whereh= Plank's constant,
m = Mass of thevparticle,
=
(7) Matter waves can propagate in v
Speed of the E=particle,
Energy of the particle.
not mechanical waves.
The smallest wavelength whose measurement is possible
is that of -rays. (8) The number of de-Broglie nth
wave
n.
orbital electron is
The wavelength of matter waves associated with the
(9) Only those circular orbits a
microscopic particles like electron,- proton, neutron,
stable whose circumference is int
etc. is of the order
particle m. of Broglie wavelength associated with
(2)de-Broglie wavelength associated with the charged
particles
The energy
:
Davision and Germer Experimen
of a charged particle accelerated through
(1) It is used to study the scatteri
potentialV difference
is or to verify the wave nature of elect

F Electron
gun
 5
Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Ef

emitted by electron gun is made to fall

(5) on
Thenickel
Bragg's
crystal
formula
cutcan be re
Nicrystal
along cubical axis at a particular
behaves
angle.
like a Dand angle
containing interatomic distance
three dimensional diffraction grating and it diffracts the electron
beam obtained from electron gun. 

Using

  Dsin
=

Heisenberg Uncertainty Princ

60
(1) According to Heisenberg's un
impossible to measure simultaneousl
momentum of the particle.
xand
(2) Let pbe the uncertainty in th
(2) The diffracted beam of electrons is received
measurement of theby the
position and mom

E3
detector which can be positioned at any angle by rotating it –34
then ; where h= 6.63
 10 J-
and sis
about the point of incidence. The energy of the incident beam of
electrons can also be varied by changing the applied voltage to
the Planck's constant.
the electron gun.
(3) According to classical physics, the intensity of scattered
A more rigorous treatment gives

(3) If
= 0 then
ID
beam of electrons at all scattering angle will be same but
Davisson and Germer, found that the intensity of scattered
x p=andif
p= 0 then
beam of electrons was not the same but different at different
x=
Incident beam

angles of scattering. It is maximum

°at i.
e.
for,if we are ableangle
diffracting to measure
50 the ex
vol
54 tpotential difference. particle (say an electron) then t
U
measurement of the linear momentum o
Similarly, if we are able to measure
i.
e.,p= 0, then we can not measu
of the particle
YG

position of the particle at that time

o
50
Viewer
V
54
Incident Reflected
Fig. 25.14 photon photon
(4) If the de-Broglie waves exist for electrons then these
X-rays. Using
should be diffracted as the Bragg's formula
D

Original
, we can determine the wavelength of momentum
these waves.
of electron
d = distance
where between Final momentum
diffracting planes,
of electron
An electron
= glancing angle for incident beam = Bragg'scannot
25.16be observed w
angle.
Fig.
U

momentum
(4) Uncertainty principle success
° =5
=65 0°
(i) Non-existence of electrons in
ST

D

(ii) Finite size of spectral lines
d
(5) The Heisenberg uncertainty pr
Atomic to energy and time, angular mome
planes

The distance between

Fig. Ni
-crystaldisplacement.
25.15 diffractingfor
planes in Hence and
o
d=0.91
Åand
this experiment isthe Bragg's
. This
angle = 65
rthen
(6) If the radius of thethe
nucleus
probab
is
n=
gives for
1, Å x= 2
rand uncertai
finding the electroninside the nucl
Now the de-Broglie wavelength can also be determined by
in momentum is
using the formula . Thus the de-
Photon
Broglie hypothesis is verified.
 6Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Effect and X-Rays
According to Eienstein's quantum theory light propagates
0= Threshold wavelengthin
the bundles (packets or quanta) of energy, each bundle being
Work function in
called a photon and possessing energy. W0(
eV)
electron volt

(1)
Energy of Energy
photon of
: photon is given by
Table 25.2 : Work function of se
wherec = Speed ofh light,
= Plank's Element Work function
Element Work function
eV)
( eV)
(
–34
constant
10 J-
sec,  = Frequency
= 6.6 Hz, =in
Platinum6.4 Aluminum4.3
Wavelength of light.
Gold 5.1 Silver 4.3
In electron volt 
Nickel 5.1 Sodium 2.7

