*Algebra*

1. Solve for x: 2x + 5 = 11
To solve for x, subtract 5 from both
sides of the equation:
2x + 5 = 11 Divide both sides by 2:
Subtract 5: x=6÷2
2x + 5-5 = 11 x=3
Subtract 5: So, the value of x is 3.
2x = 11 - 5 Let's check:
2x = 6 2x + 5 = 2(3) + 5
=6+5
= 11

2. Find the value of y: y - 3 = 7

To solve for y, add 3 to both sides of the equation:

y-3=7
Add 3:
y=7+3
y = 10
So, the value of y is 10.
Let's check:
y - 3 = 10 - 3
=7
3. Simplify the expression: 3(2x - 1) + 2
To simplify the expression, follow the order of operations (PEMDAS):

3(2x - 1) + 2 Here's a step-by-step breakdown:

Distribute the 3: 1. Multiply 3 by the terms inside the
6x - 3 + 2 parentheses: 3(2x) = 6x and 3(-1) = -3
Combine like terms: 2. Rewrite the expression: 6x - 3 + 2
6x - 1 3. Combine the constants: -3 + 2 = -1
So, the simplified expression is: Result: 6x - 1
6x - 1
 *Geometry*

1. Find the perimeter of a rectangle with length 8 cm and width 5 cm

To find the perimeter of a rectangle, So, the perimeter of the rectangle is

use the formula: 26 cm.
Perimeter (P) = 2(Length + Width) Remember, the perimeter is the total
Given: distance around the rectangle.
Length (L) = 8 cm Let's visualize:
Width (W) = 5 cm Top: 8 cm
Bottom: 8 cm
Plug in the values: Left: 5 cm
P = 2(L + W) Right: 5 cm
= 2(8 + 5) Total: 26 cm
= 2 x 13= 26 cm

2. Calculate the area of a triangle with base 10 cm and height 6 cm.

To find the area of a triangle, use the = 30 cm²
formula: So, the area of the triangle is 30
Area (A) = (base × height) / 2 square centimeters.
Given: Remember, the formula works for all
Base (b) = 10 cm triangles.
Height (h) = 6 cm Visualize:
Plug in the values: Area = (base × height) / 2
A = (b × h) / 2 = (10 × 6) / 2
= (10 × 6) / 2 = 30 cm²
= 60 / 2

3. Find the circumference of a circle with radius 7 cm

To find the circumference of a circle, ≈ 2 × 3.14 × 7
use the formula: ≈ 43.96 cm
Circumference (C) = 2πr So, the circumference is
Given: approximately 43.96 cm.
Radius (r) = 7 cm For exact calculations, keep π as a
Plug in the value: symbol:
C = 2πr C = 2π(7)
=2×π×7 = 14π cm
Remember, π ≈ 3.14 (or 22/7).

*Trigonometry*

1. If sin(x) = 3/5, find cos(x).

Using the Pythagorean identity:

sin²(x) + cos²(x) = 1

Given: = 16/25
sin(x) = 3/5 Take the square root:
Square both sides: cos(x) = ±√(16/25)
(3/5)² + cos²(x) = 1 = ±4/5
9/25 + cos²(x) = 1 Since cosine is positive in the first and
Subtract 9/25 from both sides: fourth quadrants, we'll assume:
cos²(x) = 1 - 9/25 cos(x) = 4/5
= (25 - 9) / 25 So, the value of cos(x) is 4/5

2. Find the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs 3 cm and 4 cm.

Using the Pythagorean theorem:

c = √25
a² + b² = c² = 5 cm
where:
a = 3 cm (one leg) So, the length of the hypotenuse is 5
b = 4 cm (other leg) cm.
c = hypotenuse (unknown)
Alternatively, you can use:
Plug in the values: c = √(a² + b²)
= √(3² + 4²)
3² + 4² = c² = √(9 + 16)
9 + 16 = c² = √25
25 = c² = 5 cm
Take the square root:
 *Word Problems*

1. A book costs ₱250. If a 10% discount is applied, how much will you pay?
To find the discount amount:

Discount = Price x Discount percentage

= 250 x 10%
= 250 x 0.10 Alternatively, calculate the new price
= 25 pesos directly:

Subtract the discount from the New price = Original price x (1 -

original price: Discount percentage)
= 250 x (1 - 0.10)
New price = Original price - Discount = 250 x 0.90
= 250 - 25 = 225 pesos
= 225 pesos
Either way, the answer is 225 pesos.
So, you'll pay 225 pesos.

