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Leading S .
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Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role in management
operation. Leadership exists in any type of organization. If there is any single factor
that differentiates between successful and unsuccessful organization, it could be
considered as dynamic and effective leadership. It is the capacity of an individual to
influence and direct group effort towards the achievement of organizational goals.
“Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with
confidence and zeal.”-Koontz and O’Donnell.
“Leadership is the exercise of authority and making of decisions.” -Dubin, R.
“Leadership is the ability to secure desirable actions from a group of
followers voluntarily, without the use of coercion.”-Allford and Beaty.
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Nature and Characteristics:
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1- Leadership is a personal quality.
2. It exists only with followers. If there are no followers, there is no
leadership.
3. It is the willingness of people to follow that makes person a leader.
4. Leadership is a process of influence. A leader must be able to influence
the behaviour, attitude and beliefs of his subordinates.
5. It exists only for the realization of common goals.
6. It involves readiness to accept complete responsibility in all situations.
7. Leadership is the function of stimulating the followers to strive willingly to
attain organisational objectives.
8. Leadership styles do change under different circumstances.
9. Leadership is neither bossism nor synonymous with management.

Leadership Functions:
Following are the important functions of a leader:
1. Setting Goals:
A leader is expected to perform creative function of laying out goals and policies to
persuade the subordinates to work with zeal and confidence.
2. Organizing:
The second function of a leader is to create and shape the organisation on scientific
lines by assigning roles appropriate to individual abilities with the view to make its
various components to operate sensitively towards the achievement of enterprise
goals.
3. Initiating Action:
The next function of a leader is to take the initiative in all matters of interest to the
group. He should not depend upon others for decision and judgement. He should float
new ideas and his decisions should reflect original thinking.
4. Co-Ordination:
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A leader has to reconcile the interests of the individual members of the group with
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realizing the common objectives. NOT
that of the organisation. He has to ensure voluntary co-operation from the group in
5. Direction and Motivation:

It is the primary function of a leader to guide and direct his group and motivate
people to do their best in the achievement of desired goals. He should build up
confidence and zeal in the work group.
6. Link between Management and Workers:

A leader works as a necessary link between the management and the workers. He
interprets the policies and programmes of the management to this subordinate and
represent the subordinates’ interests before the management. He can prove effective
only when he can act as the true guardian of the interests of the subordinates.

Qualities of a Good Leader:
A successful leader secures desired behaviour from his followers. It depends upon the
quality of leadership he is able to provide. A leader to be effective must possess
certain basic qualities. A number of authors have mentioned different qualities which
a person should possess to be a good leader.
Some of the qualities of a good leader are as follows:
1. Good personality.
2. Emotional stability.
3. Sound education and professional competence.
4. Initiatives and creative thinking.
5. Sense of purpose and responsibility.
6. Ability to guide and teach.
7. Good understanding and sound judgment.
8. Communicating skill.
9. Sociable.
10. Objective and flexible approach.
11. Honesty and integrity of character.
12. Self confidence, diligence and industry.
13. Courage to accept responsibility.
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Leadership Styles or Types of Leaders:
The term ‘leadership style, refers to the consistent behaviour pattern of a leader as
perceived by people around him. Every leader develops a pattern in the way he
handles his subordinates or followers in various situations. The leadership style is the
result of the philosophy, personality and experience of the leader. It also depends
upon the types of followers and the conditions prevailing in an organisation.
I. Leadership Style Based on Attitude and Behaviour:

According to their attitude and behaviour patterns leaders are classified as under:
1. Autocratic or authoritarian style leader.
2. Laissez-faire or Free-rein style leader.
3. Democratic or participative style leader.
4. Paternalistic style leader.

1. Autocratic or Authoritarian Style Leader:
An autocratic also known as authoritarian style of leadership implies yielding absolute
power. Under this style, the leader expects complete obedience from his subordinates
and all decision-making power is centralized in the leader. No suggestions or initiative
from subordinates is entertained. The leader forces the subordinates to obey him
without questioning. An autocratic leader is, in fact, no leader. He is merely the
formal head of the organisation and is generally disliked by the subordinates. The
style of leadership may be practiced to direct those subordinates who feel
comfortable to depend completely on the leader.
2. Laissez-faire or Free-rein Style Leader:

Under this type of leadership, maximum freedom is allowed to subordinates. They are
given free had in deciding their own policies and methods and to make independent
decisions. The leader provides help only when required by his subordinates otherwise
he does not interfere in their work. The style of leadership creates self-confidence in
the workers and provides them an opportunity to develop their talents. But it may not
work under all situations with all the workers and under all situations. Such leadership
can be employed with success where workers are competent, sincere and self-
disciplined.
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3. Democratic or Participative Style Leader:
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The democratic or participative style of leadership implies compromise between the
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two extremes of autocratic and laissez-fair style of leadership. Under this style, the
supervisor acts according to the mutual consent and the decisions reached after
consulting the subordinates. Subordinates are encouraged to make suggestions and
take initiative.
It provides necessary motivation to the workers by ensuring their participation and

acceptance of work methods. Mutual trust and confidence is also created resulting in
job satisfaction and improved morale of workers. It reduces the number of
complaints, employee’s grievances, industrial unrest and strikes. But this style of
leadership may sometimes cause delay in decisions and lead to indiscipline in
workers.
4. Paternalistic Style Leader:

This style of leadership is based upon sentiments and emotions of people. A
paternalistic leader is like a father to his subordinates. He looks after the
subordinates like a father looks after his family. He helps guides and protects all of
his subordinates but under him no one grows. The subordinates become dependent
upon the leader.