60
Carbon 5.0 Lithium 2.5
(2)
Mass of photon
Actually
: rest mass of the photon is
Silicon
zero. But it's effective mass is given as 4.8 Potassium
2.2
Copper 4.7 Cesium 1.9
 . This mass is also
(2) 0) T
Threshold frequency
:he minimum
( freque
known as kinetic mass of the photon

E3
incident radiations required to ej
(3)
Momentum of the photon
surface is defined as threshold freq
Momentum <
If incident 0 No photoelectron em
frequency

(4)
Number of emitted
The
photons
number of For most metals the threshold freq
: photons
(corresponding
emitted per second from a source of monochromatic radiation nm),betw
to wavelengths but

and power
of wavelength

IntensityI
(5)
Pis given as

E= energy of each photon

where
)of
:
Energy
lightcrossing
(
ID
for potassium and cesium oxidesit is

per
;
between 400nm
(3)
and
) 700
0) T
Threshold wavelength
:he maximum
( wavel
unit arearadiations required to
of incident
U
normally per second is called intensity or energy
metallic flux
surface is defined as thres
If incidentwavelength
>0 No photoelectron e
i
.e.
(4)
Einstein's photoelectric
Accordingequat
to Ei
YG

rfrom a point source

At a distance photoelectric
Pintensity
of power
is effect is the result o
between photon and electron in whic
given by 
absorbed
(6) n) I
:P
Number of photons falling
fis
per
the
second (
E=h0 E=h
Eis the energy
power of radiation and of a photon then
D

Photo-Electric Effect K.E.= max.

K. E.= 0
The photo-electric effect is the emission of electrons
e–
(called photo-electrons when light strikes a surface.
– To escape
e
U

from the surface, the electron must absorb enough energy from
Metal
the incident radiation to overcome the attraction of positive ions
in the material of the surface. E=W0+Kmax
Einstein's photoelectric
Fig. 25.17 equatio
ST

The photoelectric effect was first observed by Heinrich

where maximum kinetic
Hertz and it was investigated in detail by Whilelm Hallwachs and
Philipp Lenard. emitted electrons.
Experimental
The photoelectric effect is based Setup
on the principle for Photoe
of
conservation of energy. Q) and cathod
(1) Two conducting electrodes, th
(1) W0) :
Work function (or threshold
The P
() are enclosed
energy) ( in an evacuated glass
minimum energy of incident radiation, required to eject the
electrons from metallic surface is defined as work function of
that surface.
–

0= Threshold frequency; e– e

–
P e –
e Q

V
mA

Fig. 25.18
 7
Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Ef

(6)

Compton Effect
(2) The battery or other source of potential
(1) difference
The scattering of a photon by
creates an electric field in the direction from anode to cathode.
Compton effect.
(3) Light of certain wavelength or frequency falling on the
surface of cathode causes a current in (2) The
the energy and
external momentum
circuit is cons
called
photoelectric current. (3) Scattered photon will have
(4) As potential difference increases, photo
wavelength) electric
as compare current
to incident p
also increases till saturation is reached.
(4) The energy lost by the photon i
i
.e.plate
(5) When polarity of battery Q isisatreversed (

60
w.r
.t P) electrons startkinetic
.plate
negative potential energy.
moving back
towards the cathode. (5) The change in wavelength due t
Qno electron
(6) At a particular negative potential
called of plate
Compton shift. Comp
will reachQ the
andplate
the current will become zero, this
negative potential
stopping
is called
potential
denoted V0.by

E3
Maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons o
in terms of stopping
potential will therefore be = 0
If ,= 0
o
= 90
Effect of Intensity and Frequency, of Light

(1)
Effect of intensity
If the intensity
: of light is increased
(called
(while it's frequency is kept the same) the current levels Compton
off at a wav

V0doesn'tpotential
unit time. But the stopping
Intensity
 no. of incident
photoelectron
photo
 no.
per time
current
i
.e.
change
photon
of emitted
ID
higher value, showing that more electrons are being emitted per
Compton scattering
–

h
Target electron
at rest

Recoil
electron
–
U

i h
i
Incident photon
2I
= constant f
Scattered photon
YG

I
X-Rays Fig. 25.21

(1) X-rays were discovered by scie

–V0 V O
they are also called Rontgen rays.
(2)
Effect of frequency
If frequency
: of incident light
Fig. 25.19 (2) Rontgen discovered that whe
increases, (keeping intensity is constant) stopping
–3 potential
discharge tube mmisH
ofgand 10
kept potential dif
increases but their is no change inkept
photoelectric
kV,then somecurrent
25 unknown radiations (
D

by anode.
2>1 i I= constant
(3) There are three essential r
2 production of X-rays.
U