2. A bakery sells 250 loaves of bread per day. If each loaf costs ₱50, how much is
the total daily revenue?

To find the total daily revenue:

Total daily revenue = Number of loaves sold × Price per loaf
= 250 loaves × 50 pesos/loaf
= 12,500 pesos
Either way, the answer remains the
So, the bakery's total daily revenue is same.
12,500 pesos.
Tip: You can also calculate:
Alternatively, calculate: Average daily sales per loaf = Total
daily revenue ÷ Number of loaves
Total daily revenue = 250 × 50 sold
= 12,500 pesos = 12,500 ÷ 250
= 50 pesos (matches the price per
loaf)
3. A car travels 250 km in 5 hours. What is its average speed?
To find the average speed:

Average speed = Total distance ÷ Total time

= 259 km ÷ 5 hrs
= 51.8 km/h Alternatively, calculate:

So, the car's average speed is Average speed = 259 km ÷ 5 hrs

approximately 51.8 kilometers per = 51.8 km/h (or 32.1 mph)
hour.
You can also express average speed in
other units, such as:
meters per second (m/s)
miles per hour (mph)
kilometers per hour (km/h).

*Biology*

1. What is the primary function of the mitochondria in cellular respiration?

 The primary function of mitochondria in cellular respiration is to generate
energy for the cell through the process of oxidative phosphorylation.
Mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell.
Key Functions:
1. Cellular respiration: Mitochondria convert glucose into energy (ATP)
through aerobic respiration.
2. Oxidative phosphorylation: Mitochondria produce ATP by transferring
electrons from high-energy molecules (NADH and FADH2) to oxygen.
3. Energy production: Mitochondria generate approximately 90% of the
cell's ATP.
4. Regulation of energy metabolism: Mitochondria regulate energy
production based on cellular energy demands.
Mitochondrial Processes:
1. Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle): Mitochondria convert acetyl-CoA into
ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
 2. Electron transport chain: Mitochondria generate ATP through electron
transfer from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen.
3. Chemiosmosis: Mitochondria use the energy from electron transport to
produce ATP. Importance:
1. Energy supply: Mitochondria provide energy for cellular processes.
2. Cell growth and maintenance: Mitochondria support cell growth, division,
and maintenance.
3. Cell signaling: Mitochondria participate in cell signaling pathways.
Dysfunction:
1. Mitochondrial diseases: Mitochondrial dysfunction leads to diseases like
mitochondrial myopathies and neurodegenerative disorders.
2. Aging: Mitochondrial decline contributes to aging and age-related
diseases.
3. Cancer: Mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated in cancer development
and progression. In summary, mitochondria play a crucial role in cellular
respiration, generating energy for the cell through oxidative
phosphorylation. Their dysfunction can lead to various diseases and
disorders.
2. Describe the process of photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis is the process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria
convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy in the form of
glucose (sugar).
This process occurs in specialized organelles called chloroplasts and
involves the following steps:
Step 1: Light Absorption - Light energy from the sun is absorbed by
pigments (chlorophyll, carotenoids) in the thylakoid membrane. - Energy is
transferred to electron acceptors, initiating an electron transport chain.
Step 2: Water Splitting (Photolysis) - Water molecules (H2O) are split into
oxygen (O2), protons (H+), and electrons. - Oxygen is released as a
byproduct.
Step 3: Electron Transport Chain - Electrons flow through a series of
electron carriers, generating a proton gradient. - Protons accumulate in the
thylakoid lumen.
Step 4: ATP Synthesis - Protons flow back across the thylakoid membrane,
driving ATP synthesis. - ATP is produced from ADP and Pi.
Step 5: Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions) - CO2 is fixed into
organic compounds using the energy from ATP and NADPH. - Glucose
(C6H12O6) is produced through a series of reactions.
 Step 6: Glucose Synthesis - Glucose is synthesized from ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP) and CO2. - Glucose is stored in plant cells or used for
energy production.
Overall Equation: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 (glucose) +
6 O2
Importance:
1. Produces oxygen for aerobic organisms.
2. Supports food chain by producing glucose.
3. Regulates Earth's climate by removing CO2.
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:
1. Light intensity 4. CO2 concentration
2. Temperature 5. Nutrient availability
3. Water availability