II. Formal and Informal Leader:
Leadership style based on official Recognition/Relationship:
From the view point of official recognition from top management, leaders may be
classified as under:
1. Formal Leader
2. Informal Leader
1. Formal Leader:
A formal leader is one who is formally appointed or elected to direct and control the
activities of the subordinates. He is a person created by the formal structure, enjoys
organisational authority and is accountable to those who have elected him in a formal
way. The formal leader has a two-fold responsibility. On the one hand, he has to
fulfill the demands of the organisation, while on the other he is also supposed to help,
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guide and direct his subordinates in satisfying their needs and aspirations.
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2. Informal Leader:
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Informal leaders are not formally recognized. They derive authority from the people
who are under their influence. In any organisation we can always find some persons
who command respect and who are approached to help guide and protect the interest
of the people. They are known as informal leaders.
The informal leaders have only one task to perform, i.e., to help their followers in
achieving their individual and group goals. Informal leaders are created to satisfy
those needs which are not satisfied by the formal leaders. An organisation can make
effective use of informal leaders to strengthen the formal leadership.

Transactional and Transformational Leadership
Leadership can be described as transactional or transformational. Transactional

leaders focuses on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. They
are concerned about the status quo and day-to-day progress toward goals.
Transformational leaders work to enhance the motivation and engagement of
followers by directing their behavior toward a shared vision. While transactional
leadership operates within existing boundaries of processes, structures, and goals,
transformational leadership challenges the current state and is change-oriented.
Transactional Leadership
Transactional leadership promotes compliance with existing organizational goals and

performance expectations through supervision and the use of rewards and
punishments. Transactional leaders are task- and outcome-oriented. Especially
effective under strict time and resource constraints and in highly-specified projects,
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this approach adheres to the status quo and employs a form of management that pays
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close attention to how employees perform their tasks.
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Transformational Leadership NOT
Transformational leadership focuses on increasing employee motivation and
engagement and attempts to link employees’ sense of self with organizational values.
This leadership style emphasizes leading by example, so followers can identify with
the leader’s vision and values. A transformational approach focuses on individual
strengths and weaknesses of employees and on enhancing their capabilities and their
commitment to organizational goals, often by seeking their buy-in for decisions.

BASIS FOR TRANSACTIONAL
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
COMPARISON LEADERSHIP
Meaning A leadership style that employs A leadership style in which the leader
rewards and punishments for employs charisma and enthusiasm to
motivating followers is inspire his followers is
Transactional Leadership. Transformational Leadership.
Concept Leader lays emphasis on his Leader lays emphasis on the values,
relation with followers. ideals, morals and needs of the
followers.
Nature Reactive Proactive
Best suited for Settled Environment Turbulent Environment
Works for Developing the existing Changing the existing organizational

organizational culture. culture.
Style Bureaucratic Charismatic
How many leaders Only one More than One

are there in a
group?
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Focused on
Motivational tool KTU NOT

Planning and Execution
Attracting followers by putting

Innovation
Stimulating followers by setting group

their own self interest in the interest as a pr
first place.

Dimensions of Leadership
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LEADERSHIP DIMENSION shows you which “tools” you reach for most often. When your
personality profile is merged with your natural, or “default,” leadership style, you
can see your LEADERSHIP DIMENSION.
While your particular leadership gifting contains strengths worth developing and
weaknesses that warrant attention, a truly effective leader must be
MULTIDIMENSIONAL, capable of adopting leadership strategies other than their own.
The Pioneering Dimension:
Strengths and Motivators

 Action-oriented, adventurous, and drawn to new opportunities
 Dynamic and charismatic, charming others into support
 Passionate, optimistic, confident, and creative
Challenges
 Impulsive, impatient, overconfident, and outspoken
 Aggressive and overpowering under pressure
 Inconsiderate of how their impulsiveness may affect others in their wake
PIONEERING leaders would increase their effectiveness through focusing on patience,
humility and consideration in their dealings with others.
The Energizing Dimension:

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 Enthusiastic, spontaneous, outgoing, and upbeat
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 Unafraid of colorful, new ideas– generating them or embracing them
 Collaborative, open, expressive, and connected
Challenges
 Disorganized, scattered, and erratic, especially on follow- through or solitary
tasks; annoyed by analysis
 Motivated to avoid negativity, both external and internal (sensitivity to
criticism)
 Overly expressive and even frantic under pressure
ENERGIZING leaders would increase effectiveness through being more objective, and
following through on tasks.
The Affirming Dimension

 Kind and supportive, seeing the good in others
 Flexible, open, patient, easy-going, and tolerant.
 Relationship-oriented, sincere, affectionate.
Challenges
 Averse to conflict, often struggling to give negative feedback or an opposing
viewpoint