(i) A source of electron

1
(ii) An arrangement to accelerate
–V02–V01O V (iii) A target of suitable materia
ST

ImportantFig.
Formulae
25.20 for high melting Effect
Photoelectric point on which these hig

(1) and Coolidge X-Ray Tube

(1) It consists of a highly evacua
(2)  cathode and target (also known as fi
The cathode consist of a tungsten f
coated with oxides of barium or stron
(3) of electrons even at low temperat
surrounded by a molybdenum cylinder
(4) w.
r.
t.the target.
(2) The target (It is a material of
melting point and high thermal condu
(5) or molybdenum is embedded in a copper
 8Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Effect and X-Rays
o
(3) The face of the target
to the
is (5)
incident
set at X-rays are measured in Rontgen
45
electron stream. power).
V
Lead
(6) X-rays carry no charge so the
chamber Anode
C magnetic field and electric field.
Water (7)
T
(8) They used in the study of crysta
F (9) They ionise gases
Filament W Target
(10) X-rays do not pass through hea
WindowX-rays
(11) They affect photographic plat

60
Fig. 25.22
(4) The filament is heated by passing the current through it.
(12) Long exposure to X-rays is inj
A high potential
10kVto 80
kV) is applied
difference ( between
(13) Lead is the best absorber of X-
the target and cathode to accelerate the electrons which are
(14) For
emitted by filament. The stream of highly X-ray photography
energetic electronsBaSO
of
4 is
huma
are focussed on the target. the best absorber.

E3
(5) Most of the energy of the electrons is converted
(15) They into
produce photoelectric ef
heat (above 98%) and only a fraction of the energy of the
(16) X-rays are not emitted by hydr
electrons (about 2%) is used to produce X-rays.
(17) These cannot be used in Radar
(6) During the operation of the tube, a huge quantity of heat
reflected by the target.
is produced in this target, this heat is conducted through the
copper anode to the cooling fins from (18) They
where show
it is all the important
dissipated by pr
radiation and convection.
(7)
Control of intensity
number of
intensity
electrons
: Intensity et
of X-raysc.
implies ID
reflection, refraction, interferen
the
X-ray photons producedAbsorption of X-Rays
from the target. The
of X-rays emitted is directly proportional to the
X-rays are absorbed when they inci
emitted per second from the filament and this can be
U
increased i
ntensi
by increasing the tyofX- Intensity
filament X
current.of-rays
Soemergent
r
aysFi
l
amentcur
rent
So intensity of absorbed X-rays
(8) X-rays :
Control of quality or penetration power of
YG

Quality of X-rays implies the penetrating power of X-rays, which

can be controlled by varying the potential
where difference
x= thickness of between
= absorpti
absorbing medi
the cathode and the target. coefficient
For large potential difference, energy of bombarding
electrons will be large and hence larger is the
I
0 penetration power
Emergent
of X-rays. X-rays

Table 25.3 : Types of X-rays

D

I
Incident X-rays
Hard X-rays Soft X-rays

More penetration power

Less penetration power
x
U

Fig. 25.23
More frequency ofLess
the order
frequency
of = Wavelength of X-ray)
of the order of
19 16
10 Hz 10 Hz
Frequency of X-ray)
ST

Lesser wavelength
Å More
range
wavelength
(0.1 Å – range (4
–4Å) 100
Å) Atomic number of target)

Classification of X-Rays
Properties of X-Rays In X-ray tube, when high speed elec
(1) X-rays are electromagnetic waves
they with wavelength
penetrate the target. They los
rangeÅ 0.1
–100
Å. comes to rest inside the metal. The el
stopped
(2) The wavelength of X-rays is very smallmakes several collisions
in comparison to wi
the wavelength of light. Hence theyAt carry
each collision
much moreone of the followi
energy
get
(This is the only difference between formed.
X-rays and light)
(3) X-rays are invisible. (1) Continuous X-rays
(2) Characteristic
(4) They travel in a straight line with speed of light. X-rays
 9
Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Ef

