RESEARCH

METHODS WITH
APPLIED
STATISTICS

Almhyn B. Jusain
 A variable varies and has values. The values of
variables under study are the research data.

Are these variables? color, chair, shape of table, FB

reactions, shirt style.

How are these different?

Quantitative and qualitative variables
Discrete and continuous variables

Variables
ACTIVITY TWO • Type of crime

Which goes • Availability of Internet

Connection in BJMP
where? •
•
Time
Severity of offense
AGE GRADE LEVEL GENDER
• Test Score
• Position in PNP
• Frequency of criminal incidents
• Height of PDLs
• Cellphone number of victims
• Level of punishment

Classify the variables at the right based on their “likelihood” to the

three others in the color-coded columns.
 A variable varies and has values. The values of
variables under study are the research data.

Are these variables? chair, shape of table, tweet,

shirt style. Classifying Variables
according to Scales of
Measure

Variables ORDINAL
NOMINAL
RATIO
INTERVAL
IDENTITY MAGNITUDE EQUAL INTERVALS ABSOLUTE ZERO
 Nominal scale is characterized by data that consist of
names, labels, or categories only.

Ordinal scale involves data that may be arranged in some

order but differences between data values either cannot
be determined or meaningless.

Interval scale is data for which we can determine

meaningful amounts of differences between data.
However there is no inherent zero starting point.

Ratio scale is the interval scale to include the inherent zero

Variables starting point. For these values, differences and ratios are
both meaningful.
 Qualitative
variable; Quantitative
Represents variables;
the Either integer
characteristics or real value
of the object

Variables
 Nominal

1.Crime Types
2.Offender demographics
3.Criminal Behavior
4.Victimization
5.Criminal Justice System
6.Societal Factors
7.Psychological Factors
Variables 8.Environmental Factors
 Ordinal

1.Gang Involvement Level

2.Severity of Crime
3.Education level
4.Socio economic status
5.Criminal Justice System satisfaction
6.Perceived Neighborhood Safety

Variables
 Interval

1. distance between criminal incidents,

2. years of education,
3. time since last criminal offense,
temperature at crime scene,
4. length of court proceedings

Variables
 Ratio

1.number of prior convictions,

2. length of imprisonment,
3.number of offenses committed,
4.financial losses due to crime,
5.number of arrest made,
6.duration of probation or parole

Variables
Quantitive Research
Its STRENGTHS and
WEAKNESSES
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ✓ Collecting numeric data from a large
✓ Describing trends or an explanation of number of people using instruments
the relationship among variables ✓ Using statistical analysis, and
✓ Providing a major role for the interpreting results by comparing
literature them with prior predictions and past
✓ Creating specific, narrow, measurable, research
and observable purpose statements, ✓ Writing the research report using
research questions, and hypotheses. standard, fixed structure. Approach is
unbiased.
Quantitative Research Designs

Studying Correla
relationships Manipulating
tional Experi conditions and
mental studying effects

Describing Descrip
characteristics tive
attempts to establish
Causal
Comparati cause-effect
ve relationships by
comparing groups
Quantitative Research Designs
Descriptive
TYPES
Research
This design aims to
Observational Survey research
describe systematically methods Case Studies designs involves
the facts and are used to Involves an in- administering a
document and depth study of an survey to a sample
characteristics of a describe animal individual or a or the entire
given population or and human small group of population of
area of interest, behavior in a individuals people to describe
natural or artificial the attitudes,
factually and environment. opinions,
accurately behaviors, or
characteristics of
the population
 Survey research TYPES
designs

