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Got slogan? Guidelines for creating effective slogans

Article in Business Horizons · February 2007

DOI: 10.1016/j.bushor.2007.05.002 · Source: RePEc

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Business Horizons (2007) 50, 415–422

www.elsevier.com/locate/bushor

Got slogan? Guidelines for creating effective slogans

Chiranjeev Kohli a,⁎, Lance Leuthesser a , Rajneesh Suri b

a
College of Business, California State University, Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92834, USA
b
LeBow College of Business, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA

KEYWORDS Abstract Slogans are a key element of a brand's identity, and contribute to a brand's
Slogans; equity. In today's marketplace, almost all brands employ slogans; they enhance a
Taglines; brand's image, aid in its recognition and recall, and help create brand differentiation
Jingles; in consumers' minds. While there is general consensus on the importance of the
Brand name; device itself, little agreement exists as to what constitutes a successful slogan. As
Brand image; such, although marketing managers use slogans extensively, they are often at a loss
Brand equity; when it comes to creating them. In turn, this leads to ineffective use of slogans and,
Corporate identity ultimately, the possibility of a surprisingly poor linkage between a brand and its
slogan, even among the most well-known brands. To explore this phenomenon, we
surveyed articles from a variety of academic streams related to slogans, and also
looked at industry publications for relevant case studies. Based on our investigation,
we propose in this article a series of guidelines for the strategy behind slogans, and on
creation and utilization of effective slogans. In particular, our findings should be of
use to business practitioners.
© 2007 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved.

1. Long live the brand…with a little help 2002). Although pieces of the same whole, each
component of brand identity is distinct and serves a
“Just Do It”: Nike's rallying call to athletes particular function, as detailed next.
everywhere is as familiar as the brand name itself. For its part, the brand name gives a product its
This example illustrates perfectly the vast power core identity. It is the anchor for a brand's image,
and might that can be wielded by the device known and cannot be changed easily. Logos, whether
as the slogan, termed in honor of the Scottish Gaelic stylized depictions of brand names or more abstract
word slogorne, for “battle-cry.” Together with designs, serve as visual cues for faster processing
brand name and logo, the slogan represents one of and universal recognition of brands across different
the three key elements of brand identity; that is, languages and cultures. As such, logos are rarely
the elements by which the brand communicates changed in a significant way, but are sometimes
with the world around it (Kohli, Suri, & Thakor, modified or updated to stay current. Finally, slogans
play an important supporting role in brand identity.
A brand name, most often no longer than a word or
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ckohli@fullerton.edu (C. Kohli),
two, cannot say much in a literal sense; the same is
lleuthesser@fullerton.edu (L. Leuthesser), surir@drexel.edu true for logos. No doubt, these elements of brand
(R. Suri). identity can acquire rich imagery and meaning
0007-6813/$ - see front matter © 2007 Kelley School of Business, Indiana University. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2007.05.002
 Author's personal copy