 Prone to avoiding difficult problems that may create tension
 Frustrated by analysis because of a perception that it is negative by nature.
AFFIRMING leaders would increase their effectiveness through acknowledging others’

flaws, and by confronting problems.
The Inclusive Dimension

 Good listeners who foster collaboration and understanding
 Accepting, diplomatic, patient, and dependable
 Prone to adopt a cautious, methodical pace to ensure thoughtfulness
Challenges
 Passive, often allowing others to take advantage of their patient nature
 Threatened by change or the unknown
 Prone to internalizing problems and avoiding conflict
INCLUSIVE leaders would increase their effectiveness by displaying self- confidence
and revealing their true feelings.
The Humble Dimension
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 Reliable, steady, conscientious, precise, and consistent
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 Fair-minded, practical, diligent, and thorough
 Able to discern what systems and structures would meet others’ needs
Challenges
 Overly cautious, hindering spontaneity or creativity at times
 Wary of change or “rocking the boat,” even when it may be needed
 Prone to avoid trouble, conflicts, self-expression, and exposure
HUMBLE leaders would increase their effectiveness by being decisive, showing a sense
of urgency, initiating change, and speaking up.
The Deliberate Dimension

 Disciplined leaders who provide high-quality outcomes through careful analysis
and planning
 Systematic, moderately paced, objective problem- solvers
 Accurate, valuing expertise, logic, and privacy
Challenges
 Reluctant to show emotions coupled with a distaste for vulnerability
 Stubbornly skeptic of others’ ideas, particularly if it threatens their perceived
sense of credibility
 Devoted to a comfort zone that can make them seem isolated or stagnant

DELIBERATE leaders would increase their effectiveness by acknowledging others’
feelings and looking beyond data.
The Resolute Dimension

 Tenaciously driven, with a passion for overcoming obstacles
 Independent and determined, valuing personal mastery, accomplishment, and
efficient results
Challenges
 Naturally skeptical, appearing disinterested, guarded, or serious
 Vigorous debaters, critical, with a disdain for weakness
 Self-reliant, opinionated, driven by a perception of “shoulds”
RESOLUTE leaders would increase their effectiveness by focusing on personal warmth,
tactful communication, and attention to others’ needs.
The Commanding Dimension

 Powerful, decisive leaders who possess a take-charge presence
 Competitive, driven, assertive, motivated by bottom-line results or victory
 Able to tenaciously tolerate conflict
Challenges
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 Blunt, insistent, demanding, and with an aversion to “soft” emotions
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 Forceful, pushing others at the expanse of morale
 Closed to feedback, but open to giving it
COMMANDING leaders would increase their effectiveness by focusing on patience and
empathy.
The eight dimensions can be briefly summarised as:
1. Pioneering – dynamic, charismatic, and adventurous

2. Energising – outgoing, encouraging, and spontaneous
3. Affirming – approachable, friendly, and positive
4. Inclusive – patient, accepting, and diplomatic
5. Humble –soft-spoken, precise, and modest
6. Deliberate – systematic, analytical, and cautious
7. Resolute – rational, challenging, and determined
8. Commanding –assertive, competitive, and driven

Trait Theory of Leadership
Trait Theory of Leadership is based on the assumption that people are born with
inherited traits and some traits are particularly suited to leadership. People who
make effective leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits and great
leaders has some common personality characteristics. Trait theories help us identify
traits and dispositions that are helpful when leading others. This theory as described
by Kelly (1974) attempts to classify what personal characteristics such as physical,
personality and mental, are associated with leadership success. Trait theory relies on
research that relates various traits to the success of a leader.
Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which
was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. The trait theory of leadership
focused on analyzing mental, physical and social characteristic in order to gain more
understanding of what is the characteristic or the combination of characteristics that
are common among leaders. There have been many different studies of leadership
traits and attention was put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful
leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found
with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders.
Examples of Leadership Traits:
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A lengthy list of traits has been made to describe an effective leader in terms of
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certain characteristics. Given below is a list of some traits/skills (non-
exhaustive) generally believed to be possessed by leaders. This list is non-exhaustive
as a large number of classifications exist for traits, for example Gordon Allport, an
American psychologist had identified almost 18,000 English personality-relevant
terms. A broad classification to six categories of traits is also done below:
Physical Characteristics of the Leader:
 Age
 Height
 Weight
 Alertness
 Energy
Background Characteristics of the Leader:

 Education
 Social Status
 Mobility
 Experience

Intelligence Characteristics of the Leader:
 Ability
 Judgment
 Knowledge
 Clever (intelligent)
 Conceptually skilled
 Creative
 Knowledgeable about group task
 Intellectual breadth
Personality Characteristics of the Leader:
 Aggressiveness
 Alertness
 Dominance
 Decisiveness
 Enthusiasm
 Extroversion
 Independence
 Self-confidence
 Authoritarianism
 Assertive
 Tolerant of stress
Task-Oriented Characteristics of the Leader:
 Achievement Needs
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 Responsibility
Initiative
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
 Persistence
 Ambitiousness
 Achievement-orientated
 Decisive
 Persistent
 Willingness to assume responsibility
 Organized (administrative ability)
Social Characteristics of the Leader:
 Supervisory Ability
 Popularity
 Prestige
 Tact
 Diplomacy
 Adaptability
 Cooperative
 Dependable
 Persuasive
 Socially skilled
 Emotional stability and composure
 Good interpersonal skills

