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Chapter Summary
 Relations and Their Properties
 Representing Relations
 Equivalence Relations
 Partial Orderings
 Hasse Diagram
Section Summary
 Relations and Functions
 Properties of Relations
 Reflexive Relations
 Symmetric and Antisymmetric Relations
 Transitive Relations
 Combining Relations
Binary Relations
Definition: A binary relation R from a set A to a set B
is a subset R ⊆ A × B.
Example:
 Let A = {0,1,2} and B = {a,b}
 {(0, a), (0, b), (1,a) , (2, b)} is a relation from A to B.
 We can represent relations from a set A to a set B
graphically or using a table:

Relations are more general than

functions. A function is a relation
where exactly one element of B is
related to each element of A.
Binary Relation on a Set
Definition: A binary relation R on a set A is a subset
of A × A or a relation from A to A.

Example:
 Suppose that A = {a,b,c}. Then R = {(a,a),(a,b), (a,c)} is a
relation on A.

 Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The ordered pairs in the relation

R = {(a, b) | a divides b} are
(1, 1), (1, 2), (1,3), (1, 4), (2, 2), (2, 4), (3, 3), and (4, 4).
Binary Relation on a Set (cont.)
Question: How many relations are there on a set A?

Solution: Because a relation on A is the same thing as a

subset of A ⨉ A, we count the subsets of A × A. Since
A × A has n2 elements when A has n elements, and a set
m | A|2
with m elements has 2 subsets, there are 2 subsets of A
A|2
× A. Therefore, there are 2|relations on a set A.
Binary Relations on a Set (cont.)
Example: Consider these relations on the set of integers:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1},
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}, R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.

Note that these relations are on an infinite set and each of these relations is an
infinite set.

Which of these relations contain each of the pairs

(1,1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (1, −1), and (2, 2)?

Solution: Checking the conditions that define each relation, we see that the
pair:
(1,1) is in R1, R3, R4 , and R6
(1,2) is in R1 and R6
(2,1) is in R2, R5, and R6
(1, −1) is in R2, R3, and R6
(2,2) is in R1, R3, and R4
Reflexive Relations
Definition: R is reflexive iff (a,a) ∊ R for every element
a ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is reflexive if and only if
∀x[(x,x) ∊ R]

Example: The following relations on the integers are

reflexive:
If A = ∅ then the empty relation is
reflexive vacuously. That is the empty
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, relation on an empty set is reflexive!
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.
The following relations are not reflexive:
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 3 ≯ 3),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 3 ≠3 + 1),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that 4 + 4 ≰ 3).
Symmetric Relations
Definition: R is symmetric iff (b,a) ∊ R whenever (a,b) ∊ R for all
a,b ∊ A. Written symbolically, R is symmetric if and only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ⟶ (y,x) ∊ R]

Example: The following relations on the integers are symmetric:

R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b},
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3}.
The following are not symmetric:
R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b} (note that 3 ≤ 4, but 4 ≰ 3),
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b} (note that 4 > 3, but 3 ≯ 4),
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that 4 = 3 + 1, but 3 ≠4 + 1).
Antisymmetric Relations
Definition:A relation R on a set A such that for all a,b ∊ A if (a,b) ∊ R and
(b,a) ∊ R, then a = b is called antisymmetric. Written symbolically, R is
antisymmetric if and only if
∀x∀y [(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,x) ∊ R ⟶ x = y]

 Example: The following relations on the integers are antisymmetric:

R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b},
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, For any integer, if a ≤ b and b≤ a ,
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}, then a = b.
R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1}.

The following relations are not antisymmetric:

R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b}
(note that both (1,−1) and (−1,1) belong to R3),
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (1,2) and (2,1) belong to R6).
Transitive Relations
Definition: A relation R on a set A is called transitive if whenever (a,b)
∊ R and (b,c) ∊ R, then (a,c) ∊ R, for all a,b,c ∊ A. Written symbolically,
R is transitive if and only if
∀x∀y ∀z[(x,y) ∊R ∧ (y,z) ∊ R ⟶ (x,z) ∊ R ]

 Example: The following relations on the integers are transitive:

R1 = {(a,b) | a ≤ b}, For every integer, a ≤ b
R2 = {(a,b) | a > b}, and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c.
R3 = {(a,b) | a = b or a = −b},
R4 = {(a,b) | a = b}.