Continuous X-Rays
As an electron passes close to the positive nucleus of atom
of the target, the electron is deflected from
To fill it's
this path aselectrons
vacancy shown in fro
figure. This results in deceleration of the electron.
the created vacancies,Thewe
loss
knowinthat
energy of the electron during deceleration
from a higheris emitted
energy in
E1to lowerthe
orbit E2form
energy
, it orbit
radia
of X-rays. E1 – E
energy (2). Thus this energy differen

form
The X-ray photons so emitted form theof X-rays of X-ray
continuous very small but def
spectrum. depends upon the target material. Th
X-ray photon
of sharp lines and is called characte
e– K,L,M,…… ser
(1) ies:If the electron strik

60
+
eject an electron K-shellfrom of
the
the atom, a
createdK-shell.
in the Immediately an elec
L-shell
outer shell, sayjumps K-shell,
to theemittin
Fig. 25.24 photon of energy equal to the energy
(1)
Minimum wavelength
When the : electron looses
two shells.
whole of it's energy in a single collision withSimilarly,
the atom, an M-shell
if an electro
X-ray jumps t

E3
hmaxis
photon of maximum energyi
.e.
emitted K-shell, X-ray photon of higher ene
photons emitted due to the jump L,M,Nof el
K,K,Klines
shells to the K-shells K-series
gives
of the of
spectrum.
v= velocity of electron before collision with target
where
V = potential difference through which electron is n=5
atom,
8 O
c= speed of 
accelerated, m/
light
10 s =3
Maximum frequency of radiations (X-rays)
ID N

M
Minimum wavelength = cut off wavelength of X-ray
L
L L L

L-
series
M M
M-series
n=4

n=3

n=2
U
K K K
K n=1
(2)
Intensity wavelength The continuous
graph : X-rayK- series
spectra consist of all the wavelengths If over
the electron
a givenFig.
striking
range.
25.27 These
the targe
YG

wavelength are of different intensities. L-shell of the target

Following figure M,shows
atom, N…
an
..electr
shell
the intensity variation of different jumpswavelengths
L-shell
to the so thatforX-rays
various photons
accelerating voltages applied to X-ray tube.
Intensit

emitted.
Y These photonsL-series
form theof the spec
similar way theMformation
N series
series, et
c
of
. may be
explained.
y

kV
30
D

kV
20 (2)
Intensity-wavelength
At certain
graph
sharpl
:
10wavelengths, the intensity of K
kV X-ray
,
min Wave length K …. as shown in figure. These X-r
For each voltage, the intensity curve starts at a particular
characteristic X-rays. At other wav
U

Fig. 25.25
min). Rises
minimum wavelength ( rapidly to a maximum and
gradually and these X-rays are calle
then drops gradually.
Intensity K
The wavelength at which the intensity is maximum
ST

depends on the accelerating voltage, being shorter K for higher

L
voltage and vice-versa. LL
K-series
Characteristic X-Rays
L-series
Few of the fast moving electrons having high velocity
penetrate the surface atoms of the target material and knock
min Wavelength
out the tightly bound electrons even from the inner most shells
of the atom. Now when the electron is knocked out,Fig. 25.28
a vacancy is
created at that – place.
Mosley's Law
e
Mosley studied the X-ray
characteristi
spectrum
–
X-ray photon number of a heavy elements and conclu
e
e– different elements are very similar
+
K
L
M

Fig. 25.26
 10
Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Effect and X-Rays
number, the spectral lines merely shift towards higher
n= 2, 3,
where …. 4,
frequencies.