Advantages of Trait Theory of Leadership:
The trait theory is naturally pleasing theory and gives constructive information about
leadership. Lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory and
it can be applied by people at all levels in all types of organizations. Managers can
utilize the information from the theory to evaluate their position in the organization
and to assess how their position can be made stronger in the organization. It serves as
a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed and
individuals can get an in-depth understanding of their identity and the way they will
affect others in the organization. This theory makes the manager aware of their
strengths and weaknesses and thus they get an understanding of how they can
develop their leadership qualities. It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of
the leader element in the leadership process.
Criticism / Arguments against - The Trait Theory of Leadership:
Many arguments are made against the leadership theory of traits The greatest
argument is that if particular traits are key differentiator of leadership, then how do
we explain people who possess these qualities but are not leaders?
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Some findings point out to the fact that leaders are intelligent individuals. But they
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do not provide any clue as to whether leaders are brighter than their followers or are
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as close to them in intelligence.
The followers have a significant effect on the job accomplished by the leader. Trait
theory completely ignores the followers and the situations that also help a leader to
be successful. To be more objective, traits of the person as well as demand of the
situation together determine the effectiveness of the leader.
Some of the personality traits are overlapping with each other. Therefore, you need
to be cautious in stating, personality or any other characteristic as a cause of
successful leadership.
Moreover the list of possible traits tends to be very long and personality traits
measurement weren't reliable across studies. More than 100 different traits of
successful leaders in various leadership positions have been identified. These
descriptions are simply generalities and there exists disagreement over which traits
are the most important for an effective leader. This theory does not offer
explanations between the relation of each characteristic and its impact on
leadership. Some of the traits may describe a successful leader but predicting
successful leaders on the basis of traits alone is not a correct approach.

The Fiedler Contingency Model
The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a
scientist who studied the personality and characteristics of leaders.
The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's
effectiveness is based on the situation. This is the result of two factors – "leadership
style" and "situational favorableness" (later called "situational control").
Situational Favorableness
"situational favorableness" of your particular situation depends on three distinct

factors:
Leader-Member Relations – This is the level of trust and confidence that your team
has in you. A leader who is more trusted and has more influence with the group is in a
more favorable situation than a leader who is not trusted.
Task Structure – This refers to the type of task you're doing: clear and structured, or
vague and unstructured. Unstructured tasks, or tasks where the team and leader have
little knowledge of how to achieve them, are viewed unfavorably.
Leader's Position Power – This is the amount of power you have to direct the group,
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and provide reward or punishment. The more power you have, the more favorable
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your situation. Fiedler identifies power as being either strong or weak.
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Leadership Style
Identifying leadership style is the first step in using the model. Fiedler believed that
leadership style is fixed, and it can be measured using a scale he developed called
Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale
The scale asks you to think about the person who you've least enjoyed working with.
This can be a person who you've worked with in your job, or in education or training.
You then rate how you feel about this person for each factor, and add up your scores.
If your total score is high, you're likely to be a relationship-orientated leader. If your
total score is low, you're more likely to be task-orientated leader.
Figure 1: Least-Preferred Co-Worker Scale
Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly
Unpleasant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pleasant
Rejecting 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Accepting
Tense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Relaxed
Cold 1
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Boring
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Backbiting
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1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
Interesting
Loyal
Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative
Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive
Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
Insincere 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Sincere
Unkind 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kind
Inconsiderate 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Considerate
Untrustworthy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Trustworthy
Gloomy 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cheerful
Quarrelsome 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Harmonious

The model says that task-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more negatively,
resulting in a lower score. Fiedler called these low LPC-leaders. He said that low LPCs
are very effective at completing tasks. They're quick to organize a group to get tasks
and projects done. Relationship-building is a low priority.
However, relationship-oriented leaders usually view their LPCs more positively, giving
them a higher score. These are high-LPC leaders. High LPCs focus more on personal
connections, and they're good at avoiding and managing conflict. They're better able
to make complex decisions.
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Controlling
Controlling is one of the managerial functions and it is an important element of the
management process. After the planning, organising, staffing and directing have been
carried out, the final managerial function of controlling assures that the activities
planned are being accomplished or not.
So the function of controlling helps to achieve the desired goals by planning.

Management must, therefore, compare actual results with pre-determined standards
and take corrective action of necessary.
Control can be defined as the process of analysing whether actions are being
taken as planned and taking corrective actions to make these to confirm to
planning.
The managerial function of controlling is defined by Koontz and O’Donnell,” as the

measurement and correction to the performance of activities of subordinates in
order to make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans devised to attain
them are being accomplished.”?
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Management control is the process by which managers assure that resources are
obtained and used effectively and efficiently in the accomplishment of the
organisation’s objectives. Further, it is defined as the process by which managers in
the organisation assure that activities and efforts are producing the desired objectives
in the organisation. These definitions imply three main points about management
control.
First, management control is a process of some inter-related and sequential steps,

secondly, management control in the organisation aims at effectiveness and
efficiency in the acquisition and utilisation of resources such as money, materials,
machinery and manpower. Thirdly, management control in the organisation is
designed to further objectives of the organisation.