The following are not transitive:

R5 = {(a,b) | a = b + 1} (note that both (4,3) and (3,2) belong to R5, but
not (4,2)).
R6 = {(a,b) | a + b ≤ 3} (note that both (2,1) and (1,2) belong to R6, but not
(2,2)).
Combining Relations
 Given two relations R1 and R2, we can combine them
using basic set operations to form new relations such
as R1 ∪ R2, R1 ∩ R2, R1 − R2, and R2 − R1.

 Example: Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2,3,4}. The

relations R1 = {(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)} and
R2 = {(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)} can be combined using
basic set operations to form new relations:
R1 ∪ R2 ={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(3,3)}
R1 ∩ R2 ={(1,1)} R1 − R2 ={(2,2),(3,3)}
R2 − R1 ={(1,2),(1,3),(1,4)}
Composition
Definition: Suppose
 R is a relation from a set A to a set B.
 S is a relation from B to a set C.

Then the composition (or composite) of R and S, is the

relation consisting of ordered pairs (a,c), where a ∈ A,
c ∈ C, and for which there exists an element b ∈ B such
that (a,b) ∈ R and (b,c) ∈ S.

We denote the composition of R and S by S ∘ R.

Example of Composition
 Example: Let R is a relation from {1,2,3} to {1,2,3,4}
with R= {(1,1), (1,4), (2,3), (3,1), (3,4)} and S is a
relation from {1,2,3,4} to {0,1,2} with
S= {(1,0), (2,0), (3,1), (3,2), (4,1)}. Then compute
S ∘ R.

 Solution:

S ∘ R= {(1,0), (1,1), (2,1), (2,2), (3,0), (3,1)}

Representing the Composition of a
Relation
R1 m R2 w
a
x
n
b
y
o
c
p z

R2∘ R1 = {(b, x),(b, z)}

Powers of a Relation
Definition: Let R be a relation on the set A. Then the powers Rn,
𝑛 = 1,2,3, … , of the relation R are defined recursively by:
 Basis Step: R1 = R
 Recursive Step: Rn+1 = Rn ∘ R

The definition shows that R2 = R ∘ R, R3 = R2 ∘ R = (R ∘ R) ∘ R, and so

on.

The powers of a transitive relation are subsets of the relation.

This is established by the following theorem:

Theorem 1: The relation R on a set A is transitive iff
Rn ⊆ R for n = 1,2,3 ….
Section Summary
 Representing Relations using Matrices

 Representing Relations using Digraphs

Representing Relations Using
Matrices
 A relation between finite sets can be represented using a zero-
one matrix.
 Suppose R is a relation from A = {a1 , a2, …, am} to B = {b1 , b2, …,
bn}.
 The elements of the two sets can be listed in any particular arbitrary
order. When A = B, we use the same ordering.
 The relation R is represented by the matrix
MR = [mij], where

 The matrix representing R has a 1 as its (i,j) entry when ai is

related to bj and a 0 if ai is not related to bj.
Examples of Representing
Relations Using Matrices
Example 1: Suppose that A = {1,2,3} and B = {1,2}. Let
R be the relation from A to B containing (a,b) if a ∈ A,
b ∈ B, and a > b. What is the matrix representing R
(assuming the ordering of elements is the same as the
increasing numerical order)?

Solution: Because R = {(2,1), (3,1),(3,2)}, the matrix is

Examples of Representing
Relations Using Matrices (cont.)
Example 2: Let A = {a1,a2, a3} and B = {b1,b2, b3,b4, b5}.
Which ordered pairs are in the relation R represented
by the matrix

Solution: Because R consists of those ordered pairs

(ai,bj) with mij = 1, it follows that:
R = {(a1, b2), (a2, b1),(a2, b3), (a2, b4),(a3, b1), {(a3, b3), (a3, b5)}.
Matrices of Relations on Sets
 If R is a reflexive relation, all the elements on the main
diagonal of MR are equal to 1.