Cross-sectional survey is used Longitudinal survey designs

Use it when… when the researcher collects involves the survey
• Describing trends data at one point in time. The procedure of collecting data
• Determining purpose is to examines current about trends with the same
individual opinions attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or population, changes in a
about policy practices cohort group or
issues subpopulation, or changes in
• Identifying Compare two or more groups a panel group of the same
important beliefs in terms of attitudes, beliefs, individuals over time.
and attitudes of opinions, or practices.
individuals
Evaluates a program.
Quantitative Research Designs
Correlational TYPES
Research
Explanatory research Prediction research
design determines the design seeks to
aims to describe and extent to which two identify variables that
measure the degree of variables (or more) co- will predict an
association between vary. outcome or criterion.
two or more variables
Co-vary means to predict Variables can be the
or sets of scores. a score on one variable predictor variable or
with knowledge about the criterion variable.
the individual’s score on
another variable.
Quantitative Research Designs
Causal TYPES
Comparative Exploration of
Exploration Exploration of
Effects causes consequences
attempts to (dependent
(dependent (independent
establish cause- variable) variable) of variable) of an
effect relationships Caused by group of intervention
by comparing membership in a membership
given group
groups.
Quantitative Research Designs
Experimental
Research Variables that cause
change in the subject.
Independent
An experiment tests an variable
idea to determine whether
it influences an outcome.
Used when the researcher
wants to establish possible Dependent
cause and effect between variable Variables that bear or
variables. manifest the effects
caused by the
independent variable.
 Experimental TYPES
Research Designs

In true experiments, the Quasi-experiments include

researcher randomly assigns assignment, but not random
participants to different assignment of participants to
conditions of the groups.
experimental variable.
EG: O1 x O2
EG: R O1 x O2 CG: O1 x O2
CG: R O1 x O2
Experimental
group post-
(treatment pretest
Control group test
treatment
group)
(non-treatment
group) Randomization
(assigning
individuals
 Data Collection Tools & Technique
and Steps of Data Collection
ALMHYN B. JUSAIN

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Data and Data Collection
Data are units of information, often numeric, that are
collected through observation.

Data collection is the process by which the researcher

collect the information needed to answer the research
problems.

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Types of data
1. By nature 3. Sources of data/Origin of
• Qualitative data

• Quantitative • Community

2. By purpose of collection • Hospital / clinic

• Primary • Laboratory

• Secondary

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Primary Data
The data collected for the first time are called primary data.

The methods mostly used in collecting primary data are survey,

observation and experiment.

Generally, all these methods are not used in a same project, because
they have both good and bad aspects.

The question which method of primary data collection should be

selected depends on the nature, time and cost.

The method should be selected according to the nature, time and cost.

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Secondary Data
The data used once are called secondary data.

It becomes much easier to collect secondary data than

the primary ones.

Secondary data can be collected from several sources.

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Qualitative data
Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in
nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and sentences.

Often, such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of

something.

Qualitative approaches aim to address the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of a program and
tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the topic.

Qualitative questions are open-ended.

Qualitative methods include focus groups, group discussions and interviews.

They are, however, expensive and time consuming to implement

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Quantitative data
Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed.

Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as

nominal scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often, such data
includes measurements of something.

Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’ of the program.

Quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to

implement, are standardized so comparisons can be easily made and the size of
the effect can usually be measured.

Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the

investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences

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Requirement of data for the researcher
Purpose/Objectives
• IndicatorsVariables
• Data
• Techniques & Tools

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Data collection Tools
The instruments or aids that we use for the purpose of
collecting and/or recording the data are called data collection
tools.

Questionnaire

Observation checklist

Guidelines (such as FGD guidelines, KII guideline etc)

Survey etc

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TOOLS PREPARATION FOR DATA COLLECTION
Data collected on tools like Qestionnaires or schedules.

Objectives of the study to be kept in mind

Type of participants, nature of information and method of

analysis to kept in mind

List of variables to be prepared

Logical sequencing has to adopted

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Data Collection Techniques
Data collection techniques allow us to systematically collect
information about our objects of study (people, objects,
phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic.

If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our

research questions in a conclusive way.

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Various data collection techniques can be used such
as:
• Using available information
• Observing
• Interviewing (face-to-face)
• Administering written questionnaires
• Focus group discussions
• Social mapping
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Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument that consists of a set of questions or
other types of prompts that aims to collect information from a respondent.