He also gave the following relation

Kfor
While line

k
(iv)
k
Uses of X-Rays
(i) In study of crystal structure :
determined using X-ray diffraction.
Z
(ii) In medical science

60
Fi
g.25.
29 (iii) In radiography
= Frequency of Z
where emitted
= Atomic
line, (iv)
number of In radio therapy
a= Proportionality
target, b= Screening
constant, (v) In
constant orengineering
Shielding constant. (vi) In laboratories
Z–b) = Effective atomic number
( (vii) In detective department

E3
(viii) In art the change occurring
aandbdoesn't depend on the nature of target.
examined Different
by X-rays.
bare
values of as follows
b= 1 for K-
series
b= 7.4 L-series
for
b= 19.2 M-series
for
ID
(1) Mosley's law supported Bohr's theory
Z) of  Discovery
(2) It experimentally determined
elements.
of positive
the atomic number
isotopes.
( rays help

 The de-Broglie
(3) This law established the importance wavelength
of ordering of of elec
U
of an atom is equal to circumference o
elements in periodic table by atomic number and not by atomic
weight.  A particle having zero rest mass a
and momentum must travels with a spee
A= 43, data
(4) Gaps in Moseley's 61, 72,
for75 suggested
YG

light.
existence of new elements which were later discovered.
 de-Broglie wave length associate
(5) The atomicCnumbers
u,Agand
Ptwere
of established
to be 29, 47 and 78 respectively. is given as (Energy of ga
(6) When a vacancyK-shell,
occurs in there
the is still one
K-shell.
electron remaining inAnthe L-shell in
electron will
at the Tis
temperature )
Z–1)
feel an effective edue Zefrom
charge
to +of (the nucleus
D

– efrom the remaining

and K-shell electron,  A photon is not a material partic
L-shell
because
K-shell
orbit is well outside orbit.
the energy.
(7) Wave length of  When a particle
characteristic spectrumexhibits wave nat
U

with a wave packet, rather then a wave

and energy of X-ray  radiations.
By coating the metal surface with a
strontium oxide it's work function is
ST

 We must remember that intensity

radiation is inversely proportiona
between source of light and Pi
.e.,
photos
n2=
(8) If transition n1= 1
takes
2 to K(
place
 - line)
from
so )
(i)
 The photoelectric current can be
some inert gas like Argon into the bu
(ii) emitted by cathode ionise the gas by
current is increased.
 Compton effect shows that photon h
(iii) In general theK
wavelength
-lines are given
ofProduction
 allby
the of X-ray is the rever
photoelectric effect.
 11
Electron, Photon, Photoelectric Ef

 The thickness of medium at which Uncertainty

intensity in the measurement
of emergent
i
.e.
X-rays becomes half
is called half value thickness
photon within the nucleus is

x1/2
( ) and it is given as . d = diameter of thex
where =d=
nucleus an
uncertainty in the measurement of po
 Continuos X-rays are produced due to the phenomenon
called "Bremsstrahlung". It means slowing down or braking
radiation.
 The wavelength of characteristic X-ray doesn't depend
Z)
on accelerating voltage. It depends on the atomic number (

60
of the target material.
 In characteristic X-ray spectrum and
also

 Nearly all metals emits photoelectrons when exposed to

E3
UV light. But alkali metals like lithium, sodium, potassium,
rubidium and cesium emit photoelectrons even when
exposed to visible light.
 Oxide coated filament in vacuum tubes is used to emit
electrons at relatively lower temperature.
ID
 Conduction of electricity in gases at low pressure takes
because colliding electrons acquire higher kinetic energy due
to increase in mean free path.
 Kinetic energy of cathode rays depends on both voltage
U
and work function of cathode.
 Photoelectric effect is due to the particle nature of light.
YG

 Hydrogen atom does not emit X-rays because it's energy

levels are too close to each other.
 The essential difference

-rays
between
is X-rays and of

that,
-rays emits from nucleus while X-rays from outer part
of atom.
 There is no time delay between emission of electron and
D

incidence i.
e.the
of photon
electrons are emitted out as soon
as the light falls on metal surface.
 If light were wave (not photons) it will take about an year
U

to eject a photoelectron out of the metal surface.

 Doze of X-ray are measured in terms of produced ions or
free energy via ionisaiton.
ST

 Safe doze for human body per week is one Rontgen (One
4
Rontgon is the amount of X-rays
10 Jfree
which emits 2.5
energy through g m air at NTP of 1
ionization
 The photoelectrons emitted from the metallic surface
have different kinetic energies even when the incident
photons have same energy. This happens because all the
electrons do not exist in the surface layer.
Those coming from below the surface loose more energy
in getting themselves free.
 Einstein was awarded Nobel prize for explaining the
photoelectric effect.