 R is a symmetric relation, if and only if mij = 1

whenever mji = 1. R is an antisymmetric relation, if
and only if mij = 0 or mji = 0 when i≠ j.
Example of a Relation on a Set
Example 3: Suppose that the relation R on a set is
represented by the matrix

Is R reflexive, symmetric, and/or antisymmetric?

Solution: Because all the diagonal elements are equal

to 1, R is reflexive. Because MR is symmetric, R is
symmetric and not antisymmetric because both m1,2
and m2,1 are 1.
Representing Relations Using
Digraphs
Definition: A directed graph, or digraph, consists of a set V of vertices
(or nodes) together with a set E of ordered pairs of elements of V called
edges (or arcs). The vertex a is called the initial vertex of the edge (a,b),
and the vertex b is called the terminal vertex of this edge.
 An edge of the form (a,a) is called a loop.

Example 1: A drawing of the directed graph with vertices a, b, c, and d, and

edges (a, b), (a, d), (b, b), (b, d), (c, a), (c, b), and (d, b) is shown here.
Examples of Digraphs Representing
Relations
Example 2: What are the ordered pairs in the relation
represented by this directed graph?

Solution: The ordered pairs in the relation are

(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 3),
(4, 1), and (4, 3).
Determining which Properties a
Relation has from its Digraph
 Reflexivity: A loop must be present at all vertices in the
graph.
 Symmetry: If (x,y) is an edge, then so is (y,x).

 Antisymmetry: If (x,y) with x ≠ y is an edge, then (y,x)

is not an edge.

 Transitivity: If (x,y) and (y,z) are edges, then so is (x,z).

Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 1

a
b

c d
Reflexive? No, there are no loops
Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from c to a

Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from one vertex to

another, there is not one going back
Transitive? Yes, there is edges from a to c, c to b, and a to b
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 2

b
a

c d
• Reflexive? No, there are no loops
• Symmetric? No, for example, there is no edge from d to a
• Antisymmetric? Yes, whenever there is an edge from one vertex
to another, there is not one going back
• Transitive? Yes (trivially), there are no two edges where the first
edge ends at the vertex where the second edge begins
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 3

a
b

c d
• Reflexive? No, there are no loops
• Symmetric? No, there is an edge from a to b, but not from b to a
• Antisymmetric? No, there is an edge from d to b and b to d, but b≠d
• Transitive? No, there are edges from a to b and from b to d, but there is
no edge from a to d
Determining which Properties a Relation
has from its Digraph – Example 4

a b

c d

• Reflexive? No, not every vertex has a loop

• Symmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex to another
• Antisymmetric? Yes (trivially), there is no edge from one vertex to another
• Transitive? Yes, (trivially) since there is no edge from one vertex to another
Section Summary
 Equivalence Relations
 Equivalence Classes
 Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Equivalence Relations
Definition 1: A relation on a set A is called an
equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.

Definition 2: Two elements a, and b that are related

by an equivalence relation are called equivalent. The
notation a ∼ b is often used to denote that a and b are
equivalent elements with respect to a particular
equivalence relation.
Strings
Example 1: Suppose that R is the relation on the set of strings of
English letters such that aRb if and only if l(a) = l(b), where l(x)
is the length of the string x. Is R an equivalence relation?

Solution: Show that all of the properties of an equivalence relation hold.

 Reflexivity: Because l(a) = l(a), it follows that aRa for all strings a.

 Symmetry: Suppose that aRb. Since l(a) = l(b), l(b) = l(a) also holds
and bRa.
 Transitivity: Suppose that aRb and bRc. Since l(a) = l(b),and l(b) = l(c),
l(a) = l(c) also holds and aRc.
Congruence Modulo m
Example 2: Let m be an integer with m > 1. Show that the relation
R = {(a,b) | a ≡ b (mod m)} is an equivalence relation on the set of
integers.

Solution: a ≡ b (mod m) if and only if m divides a − b.