Nature of Controlling:
1. Control is a Function of Management:Actually control is a follow-up action to the

other functions of management performed by managers to control the activities
assigned to them in the organisation.
2. Control is Based on Planning:Control is designed to evaluate actual performance
against predetermined standards set-up in the organisation. Plans serve as the
standards of desired performance. Planning sets the course in the organisation and
control ensures action according to the chosen course of action in the organisation.
3. Control is a Dynamic Process:It involves continuous review of standards of
performance and results in corrective action, which may lead to changes in other
functions of management.
4. Information is the Guide to Control:Control depends upon the information
regarding actual performance. Accurate and timely availability of feedback is
essential for effective control action. An efficient system of reporting is required for a
sound control system. This requires continuing monitoring and review of operations.
5. The Essence of Control is Action:The performance of control is achieved only
when corrective action is taken on the basis of feedback information. It is only action,
which adjust performance to predetermined standards whenever deviations occur. A
good system of control facilities timely action so that there is minimum waste of time
and energy.
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6. It is a Continuous Activity:Control is not a one-step process but a continuous
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process. It involves constant revision and analysis of standards resulting from the
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deviations between actual and planned performance.
7. Delegation is the key to Control:An executive can take corrective action only
when he has been delegated necessary authority for it. A person has authority to
control these functions for which he is directly accountable. Moreover, control
becomes necessary when authority is delegated because the delegator remains
responsible for the duty. Control standards help a manger expand his span of
management.
8. Control Aims at Future:Control involves the comparison between actual and
standards. So corrective action is designed to improve performance in future.
9. Control is a Universal Function of Management:Control is a basic or primary
function of management. Every manager has to exercise control over the
subordinates’ performance, no manager can get things done without the process of
controlling. Once a plan becomes operational, follow-up action is required to measure
progress, to uncover deficiencies and to take corrective actions.
Therefore, control is an essential managerial function at every level. The process of
management is incomplete without controlling.
10. Controlling is Positive:The function of controlling is positive. It is to make things
happen i.e. to achieve the goal with instead constraints, or by means of the planned
activities. Controlling should never be viewed as being negative in character.

Principles of Controlling:
The followings are the principles of controlling:
1. Objectives:Controls must positively contribute to the achievement of group goals

by promptly and accurately detecting deviations from plans with a view to making
corrective action possible.
2. Interdependence of Plans and Controls:The principles of interdependence states
that more the plans are clear, complete and integrated, and the more that controls
are designed to reflect such plans, the more effectively controls will serve the need
of managers.
3. Control Responsibility:According to this principle, the primary responsibility for
the exercise of controls rests in the manager charged with the performance of the
particular plans involved.
4. Principal of Controls being in Conformity to Organisation Pattern:Controls must
be designed so as to reflect the character and structure of plans. If the organisation is
clear and responsibility for work done is well defined, control becomes more effective
and it is simple to isolated persons responsible for deviations.
5. Efficiency of Controls:Control techniques and approaches are effectively detect
deviations from plans and make possible corrective actions with the minimum of
unsought consequences.
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6. Future-oriented Controls:It stresses that controls should be forward looking.
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Effective controls should be aimed at preventing present and future deviations from
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plans.
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7. Individuality of Controls:Control should be designed to meet the individual
requirements of managers in the organisation. Although some control techniques and
information can be utilised in the same form by various types of enterprises and
managers as a general rule controls should be tailored to meet the specific
requirements.
8. Strategic Point Control:Effective and efficient control requires that attention to
be given to those factors which are strategic to the appraisal of performance.
9. The Exception Principle:The exception principles whereby exceptions to the
standards are notified, should be adopted. Note must be taken of the varying nature
of exceptions, as “small” exceptions in certain areas may be of greater significance
than ‘larger’ exceptions elsewhere.
10. Principal of Review:The control system should be reviewed periodically. The
review exercise may take some or all the points emphasised in the above stated
principles. Besides, flexibility and economical nature or controls, should not be lost
sight of while reviewing controls.

Aims of Controlling:
The aims of controlling are listed as follows:
1. To find out the progress of the work—the work already completed and the work in
progress.
2. To compare the actual performance of the work at different stages with the
particulars indicated in the plans and policies.
3. To ascertain the time within which the work is completed.
4. To verify quantity and testing quality of the products.
5. To know the delays or interruptions, if any, in the performance of work and trace
the cause of such delay or breakdown.
6. To see that causes of delay are eradicated and operations are suitably re-
scheduled.
7. To ensure that variations in the contents and methodology of work are remedied by
appropriate adjustments.
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8. To assess the cost of materials and labour used and ensure that direct costs and
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indirect costs do not exceed the budget provisions.
9. To pinpoint the responsibility on individuals at different levels for slackness,
indifference, or negligence, if any in the expected levels of performance.
10. To evaluate the value of the work performed and recognize the contributions of
the staff towards realisation of the goals of the enterprise.
11. To maintain discipline and morale in the organisation.

Benefits of Controlling:
Following are the advantages of an effective system of control:
1. Control provides the basis for future action in the organisation. Control will reduce
the chances of mistakes being repeated in future by suggesting preventive methods.
2. Control facilities decision making in the organization. The process of control is
complete only when corrective measures are taken in the organization. This requires
taking a right decision as to what type of follow up action is to be taken while
controlling.
3. An effective system of control facilities decentralization of authority only when
corrective measures are taken. This requires taking a right decision as to what type of
follow up action is to be taken regarding control.
4. Control and planning go hand in hand in the organisation. Control is the only means
to ensure that the plans are being implemented in real sense and not some other else.
Control points out the shortcomings of not only planning but also other functions of
management such as organising, staffing and directing in the organisation.
5. The existence of a control system has a positive impact on the behavior of the
employees in the organisation. They are cautious when performing the duties in the
organization and they know that their supervisors in the organisation are observing
them.
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6. Control helps in coordination of the activities of the various departments in the
organisation of the enterprise by providing them unity of direction.
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Limitations of Controlling:
A control system may be faced with the following limitations:
1. An organisation cannot control the external factors such as government policy,

technological changes, fashion changes etc.
2. Control is an expensive process because sufficient attention has to be paid to
observe the performance of the subordinates in the organisation. This requires an
expenditure of a lot of time and effort to be made.
3. Control system loses its effectiveness in the organisation when standards of
performance cannot be defined in quantitative terms. For example, it is very difficult
to measure human behavior and employee morale in the organization.
4. The effectiveness of control mainly depends on the acceptance of subordinates in
the organisation. They may resist control because they may feel that it will reduce or
curtail their freedom while in duty. It also loses its significance when it is not possible
to fix the accountability of the subordinates.