416 C. Kohli et al.

through brand associations established over time. equity is generally based on its ability to generate
They are, however, limited in creating an image “economic” profits.
because they lack the inherent ability to say much Fig. 1, which has been adapted from Aaker
about the product. As a result, a preponderance of (1991), is a model of brand equity and its ante-
this task is left to advertising over the long run. cedents. Brands with high equity are rewarded with
Slogans can bridge this gap, and can and must say profits above the level that would be expected
something about the image of the product, thereby under purely competitive conditions in an undiffer-
making it possible to communicate what the brand is entiated market. Brand equity is the differential
about. In this manner, slogans provide a unique and effect of brand knowledge on consumer response to
significant contribution to a brand's identity. This marketing efforts. Thus, differentiation lies at the
identity, in turn, enhances brand awareness and heart of a brand's equity. Without differentiation, a
brand image through recognition, recall, and brand can never seek a premium or earn economic
favorable associations for the brand. Thus, slogans profits. In some instances, differentiation is rela-
can serve as “hooks” or “handles” in capturing the tively easy to create (e.g., automobiles, breakfast
meaning of a brand and in relaying what makes the cereal), whereas in other instances it can be much
brand special (Dahlén & Rosengren, 2005; Keller, more challenging (e.g., gasoline, bottled water).
1998). Regardless, customers should have sufficient brand
The brand name and logo are intricately tied to a knowledge to form perceptions about differences
brand's inherent identity. The brand name is a among the brands.
brand's identity in its most basic form. This being The two primary factors that influence brand
the case, any change of a brand name will lead to an knowledge are brand awareness and brand image.
almost complete loss of identity. A logo is also in a The most common indicators of brand awareness are
similar position, but lends itself to “updating.” brand recall and brand recognition. Brand recall is
Consider this information in light of the experience the respondent's ability to remember the brand
of Pepsi, which has, for about a century, retained its without any aid. Brand recognition, on the other
name unchanged, but evolved its logo. Over the hand, is aided recall, an easier task; it is the
years, the company has maintained an overall respondent's ability to identify the brand from a list
graphic scheme consistent with the brand's image, that is provided. Brand image is typically assessed
but has periodically updated its logo to reflect a by examining the type and strength of brand
contemporary look. As much as consistency in a associations. As can be seen, the role of slogans,
brand's image and communication is crucial to its as with the other elements of brand identity, is to
long-term equity, markets change, and brands have enhance brand awareness and brand image, and, in
to respond accordingly. Since names and logos turn, influence brand knowledge.
cannot be easily changed, a slogan is in a unique The practical significance of slogans is well
position to act as a bridge between a brand's legacy illustrated in the results of a study that examined
and its evolving image. It is the most dynamic changes in the market value of firms, when they
element of a brand's identity, the one most easily announced a change in slogans. Conducted by
and most often altered, when needed. Apparently,
Pepsi has felt that need approximately 10 times over
the span of a century, having traded out (many
times over) its original 1902 catchphrase, “Cures
nervousness. Relieves exhaustion,” in favor of,
among others, the current “The Joy of Pepsi.”

2. The importance of slogans in branding

An understanding of factors that influence the
perceptions of brands is important because brands
are among the most valuable corporate assets. Each
year, Business Week reports brand equity of major
brands as estimated by the global branding consult-
ing company, Interbrand. The top brands worldwide
are valued in the tens of billions of dollars, making
their careful management a top corporate priority
(Brady et al., 2004). The dollar value of a brand's Figure 1 The slogan–brand equity linkage.
 Author's personal copy