Often a questionnaire uses both open and closed questions to collect data.

The data collected from a data collection questionnaire can be both qualitative
as well as quantitative in nature.

A verbatim response refers to what an interviewer records as an answer to an

open-ended question when writing down the exact words spoken by the
respondent which helps to give the qualitative information on research.

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Observation
Observation method of information gathering is used by monitoring
participants in a specific situation or environment at a given time and
day.

Basically, researchers observe the behaviour of the surrounding

environments or people that are being studied.

This type of study can be:

• Controlled
• Natural
• Participant

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Cont…
• Controlled observation is when the researcher uses a standardised
procedure of observing participants or the environment.

• Natural observation is when participants are being observed in their

natural conditions.

• Participant observation is where the researcher becomes part of the

group being studied.

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Observation checklist
An observation checklist is a set of questions that
evaluate the performance and behavior of teachers and
students in a classroom setting.

Observation checklists assist an observer to identify skill

gaps and problem areas to further improve teaching
strategies, classroom settings, and student learning
development.
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Interview
Interview is a qualitative method of data collection whose results
are based on intensive engagement with respondents about a
particular study. Usually, interviews are used in order to collect in-
depth responses from the professionals being interviewed.

Interview can be structured (formal), semi-structured or

unstructured (informal). In essence, an interview method of data
collection can be conducted through face-to-face meeting with
the interviewees or through telephone.

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Key informant interviews
Key informant interviews are qualitative in-
depth interviews with people who know what is going on
in the community.

The purpose of key informant interviews is to collect

information from a wide range of people including
community leaders, professionals, or residents who have
first hand knowledge about the community.
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How to Conduct the Key Informant
Interviews
Formulate study questions.

Prepare a short interview guide.

Select key informants.

Conduct interviews.

Take adequate notes.

Analyse interview data.

Check for reliability and validity.

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 A survey is a research method used for collecting data
Survey
from a predefined group of respondents to gain
information and insights into various topics of interest.

They can have multiple purposes, and researchers can

conduct it in many ways depending on the methodology
chosen and the study’s goal.

The process involves asking people for information

through a questionnaire, which can be either online or
offline.
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Focus Group Discussion
A focus group discussion involves gathering people from similar.
backgrounds or experiences together to discuss a specific topic of.
Interest

A focus group is a group interview of approximately six to twelve

people who share similar characteristics or common interests.

Focus groups are a qualitative data collection method

“perceptions attitudes, beliefs, opinion or ideas”, meaning that
the data is descriptive and cannot be measured numerically.

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Cont…
The common and simplest method for selecting
participants for focus groups is called "purposive" or
"convenience" sampling.

This means that you select those members of the

community who you think will provide you with the best
information.

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Steps of Conducting Focus Group
Discussion
Step 1: Define the Purpose

Step 2: Select the Participants and Leader

Step 3: Manage the Atmospherics

Step 4: Develop the Questions

Step 5: Conduct the Session

Step 6: Analyse the Results

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Social Mapping
Social mapping is a visual method of showing the relative
location of households and the distribution of different
people together with the social structure, groups and
organisations of an area.
Social mapping is making visible what has been invisible for a
very long time (i.e the cultural and indigenous landscapes). It
helps us understand histories and our sense of connection
with them, and provides perspectives on the future.

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Steps to Data Collection
Step 1: Clarify your data collection goals.

Step 2: Develop operational definitions and procedures.

Step 3: Validate the measurement system.

Step 4: Begin data collection.

Step 5: Continue improving measurement system and

ensure people are following the data
collection guidelines.
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The GATHER steps
G= Greet clients in an open, respectful manner

A= Ask clients about themselves and pay attention to what clients

express

T= Tell clients about the objectives of the interview

H= Help clients about to choose their answer and give their

opinion

E= Explain fully about the survey and its benefits too.

R= Return
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