 Reflexivity: a − a = 0 is divisible by m, since 0 = 0 ∙ m. Hence, a ≡ a
(mod m).
 Symmetry: Suppose that a ≡ b (mod m). Then a − b is divisible by m,
and so a − b = km, where k is an integer. It follows that b − a = (− k) m,
so b ≡ a (mod m).
 Transitivity: Suppose that a ≡ b (mod m) and b ≡ c (mod m). Then m
divides both a − b and b − c. Hence, there are integers k and l with
a − b = km and b − c = lm. We obtain by adding the equations:
a − c = (a − b) + (b − c) = km + lm = (k + l) m.
Therefore, a ≡ c (mod m).
Divides
Example 3: Show that the “divides” relation on the set of positive
integers is not an equivalence relation.

Solution: The properties of reflexivity, and transitivity do hold, but

there relation is not symmetric. Hence, “divides” is not an equivalence
relation.
 Reflexivity: a ∣ a for all a.

 Not Symmetric: For example, 2 ∣ 4, but 4 ∤ 2. Hence, the relation is not

symmetric.
 Transitivity: Suppose that a divides b and b divides c. Then there are
positive integers k and l such that b = ak and c = bl. Hence, c = a(kl), so
a divides c. Therefore, the relation is transitive.
Equivalence Classes
Definition 3: Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The set of all
elements that are related to an element a of A is called the equivalence class of
a. The equivalence class of a with respect to R is denoted by [a]R.
When only one relation is under consideration, we can write [a], without the
subscript R, for this equivalence class.

Note that [a]R = {s|(a,s) ∈ R}.

 If b ∈ [a]R, then b is called a representative of this equivalence class. Any

element of a class can be used as a representative of the class.

 The equivalence classes of the relation congruence modulo m are called the
congruence classes modulo m. The congruence class of an integer a modulo m
is denoted by [a]m, so [a]m = {…, a−2m, a−m, a, a+m, a+2m, … }. For example,

[0]4 = {…, −8, −4 , 0, 4 , 8 , …} [1]4 = {…, −7, −3 , 1, 5 , 9 , …}

[2]4 = {…, −6, −2 , 2, 6 , 10 , …} [3]4 = {…, −5, −1 , 3, 7 , 11 , …}

Equivalence Classes and Partitions
Theorem 1: let R be an equivalence relation on a set A.
These statements for elements a and b of A are equivalent:
(i) a R b
(ii) [a] = [b]
(iii) [a] ∩ [b] ≠ ∅

Proof: We show that (i) implies (ii). Assume that aRb. Now
suppose that c ∈ [a]. Then aRc. Because aRb and R is
symmetric, bRa. Because R is transitive and bRa and aRc, it
follows that bRc. Hence, c ∈ [b]. Therefore, [a]⊆ [b]. A similar
argument (omitted here) shows that [b]⊆ [a]. Since [a]⊆ [b]
and [b]⊆ [a], we have shown that [a] = [b].
Partition of a Set
Definition: A partition of a set S is a collection of
disjoint nonempty subsets of S that have S as their
union. In other words, the collection of subsets Ai,
where i ∈ I (where I is an index set), forms a partition
of S if and only if
 Ai ≠ ∅ for i ∈ I,
 Ai ∩ Aj=∅ when i ≠ j,
 and

A Partition of a Set
An Equivalence Relation Partitions
a Set
 Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. The union of
all the equivalence classes of R is all of A, since an element
a of A is in its own equivalence class [a]R. In other words,

 From Theorem 1, it follows that these equivalence classes

are either equal or disjoint, so [a]R∩[b]R=∅ when
[a]R ≠ [b]R.

 Therefore, the equivalence classes form a partition of A,

because they split A into disjoint subsets.
Section Summary
 Partial Orderings and Partially-ordered Sets
 Camparability
 Total Ordering and Totally-ordered Sets
 Hasse Diagrams
Partial Orderings
Definition 1: A relation R on a set S is called a partial
ordering, or partial order, if it is reflexive,
antisymmetric, and transitive.