Got slogan? Guidelines for creating effective slogans 417

Mathur and Mathur (1995), the research discovered 3. Deconstructing slogans: What we know
an increase in market values soon after the changes from theory and practice
were announced. The authors concluded that this
increase occurred because firms that announced As Fig. 1 shows, slogans contribute to the attain-
changes in slogans were perceived to have carefully ment of two broad objectives: (1) enhancing brand
considered their marketing and advertising strate- awareness and (2) creating, supporting, or changing
gies, and developed the new slogans as a positive the brand's image or perceptions; that is, position-
response to changes in factors such as demograph- ing or repositioning the brand. Clearly, these
ics, consumer preferences, and competitive envi- objectives are not mutually exclusive, and market-
ronment. For example, Campbell Soup's shift from ers endeavor to develop slogans that serve both of
“M'm! M'm! Good” to “Never Underestimate the these objectives effectively. In the sections that
Power of Soup” received wide coverage in the media follow, we examine the literature on the role of
and was seen as an attempt to make soup more slogans in influencing both brand awareness and
relevant to the everyday lifestyle. While it may or brand image, and provide relevant examples from
may not have a lasting impact on the company's practice.
market values, a change in slogan is considered a
clear signal of the management's intent, significant
3.1. Enhancing brand awareness
enough to influence the marketplace and to create Much of the relatively sparse academic research on
a buzz in the media. slogans has investigated effects related to aware-
There is also ample anecdotal evidence to ness. Two components of memorability, recognition
support the importance of slogans. In 1997, Pizza and recall, are most widely used to assess brand
Hut ran a series of ads declaring “war” on “skimpy, awareness. One stream of research on advertising
low-quality pizza,” challenging anyone to find a has investigated the effect of “priming,” whereby
better pizza than Pizza Hut. One of its competitors, frequent and recent ideas come to mind more
Papa John's, took up the challenge by running spots readily than ideas that have not been activated as
featuring Frank Carney, a co-founder of Pizza Hut, recently or frequently (Fiske & Taylor, 1984). The
who by that time was a Papa John's franchisee. efficacy of priming has been demonstrated in a
Touting the quality of Papa John's, the commercials variety of cognitive tasks, such as naming objects or
made specific claims regarding the superiority of the identifying words (Higgins, Bargh, & Lombardi,
company's sauce, dough, or toppings, and concluded 1985; McNamara & Altarribba, 1988; Tabossi,
with the slogan “Better Ingredients. Better Pizza.” 1988). Notably, Homer and Kahle (1986) demon-
The ads proved very effective; within a year, Papa strated a strong positive effect of priming on
John's market share increased significantly while message recall. Adding to the base of knowledge,
Pizza Hut's declined. Ultimately, Pizza Hut sued Papa Boush (1993) examined priming in the context of
John's, asserting that the “Better Ingredients. slogans. During the course of Boush's research,
Better Pizza” slogan was a false advertising claim. individuals were first exposed to slogans that
In the end, Papa John's prevailed, as the court ruled primed certain attributes of the brands, and
that its slogan was essentially marketing “puffery” afterward the individuals were asked to rate
because the term “better” was not quantifiable (see potential extensions of the brands. Extensions that
Sacasas, 2001). The entire episode, however, had characteristics in common with the primed
demanded a significant commitment of time and attributes were rated more favorably than exten-
resources from each firm. Clearly, this case illus- sions that did not have characteristics in common,
trates the power of slogans as the central front of a suggesting that the primed attributes were retained
brand's overall communication strategy. in memory. Slogans in advertising have become so
The remainder of this article considers how widespread that a great proportion of ads are now
slogans are used in practice, as well as the signed off with them (Lamons, 1997). Given the
theoretical underpinnings behind the practice, and proximity of slogans to the brands in any commer-
concludes with suggested guidelines for creating cial message, they appear to be attractive vehicles
effective slogans. We employ the term slogan, for priming key attributes for a brand.
although the labels taglines and brand signatures Slogans are often presented as jingles because
have also been used. While slogans may be used in this form is thought to do a better job of enhancing
connection with short-term promotions (e.g., to memory and recall. Yalch (1991) examined the
link a brand with a major event, such as the conditions under which jingles serve as effective
Olympics), most often they are part of a long-term mnemonics for linking slogans to their respective
strategy for brand identity. The latter usage is the brands. He did this by presenting individuals with a
focus of this article. list of frequently used advertising slogans, including
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418 C. Kohli et al.