Types of Photosynthesis:
1. Oxygenic photosynthesis (plants, algae)
2. Anoxygenic photosynthesis (bacteria)
Interesting Facts:
1. Photosynthesis produces 100 billion metric tons of glucose annually.
2. Phytoplankton account for 50-85% of Earth's photosynthesis.
3. Photosynthesis is responsible for the oxygen in our atmosphere. In
summary, photosynthesis is the vital process by which plants and other
organisms convert light energy into chemical energy, supporting life on
Earth.
3. Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells are two fundamental types of cellular life
forms.
Eukaryotic Cells
1. Complex cells with membrane-bound organelles
2. True nucleus with linear DNA
3. Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other organelles
4. Cytoskeleton for shape and movement
5. Membrane-bound vesicles for transport and storage
Examples: - Animals - Plants - Fungi - Protists
Prokaryotic Cells
1. Simple cells without membrane-bound organelles
2. No true nucleus; circular DNA
3. No mitochondria or chloroplasts
4. Peptidoglycan cell wall
5. No membrane-bound vesicles
 Examples: - Bacteria - Archaea
Key Differences:
1. Nucleus: Eukaryotes have a true nucleus, prokaryotes do not.
2. Organelles: Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles, prokaryotes do
not.
3. Cell Size: Eukaryotes are generally larger than prokaryotes.
4. Cell Division: Eukaryotes undergo mitosis, prokaryotes undergo binary
fission.
5. Metabolic Processes: Eukaryotes have more complex metabolic pathways.
Similarities:
1. Both have DNA as genetic material
2. Both have ribosomes for protein synthesis
3. Both have cell membranes
4. Both respond to stimuli
5. Both maintain homeostasis
Evolutionary Relationship: Eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes
approximately 2 billion years ago. Importance:
Understanding the differences and similarities between eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells helps us: 1. Appreciate cellular diversity 2. Understand
evolutionary relationships 3. Develop antibiotics targeting prokaryotic cells
4. Study cellular biology and biochemistry 5. Explore origins of life on Earth
4. What is the role of DNA in genetic inheritance?
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) plays a crucial role in genetic inheritance by:
1. Encoding genetic information: DNA contains instructions for the
development, growth, and function of organisms.
2. Transmitting traits: DNA passes genetic information from parents to
offspring.
3. Determining characteristics: DNA influences physical and biological
traits, such as eye color, height, and susceptibility to diseases.
4. Providing genetic variation: DNA mutations and recombination introduce
genetic diversity.
5. Regulating gene expression: DNA controls gene transcription and
translation. DNA Structure - Double helix model - Nucleotides (A, C, G, T)
- Base pairing (A-T, G-C)
Genetic Inheritance Process
1. Replication: DNA replicates before cell division.
2. Mutation: Changes in DNA sequence occur.
3. Recombination: DNA segments exchange during meiosis.
4. Inheritance: Offspring inherit DNA from parents.
5. Expression: DNA influences trait development.
 Key Concepts
1. Mendelian laws
2. Genotype and phenotype 3. Dominant and recessive traits
4. Incomplete dominance and codominance
5. Polygenic inheritance
DNA's Role in Inheritance
1. Autosomal dominant/recessive traits
2. Sex-linked traits (X-linked, Y-linked)
3. Mitochondrial DNA inheritance
4. Epigenetic inheritance (gene regulation)
Importance
1. Understanding genetic disorders
2. Genetic engineering and biotechnology
3. Forensic science and DNA profiling
4. Evolutionary studies
5. Personalized medicine
Interesting Facts
1. DNA is approximately 2 meters long in a single human cell.
2. The human genome contains around 3 billion base pairs.
3. DNA replication occurs at a rate of 1,000 nucleotides per minute.
4. Genetic information is passed down through generations. In
summary, DNA plays a central role in genetic inheritance by
encoding, transmitting, and expressing genetic information,
influencing traits and characteristics.

5. Identify the different types of ecosystems.

 RNA (Ribonucleic acid) and DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) are two
fundamental nucleic acids essential for life. Here's a comparison:
 Similarities:
1. Both contain genetic information
2. Composed of nucleotides (A, C, G, U/T)
3. Sugar-phosphate backbone
4. Store and transmit genetic data
Differences:
1. Structure:
* DNA: Double-stranded, double helix
* RNA: Single-stranded, helical
2. Sugar:
* DNA: Deoxyribose
* RNA: Ribose
 3. Bases:
* DNA: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T)
RNA: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Uracil (U)
4. Stability:
* DNA: More stable, less prone to hydrolysis
* RNA: Less stable, more prone to hydrolysis
5. Function:
* DNA: Genetic information storage and transmission
* RNA: Protein synthesis, gene regulation, and catalysis
6. Replication:
* DNA: Replicates before cell division
* RNA: Synthesized from DNA template (transcription)
7. Location:
* DNA: Found in nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts
* RNA: Found in cytoplasm, nucleus, and mitochondria
Types of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
4. Small nuclear RNA (snRNA)
5. MicroRNA (miRNA)
Types of DNA:
1. Autosomal DNA
2. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
3. Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA)
Key Functions:
DNA:
1. Genetic information storage 2. Replication 3. Transcription
RNA: 1. Protein synthesis (translation) 2. Gene regulation 3. Catalysis
(ribozymes) In summary, while both RNA and DNA contain genetic
information, they differ in structure, composition, stability, and
function

*Chemistry*

1. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule?