A set together with a partial ordering R is called a

partially ordered set, or poset, and is denoted by (S, R).
Members of S are called elements of the poset.
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 1: Show that the “greater than or equal”
relation (≥) is a partial ordering on the set of integers.

Solution:
 Reflexivity: a ≥ a for every integer a.
 Antisymmetry: If a ≥ b and b ≥ a, then a = b.
 Transitivity: If a ≥ b and b ≥ c, then a ≥ c.

So, (Z, ≥) is a poset.

Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 2: Show that the divisibility relation (∣) is a partial
ordering on the set of positive integers.
Solution:
 Reflexivity: a ∣ a for all integers a.

 Antisymmetry: If a and b are positive integers with a | b and

b | a, then a = b.
 Transitivity: Suppose that a divides b and b divides c. Then
there are positive integers k and l such that b = ak and c = bl.
Hence, c = a(kl), so a divides c. Therefore, the relation is
transitive.
So, (Z+, ∣) is a poset.
Partial Orderings (continued)
Example 3: Show that the inclusion relation (⊆) is a
partial ordering on the power set of a set S.

 Reflexivity: A ⊆ A whenever A is a subset of S.

 Antisymmetry: If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B.

 Transitivity: If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.

 So, (P(S), ⊆) is a poset.

 The symbol ≼ is used to denote the relation in any poset.

In a poset the notation a ≼ b denotes that (a, b)  R

This notation is used because the “less than or equal

to” relation is a paradigm for a partial ordering. (Note
that the symbol ≼ is used to denote the relation in any
poset, not just the “less than or equals” relation.) The
notation a b denotes that a ≼ b, but a  b .
Comparability
Definition 2: The elements a and b of a poset (S, ≼)
are called comparable if either a ≼ b or b ≼ a. When a
and b are elements of S such that neither a ≼ b nor b ≼
a, then a and b are called incomparable.

Definition 3: If (S, ≼) is a poset and every two

elements of S are comparable, S is called a totally
ordered or linearly ordered set, and ≼ is called a total
order or a linear order. A totally ordered set is also
called a chain. For example, (Z, ) is totally ordered.
Example
Consider the power set of {a, b, c} and the
subset relation. (P({a,b,c}),  )
{a, c}  {a, b} and {a, b}  {a, c}

So, {a,c} and {a,b} are incomparable.

52
Example
 In the poset (Z+,≤), are the integers 3 and 9 comparable?
 Yes, as 3 ≤ 9

 Are 7 and 5 comparable?

 Yes, as 5 ≤ 7

 As all pairs of elements in Z+ are comparable, the poset

(Z+,≤) is a total order.
Example
 In the poset (Z+,|) with “divides” operator |, are the
integers 3 and 9 comparable?
 Yes, as 3 | 9

 Are 7 and 5 comparable?

 No, as 7 | 5 and 5 | 7

 Thus, as there are pairs of elements in Z+ that are not

comparable, the poset (Z+,|) is a partial order. It is not
a total order or chain.
Hasse Diagrams
Definition: A Hasse diagram is a visual representation of a
partial ordering that leaves out edges that must be present
because of the reflexive and transitive properties.

Constructing the Hasse

Diagram for ({1, 2, 3, 4}, )

A partial ordering is shown in (a) of the figure above. The

loops due to the reflexive property are deleted in (b). The
edges that must be present due to the transitive property
are deleted in (c). The Hasse diagram for the partial
ordering (a), is depicted in (c).
Procedure for Constructing a
Hasse Diagram
 To represent a finite poset (S, ≼) using a Hasse
diagram, start with the directed graph of the relation:
 Remove the loops (a, a) present at every vertex due to
the reflexive property.

 Remove all edges (x, y) for which there is an element

z ∈ S such that x ≺ z and z ≺ y. These are the edges that
must be present due to the transitive property.

 Arrange each edge so that its initial vertex is below the

terminal vertex. Remove all the arrows, because all edges
point upwards toward their terminal vertex.
Example
 For the poset ({1,2,3,4,6,8,12}, |)
Example