jingle and non-jingle slogans, and asking those active versus passive voice (passive being more
individuals to identify the brands associated with complex) and by placing adverbs near the verb,
the slogans. Using a recall test (requiring individuals versus away from the verb (away from the verb
to identify the brand associated with each slogan, being more complex). The researchers found that
without providing a list of brands for reference), he comprehension of slogans was not affected by
found that slogans were correctly associated with these manipulations, but that recognition (i.e.,
the brand significantly more often when they were selecting from a list) was better for simple structure
presented as jingles. This supports the assertion (i.e., active voice, adverb near verb). Interestingly,
that “finger-snapping, toe-tapping songs have tre- however, they found that recall was not better for
mendous power because they are memorable” simple structure, a finding the authors attributed to
(Wells, Burnett, & Moriarty, 1989, p. 201). When the notion that complexity may have led to deeper
the memory test was easier (i.e., simple recogni- processing, and possibly enhanced memory. This is
tion, selecting brand names from a list), however, consistent with the elaboration likelihood model
the scholar found no difference in individuals' (Petty, Cacciopo, & Schuman, 1983) and suggests
abilities to correctly associate slogans and brands that insofar as slogans go, “keeping it simple” may
for the jingle versus non-jingle format. In a second not necessarily be better when it comes to making
experiment, Yalch (1991) found that when indivi- them memorable.
duals were exposed to audio taped advertisements Additional research has suggested that increasing
containing slogans, they were able to associate the complexity of phrases through the use of figurative
slogan with the brand more often when the slogan devices may enhance their appreciation (McQuarrie
was in jingle form. However, this difference was not & Mick, 1999). Consistent with this, Lagerwerf
obtained when the ads were repeated a second (2002) found that deliberate ambiguity (specifically,
time. Based on the results of these two studies, the use of pun) could enhance the appreciation of
Yalch concluded that jingles can be effective advertising slogans. For example, a political ad for
mnemonics for linking slogans to brand when other Ken Livingstone as candidate for mayor of London
cues are lacking. featured a photo of the candidate standing in a
When multiple cues are available, however, the London Underground car, hand firmly grasping the
incremental effect of using a jingle might be overhead rail. The photo carried the caption “where
minimal. Furthermore, there is some evidence Ken stands on the Tube,” a backhanded reference to
that music may distract from the cognitive proces- controversy over proposed changes to London's
sing of advertising information (Park & Young, underground transit system. Lagerwerf's research
1986), so the use of jingles in advertising should showed that this kind of creativity was effective, as
be carefully coordinated with the other message long as the ambiguity was recognized by the
content and the amount of information processing audience and they were able to resolve it. If a
required. Given the totality of this information, deliberately ambiguous slogan is not recognized as
jingles may serve as a quick fix, but may not make such, or if it is recognized as ambiguous but the
lasting contributions. Accordingly, jingles are better literal and figurative meanings cannot be reconciled
suited for companies that have limited budgets, satisfactorily, then the strategy is ineffective or may
which restricts the type of media they can use even have a negative effect. Rhetorical devices
(audio only, as opposed to television commercials) such as deliberate ambiguity must therefore be used
and the number of exposures they can create for cautiously; you can be creative, but not too
their target market. Larger companies with higher creative.
discretionary spending do not stand to gain much Of critical importance is to link the slogan to the
from jingles. In fact, the distracting effect of music brand name. Regardless of how memorable a slogan
may negate any short-term gain jingles have to may be, it can't help brand awareness if it is not
offer. correctly associated with the brand. “Improving
The relationship between slogan complexity and Home Improvement.” “You Can Do It — We Can
recall has also been investigated. Corder (1986) Help.” “One Client at a Time.” “Because You're
reported that several studies assessing recall Worth It.” “The Company You Keep.” Quick: what
showed that while, overall, there was a strong brands do these slogans bring to mind? The problem
positive correlation between advertising exposure of incorrect slogan recall is a persistent one in
and ability to correctly identify slogans, shorter marketing, having been highlighted for almost
slogans were learned more quickly than complex four decades now. Topic pioneers Katz and Rose
ones. Along similar lines, Bradley and Meeds (2002) (1969) found that there is significant incorrect
manipulated the syntactic complexity of slogans recall for slogans, especially in heavily advertised
while retaining their meaning. They did this by using product categories with little product differentiation
 Author's personal copy