The Organizational Control Process
The control process involves carefully collecting information about a system, process,
person, or group of people in order to make necessary decisions about each. Managers
set up control systems that consist of four key steps:
1. Establish standards to measure performance.Within an organization's overall

strategic plan, managers define goals for organizational departments in
specific, operational terms that include standards of performance to compare
with organizational activities.
2. Measure actual performance. Most organizations prepare formal reports of

performance measurements that managers review regularly. These
measurements should be related to the standards set in the first step of the
control process. For example, if sales growth is a target, the organization
should have a means of gathering and reporting sales data.
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3. Compare performance with the standards. This step compares actual
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activities to performance standards. When managers read computer reports or
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walk through their plants, they identify whether actual performance meets,
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exceeds, or falls short of standards. Typically, performance reports simplify
such comparison by placing the performance standards for the reporting period
alongside the actual performance for the same period and by computing the
variance—that is, the difference between each actual amount and the
associated standard.
4. Take corrective actions. When performance deviates from standards,

managers must determine what changes, if any, are necessary and how to
apply them. In the productivity and quality‐centered environment, workers and
managers are often empowered to evaluate their own work. After the
evaluator determines the cause or causes of deviation, he or she can take the
fourth step—corrective action. The most effective course may be prescribed by
policies or may be best left up to employees' judgment and initiative.
These steps must be repeated periodically until the organizational goal is achieved.

Types of Control
It is also valuable to understand that, within the strategic and operational levels of
control, there are several types of control. The first two types can be mapped across
two dimensions: level of proactivity and outcome versus behavioral. The following
table summarizes these along with examples of what such controls might look like.
Feedforward control /Proactivity
Proactivity can be defined as the monitoring of problems in a way that provides their
timely prevention, rather than after the fact reaction. In management, this is known
as feedforward control; it addresses what can we do ahead of time to help our plan
succeed. The essence of feedforward control is to see the problems coming in time to
do something about them. For instance, feedforward controls include preventive
maintenance on machinery and equipment and due diligence on investments.
Concurrent Controls
The process of monitoring and adjusting ongoing activities and processes is known
as concurrent control. Such controls are not necessarily proactive, but they can
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prevent problems from becoming worse. For this reason, we often describe
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concurrent control as real-time control because it deals with the present. An example
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of concurrent control might be adjusting the water temperature of the water while
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taking a shower.
Feedback Controls
Finally, feedback controls involve gathering information about a completed activity,
evaluating that information, and taking steps to improve the similar activities in the
future. This is the least proactive of controls and is generally a basis for reactions.
Feedback controls permit managers to use information on past performance to bring
future performance in line with planned objectives.
Types and Examples of Control
Control Behavioral control Outcome control

Feed forward control Organizational culture Market demand or economic
forecasts
Concurrent control Hands-on management supervision The real-time speed of a
during a project production line
Feedback control Qualitative measures of customer Financial measures such as
satisfaction profitability, sales growth

Difference between feedback and feedforward control
S. Point of Feedback control system Feed Forward Control system

no Difference
1 Definition Systems in which corrective action is Systems in which corrective action is

taken after disturbances affect the taken before disturbances affect the
output output
2 Necessary Not required Measurable Disturbance

requirement
3 Corrective Corrective action taken after the Corrective action taken before the
action disturbance occurs on the output. actual disturbance occurs on the
output.
4 Block Diagram
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Variables are adjusted depending on Variables are adjusted based on prior
Variable errors. knowledge and predictions.
adjustment
Control as a Feedback Loop
In this latter sense, all these types of control function as a feedback mechanism to
help leaders and managers make adjustments in the strategy, as perhaps is reflected
by changes in the planning, organizing, and leading components.
Why might it be helpful for you to think of controls as part of a feedback loop in the
P-O-L-C process? Well, if you are the entrepreneur who is writing the business plan for
a completely new business, then you would likely start with the planning component
and work your way to controlling—that is, spell out how you are going to tell whether
the new venture is on track. However, more often, you will be stepping into an
organization that is already operating, and this means that a plan is already in place.
With the plan in place, it may be then up to you to figure out the organizing, leading,
or control challenges facing the organization.