 Atoms and molecules are the basic building blocks of matter, but they differ
in composition and properties.
Atom:
1. Smallest unit of a chemical element
 2. Consists of protons, neutrons, and electrons
3. Has a specific atomic number (number of protons)
4. Can exist independently
Molecule:
1. Group of two or more atoms bonded together
2. Can be composed of atoms of the same element (e.g., O2) or
different elements (e.g., H2O)
3. Has a specific molecular formula (e.g., H2O)
4. Exhibits properties distinct from individual atoms
Key differences:
1. Composition: Atoms are single elements, while molecules are
combinations of atoms.
2. Bonding: Atoms share electrons to form molecules.
3. Properties: Molecules exhibit unique physical and chemical
properties.
4. Size: Molecules are larger than atoms.
Types of bonds:
1. Covalent bonds (sharing electrons)
2. Ionic bonds (electrostatic attraction)
3. Hydrogen bonds (weak electrostatic attraction)
4. Van der Waals bonds (weak intermolecular forces)
Examples: Atoms: - Hydrogen (H) - Oxygen (O) - Carbon (C)
Molecules: - Water (H2O) - Carbon dioxide (CO2) - Ammonia (NH3)
Understanding the difference between atoms and molecules is crucial in:
1. Chemistry: Predicting properties and behavior.
2. Biology: Understanding cellular processes and biomolecules.
3. Materials Science: Designing materials with specific properties.
4. Physics: Studying atomic and molecular interactions.

2. Describe the periodic table and its significance.

 The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of elements, organized by their
atomic number (number of protons), electron configuration, and recurring
chemical properties.
Structure:
1. Rows: Periods (horizontal)
2. Columns: Groups (vertical) or Families
3. Blocks: s, p, d, f (based on electron configuration)
Key Features:
1. Metals (left and center)
2. Nonmetals (right)
 3. Metalloids (border between metals and nonmetals)
4. Noble Gases (far right)
5. Halogens (column 17)
6. Alkali Metals (column 1)
7. Alkaline Earth Metals (column 2)
Significance:
1. Predicts chemical behavior: Elements in the same group exhibit similar
properties.
2. Organizes elements: Logical arrangement by atomic number and electron
configuration.
3. Identifies relationships: Reveals connections between elements.
4. Facilitates discovery: Helps predict properties of undiscovered elements.
5. Essential tool: For chemists, physicists, and materials scientists.
6. Unifies chemistry: Demonstrates periodicity in chemical properties.
Periodic Trends:
1. Atomic radius: Decreases from left to right, increases down a group.
2. Electronegativity: Increases from left to right, decreases down a group.
3. Ionization energy: Increases from left to right, decreases down a group.
4. Electron affinity: Increases from left to right, decreases down a group.
Applications:
1. Materials science: Develops new materials with specific properties.
2. Chemistry: Predicts reaction outcomes and synthesizes compounds.
3. Biology: Understands biochemical processes and biomolecules.
4. Physics: Studies atomic and subatomic particles.
5. Engineering: Designs new technologies and products.
Interesting Facts:
1. Dmitri Mendeleev predicted undiscovered elements.
2. The periodic table has undergone several revisions.
3. There are 118 known elements (as of 2022).
4. New elements are still being discovered and added.

4. What is the concept of acid-base neutralization?

 Acid-base neutralization is a chemical reaction where an acid and a base
react to form a salt and water, resulting in a neutral solution.
The reaction involves: Acid (H+ donor) + Base (OH- acceptor) → Salt +
Water Key aspects:
1. Acid donates H+ ions (protons).
2. Base accepts H+ ions, forming OH- ions (hydroxide).
3. Neutralization occurs when H+ and OH- combine, forming water (H2O).
4. Salt formation: Remaining ions combine to form a salt.
 Example: HCl (acid) + NaOH (base) → NaCl (salt) + H2O (water)
.

*Physics*

1. What is the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration?

 The relationship between force, mass, and acceleration is described by
Newton's Second Law of Motion: Force (F) = Mass (m) x Acceleration (a) F
= ma
This equation states:
1. Force (F) is the push or pull acting on an object.
2. Mass (m) is the object's resistance to changes in motion.
3. Acceleration (a) is the rate of change of velocity.
Key aspects:
1. Force and acceleration are directly proportional.
2. Mass is inversely proportional to acceleration (for a given force).
3. The greater the mass, the less acceleration (for a given force).
4. The greater the force, the greater the acceleration (for a given mass).
Examples:
1. Doubling the force doubles the acceleration (if mass remains constant).
2. Doubling the mass halves the acceleration (if force remains constant).
Units: 1. Force: Newtons
2. Mass: Kilograms (kg)
3. Acceleration: Meters per second squared (m/s²)
Applications:
1. Physics and engineering
2. Space exploration
3. Automotive industry
4. Sports and athletics Newton's Second Law has far-reaching implications
in understanding motion and the behavior of objects under various forces.