Got slogan? Guidelines for creating effective slogans 419

(specifically, cigarettes). Not surprisingly, they also slogan “Any Decent Doctor Would Prescribe Norway,”
found that correct recall was higher among users of developed by the Norwegian Tourist Board. This
the product than non-users. Interestingly, however, slogan, in which “Norway” was replaced with “(coun-
the duo discovered that slogans for cigarette brands try),” was presented to respondents who rated its fit
with large advertising budgets were not necessarily with each of 18 countries. They found that three
more correctly associated with their brands than countries, Canada, Switzerland, and Norway, were
those for brands with smaller budgets. rated highest, suggesting that the slogan was effec-
An interesting phenomenon is bogus recall, tive in highlighting the main appeal — nature, wildlife,
whereby people report that they have seen a and clean air — of the brand (Norway).
slogan used in advertising, even when it is In a study conducted by Boush (1993), slogans
fictitious. Surveying 200 respondents to explore were used to prime various attributes of a fictitious
this concept, Glassman and Ford (1988) concluded brand of soup, Bella. For example, when Bella soup
that bogus recall is, indeed, a serious problem for was primed on the attribute “nutrition,” that
marketing researchers. In fact, the authors found characteristic was moved to a “top-of-mind” posi-
bogus recall rates to be so high that they called for tion. Respondents, after being primed on an
improvement in the methodology used to test attribute, were then asked to evaluate potential
recall. Most recently, Kiley (2004) reported the brand extensions of Bella, all extensions being food
dismal results of a Business Week survey of 500 products. The brand extensions were evaluated
people who were asked to link slogans with their more favorably when they were perceived to be
brands. Among 30 prominent brands, the median congruent with the primed attributes. For example,
proportion of correct linkages was a remarkably a brand extension to frozen vegetables was per-
low 6%. Although a few standouts did exist (e.g., ceived to be most consistent with Bella soup, and
Allstate Insurance (“You're in Good Hands”) 87%; evaluated most favorably among brand extensions,
State Farm (“Like a Good Neighbor”) 70%; Wal-Mart when Bella soup was primed on the attribute
(“Always Low Prices. Always”) 67%), duds were “nutrition.” On the other hand, the frozen vegeta-
much more commonplace (e.g., K-Mart (“Right ble extension was perceived to be least consistent,
Here, Right Now”) 1%; Staples (“That was Easy”) and was evaluated least favorably, when the primed
0%; Wendy's (“It's Better Here”) 0%). With the attribute of Bella soup was “spiciness.” A follow-up
growing use of slogans, the challenge of correctly study by Pryor and Brodie (1998) replicated Boush's
study and obtained findings consistent with it,
linking brands and slogans is almost certain to
contributing additional evidence to suggest the
increase (Lamons, 1997). This is a weakness in the
power of slogans in shaping brand perceptions.
industry that should be corrected. It is also worth
Collectively, the previously mentioned studies
noting that the high link slogans are those which
provide evidence that slogans can be effective in
have not been altered over the years, attesting to
positioning brands, and as such serve to underscore
the power of consistency.
the importance of slogans given the central role
3.2. Brand image and positioning that positioning plays in marketing strategy. At the
same time, however, slogans may need to be
While it is obvious that brand awareness is prerequi- changed to keep the brand updated. As such,
site to any higher order communication related to the strategically, the objective of slogans should not
brand, slogans are capable of achieving much more be to make the brand either over-positioned
than brand awareness. They also have the ability to (positioned too restrictively) or under-positioned
create brand image, which is often measured by (positioned too vaguely). Clearly, crafting of the
assessing the nature and prominence of brand slogan requires careful coordination with other
associations. Surprisingly, very little research on elements of the marketing mix and a clear vision
slogans has been directed toward the study of this of the strategic direction of the brand.
aspect of their use. Supphellen and Nygaardsvik
(2002) proposed a three-stage model for testing
“country” slogans (i.e., slogans used to promote 4. Where do we go from here?
tourism). The first stage involves qualitative assess-
ment of associations elicited by the slogan, the second Having performed a thorough search of the litera-
stage assesses slogan recall and recognition, and the ture, no article was found that focused specifically
third stage tests the slogan in a commercial context on developing a systematic approach for creating
(e.g., incorporated into advertisements) in order to effective slogans. In response to this void, we
obtain realistic measures of ad and brand attitude, developed and here present a series of recommen-
brand awareness, and brand image. The above cited dations that provide a coherent set of guidelines for
research reported only on first stage testing of the practicing managers. Constructed from research
 Author's personal copy