Essential Requirements of a Good Control System
1. Focus on Objectives:The control system should always focus on objectives. It
should aim to achieve the objectives of the organisation.
2. Suitability:The control system should be suitable to the needs of the organisation.
3. Promptness:The control system should be prompt. That is, it should find out the
deviations quickly. This will help the management to correct the deviations
quickly.
4. Flexibility:The control system should be flexible. It should change according to the

changes in plans, situations, environments, etc. A rigid control system will always
fail. Hence flexibility is necessary for a control system.
5. Forward Looking:The control system should be forward-looking. It should forecast

the future deviations. That is, it should find out the deviations before it happens. It
should also take steps to prevent these future deviations.
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6. Economical:The control system should be economical. This means the cost of the
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control system should not be more than its benefits.
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7. Simplicity:The control system should not be complicated. It should be easy to
understand and simple to use.
8. Motivating:The control system should be motivating. That is, it should give more
importance to preventing the mistakes and less importance to punishing the
employees. So, it should encourage, not discourage the employees.
9. Suggestive:The control system should be suggestive and it should give complete

answers for the following questions :-What is the Problem?, Where is the Problem?,
How to solve the Problem?
10. Proper Standards:The control system should have proper standards. The
standards should be very clear. They should be definite, verifiable, specific and
measurable. They should not be too high or too low.

Control Techniques
Managerial control is a systematic effort to set performance standard along with

planning targets. There are various techniques of managerial control. All techniques
can be classified broadly into two categories. Such as :-
A. Budgetary control techniques

B. Non-budgetary control techniques
Budgetary control techniques
A budget is a recorded plan of action expressed in quantitative terms.

Budgetary control is derived from the concept and use of budgets.
According to George R. Terry, “Budgetary” control is a process of comparing the
actual results with the corresponding budget data in order to approve
accomplishments or to remedy differences by either adjusting the budget estimates
or correcting the cause of the difference.
There are generally four steps of modern system of budgetary control. These are
mentioned below :-
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1) Budget Policy Guidelines :- In an organisation, line managers have to base their
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expectations on various assumptions in time of preparing budgets. These assumptions
are related to economy, political trends, government policies, competitors’ actions,
strengths of organisation, basic managerial policies etc. The top management should
prepare a common set of budget policy guidelines to be followed by all managers of
middle and lower level. Budget Policy Guidelines also lay down the fundamental
targets necessary for continuous progress of the business.
2) Preparation of Budgets :- According to nature, activities and size of organisation,

different types of budget are prepared. Different departmental heads have to prepare
their own budget as per guidelines given by the top management. Thereafter the
budget committee would discuss all the budgets and observe that budgets are
prepared within the safety margin.
Let us discuss some budgets-
i) Sales budget :- Sales budget is a future estimate of expected sales. It is the

nerve center or backbone of an organisation. At the time of preparing sales
budget different factors are considered such as past sales figures, Assessment
and reports of salesmen, availability of raw materials, seasonal fluctuations,
availability of finances, and plant capacity etc. Generally sales managers have
to prepare the sales budget.

ii) Selling and Distribution Cost budget :- This budget is prepared along with the
budget. This budget breaks down the figures for selling costs and distribution
costs in groups for controlling such costs. So, this budget is to depend upon the
sales budget. Because, selling and distribution cost are changed according to
change of sales. The sales managers are responsible for preparing this budget.
iii) Production :- Production budget is also prepared in relation to the sales

budget. Production budget is the estimation of production during budget
period. Production budget includes amount of production, cost of materials,
labour, factory overheads etc. Production planning, plant capacity, stock
quantity, sales budget figures etc. are important steps to be followed in time
of preparing the production budget.
iv) Production cost budget :- In the production cost budget, the future
productions are expressed in terms of money. This budget estimates the total
amount of cost to be spent for producing the amount of goods estimated in
production budget. Production cost budget has three subsidiary budgets such as
(a) Direct materials,(b) Direct Labour, and (c) Production overheads.
v) Purchase budget :- Purchase budget is derived from the direct materials and
indirect material included by the overhead budget. This is a subsidiary budget,
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which gives the consumption of materials in the production process.
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vi) Cash budget :- After preparing all cost budgets, the cash budget is
prepared. Cash budget is the anticipated receipt and expenditure for a certain
period of time. Different sources of cash as well as various items of
expenditure are anticipated in cash budget.
vii) Master budget :- It is a budget for the organisation as a whole. Master

budget shows the expected overall effect. It is prepared in the form of
projected profit and loss account for the organisation. By the master budget
the top management tries to match with the goals set earlier.
3) Reporting of variance :- Cost variance is the difference between a budgeted cost

and an actual cost. There are mainly three cost variance. such as material cost
variance, labour cost variance and overhead cost variance. On the basis of variance
analysis, the managers can take immediate corrective action. The managing director
can know the overall position of the organisation from the report of variance.
Generally the performance is measured against the budget and the variance is
calculated by the budget department under the control of budget officer.
4) Review and Follow-up :- It is an important step in budgetary control process.