420 C. Kohli et al.

related to the literature, these suggestions are as An obvious way to enhance correct brand
follows: recall is to include the brand name in the
slogan (“My Doctor Said Mylanta,” “Aetna, I'm
(1) Keep your eye on the horizon. Brand strategy Glad I Met Ya,” “If You're Not Wearing Dockers,
is about knowing where you are and, more You're Just Wearing Pants”). Surprisingly, the
importantly, where you are going. This vast majority of slogans do not include the
requires a long-term view and, among other brand name. Although the practice of includ-
things, avoiding the constraints of a slogan ing the brand name in the slogan may
that defines the brand too narrowly. Slogans somewhat limit creative flexibility, potential
created today should be able to embrace benefits are great given the magnitude of the
tomorrow's business, because while they can recall problem. This would appear to be
be changed if necessary, this expensive particularly the case for brands with small
exercise should be avoided. For many years, advertising budgets and infrequent exposure,
Xerox Corporation was known to the public as well as brands in categories with relatively
simply as the “Copier Company.” As its undifferentiated products.
fortunes turned downward, Xerox groped for
a way to define itself better, eventually (4) Please repeat that. Since most advertising
becoming the “Document Company.” That campaigns involve multiple ads over the course
slogan didn't do a good job of accommodating of the campaign period, the specific ideas
the scope of the company's activities, howev- communicated in the advertisements will nec-
er, so Xerox has now become the provider of essarily vary across different ads. In many cases,
“Solutions for a Changing World.” On the other the slogan is the only element that can be kept
hand, BMW's “The Ultimate Driving Machine” absolutely consistent from ad to ad, creating
has stood the test of time. The slogan is the repetition that makes slogans memorable
focused, and emphasizes that BMW produces and which, in turn, leads to a consistent brand
the best driving devices available, a descrip- image. Brands that have used their slogans
tion that easily encompasses any automotive consistently also garner the highest recall rates.
product, including cars and motorcycles. For example, while Allstate's ads may focus on
safe driving bonuses, deductible rewards, acci-
(2) Every slogan is a brand positioning tool, and it dent forgiveness, or new car replacement, the
should position the brand in a clear manner. A overall theme, which is captured by the slogan,
brand can be positioned in many ways, and is remains the same: “You're in Good Hands.”
often positioned on features or benefits; for
example, Excedrin is “The Headache Medi- (5) Jingle, jangle. There is a fair amount of
cine.” In mature markets, a brand may be evidence that jingles enhance memorability,
positioned against a competitor; consider that especially in the short run. Given enough time
Avis is “Number Two — We Try Harder.” and repetition, however, jingles may not be
Positioning can be used to provide reassurance recalled at a significantly greater rate than
and reinforce brand loyalty, as in Stouffer's non-jingle slogans. In such cases, use of
“Nothing Comes Closer to Home.” A brand meaning, abstraction, and consistency will
should have a clear positioning and the slogan go a long way. For example, “Just Do It” does
should highlight the brand's main strengths, it for Nike, given its ubiquitous presence.
again, in a clear manner. However, for small businesses (e.g., local car
dealerships), which may have limited adver-
(3) Link the slogan to the brand. The level of tising budgets or use an audio-only vehicle like
incorrect recall for slogans is shocking. In radio, jingles may provide a valuable “jump
addition to being used consistently in advertis- start” on brand awareness.
ing, the slogan should be placed on packaging
and even on collateral materials that go to the (6) Use slogans at the outset. Slogans are a
trade. Every available vehicle to connect the fundamental component of brand identity;
slogan to the brand should be used to drive home accordingly, one of our basic assertions is that
a consistent image. Managers should ensure the marketers who fail to use slogans lose an
slogan evokes their brand name, and should do important tool for building brand image.
market tests to verify it. If a competitor's name is Research on the effect of priming has shown
being evoked, for all practical purposes, it is that ideas formed during the encoding of
negative advertising! a stimulus are instrumental in influencing
 Author's personal copy

Got slogan? Guidelines for creating effective slogans 421

memory, and a brand's image is primarily ing, and thus play a key role in implementing a
created in its formative stages in the market- differentiation strategy. In this regard, the most
place. In practical terms, marketers should effective slogans are likely to be those that
use slogans at the outset to “prime” the emphasize points of difference that are not only
importance of certain attributes of a brand, meaningful, but congruent with existing brand
and to shape a brand's image accordingly. perceptions, as well. The above goals, achieved
Otherwise, they lose a significant opportunity. consistently over the long run, should positively
impact brand knowledge and, in turn, brand equity.
(7) It's okay to be creative. The “keep it simple” By following the guidelines we propose herein,
principle isn't a golden rule when it comes to marketers may better achieve slogan success.
slogans. While most slogans are kept simple
for the sake of brevity, evidence suggests that
slogans with a moderate level of syntactic or References
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