Generally, the budget committee meets periodically to review the performance of

various departments. If this review and follow-up action is neglected, then no system
of budgetary becomes effective.
Objectives of budgetary control:
i) Ensure planning :- The main objectives of budgetary control is to ensure planning

through different budgets.
ii) Coordinate the activities: - Another objective of budgetary control is to coordinate

the different activities of different departments.
iii) Operation of cost center :- By the budgetary control, various cost centers and
departments can operate with efficiency and economy.
iv) Eliminate wastes :- As a result of budgetary control, an organisation can eliminate

its wastes and unnecessary cost, which can ultimately increase profitability.
v) Capital expenditure : Budgetary control can anticipate capital expenditure of an

enterprise for the future.
vi) Control : Budgetary control can centralise the control system of an organisation.
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vii) Correction : Different corrective measures can be adopted, which can minimise
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the deviations from the standards established earlier.
viii) Responsibility : By the budgetary control the responsibility of different employees

and officers can be fixed.
In budgetary control, we use following techniques:
1. Variance Analysis
First of all, budgets of different departments are made with estimated figures. After
this, it is compared with actual accounting figures. In this technique, we find
variances. These variances may be favourable and unfavourable. For example, we
have recorded actual quantity and cost of our raw material, after this, it is compared
with budgeted value of raw material quantity and cost. Result of this will be material
cost variance. Like this, we will find the variance of labour cost and overhead cost.
This technique of budgetary control is helpful for reducing the cost of business.
2. Responsibility Accounting
Responsibility accounting is also a good budgetary control technique. In this

technique, we create cost centre, profit centre and investment centre. All these
centres are just like department of any organisation. Now, we classify our all
employees work on the basis of their centres. Every employee’s responsibility is fixed
on the basis of his target or performance. After this, we record their performance
manually. Then, we fix their accountability. For example, we have fixed the target of
sales department is of Rs. 5 Lakh per month. For this, we have appointed expert
salesman. But sales department’s total per month sales is Rs. 3 Lakh which is Rs. 2
Lakh less than our sales department target. Through this budgetary control, we can
take the decision of promotion and demotion of our employees or find other reasons if
we do not obtain our targets.
3. Adjustment of Funds
In this technique of budgetary control, top management take the decision to adjust
fund from one project to other project. For example, when Govt. of India makes
budget for allocation of its total fund in different projects, at that time, it has to take
decision for adjustment of funds. For example, railway department needs money for
specific new project. If Govt. of India sees that project of IT has excess money, then
it can be utilized for railway budget. In adjustment of funds, we also use fund flow
analysis. We can also decrease misuse of funds by forecasting proper amount.
4. Zero Base Budgeting (ZBB)
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These days zero base budgeting is popular technique of budgetary control. In this
technique, every next year budget is made on nil base. It can only be possible, if your
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estimated income will be equal to the estimated expenses. At that time, difference
between estimated income and estimated expenses will be zero. If there is any
excess, it will be adjusted. For example, if your estimated revenue is more than
estimated expenses, you need to increase the amount or allocate in new estimated
expenses. With this, nothing will go to next year. With zero base budgeting
technique, you can control on every money which you have to spend. Its base will be
the current year income only.
5. Planning-programming Budgetary systems (PPBS)
The PPBS is a formal, systematic structure for making decisions on policy, strategy,
and the development of forces and capabilities to accomplish anticipated
missions. The PPBS is a cyclic process containing three distinct but interrelated
phases
PPBS are about how resources are going to be achieve the various objectives of the
organization for example, the care of the elderly, once the objectives have been
established programs are identified to meet those objectives and the cost/benefits of
alternative programs are assessed.

Planning, programming and budgeting system (PPBS) is a middle type of budget
between the traditional character and object budget, on the one hand, and the
performance budget on the other. The major contribution of PPBS lies in the planning
process, I.E- the process of making program policy decisions that lead to a specific
budget and specific multi-year plans.
The preferred programs form in effect a long term plan to be pursued over a number
of years; each program budget will disclose the cost of providing a service to satisfy
an objective,
Broken down into time periods, it therefore informs management in a manner
allowing them to make judgments about such effectiveness that would not be possible
it programs were fragmented in the department of budget concerned.
A Major shortfall of the PPBS approach to budgeting methods to adequately measure
outcomes, this is particularly true in higher education, where a number of factors
contribute to the education of a student
PPBS in practice are both “time and labor” intensive but it does link fiscal discussion
directly to the planning processes and program implementations processes of the
institution. Effective PPBS systems rely on agreed upon goals and objectives for the
institution and the unit and achievement of goals is directly related to funding.
Advantages and disadvantages of budgeting
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As a matter of fact, budgets offer a number of advantages. They have potential
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drawbacks as well. Both are summarized below;
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Strengths Weaknesses
Budgets facilitate effective control. Budgets may be used too rigidly.
Budgets facilitate co-ordination and Budgets may be time-consuming.

communication.
Budgets facilitate record keeping. Budgets may limit innovation and

change.
Budgets are a natural complement However; Budgets hampers

to planning. development, change, flexibility of
plan.

Non-budgetary control techniques
There are some other techniques of control, which are not based on budget; These
are called non-budgetary control techniques. Some non-budgetary control techniques
are discussed below –
i) Reports: Different special reports and records can be prepared by the experts for
controlling purpose. Such types of special reports contain much deeper information.
These are generally called investigative reports. These reports indicate the depth of
the problems and can suggest the way of solving the problem.
ii) Ratio analysis: - Ratio anaysis is the most important method of interpretation the
financial statement. A financial ratio implies a relationship between two variable of
financial statements of an organisation. Generally the variables for ratio analysis are
taken from both profit and loss account and balance sheet. Ratio may be expressed in
three ways, such as percentage (25%), a proportion (1:4) and a fraction (¼).
iii) Break-even analysis: - Break-even analysis is a graphical technique of control. By
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this technique business can identify an appropriate number of units to be produced to
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generate maximum revenue to cover the Cost. By this technique a point is located
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where the total cost is equal to the total revenue. By the use of this technique
production and sales volume can be controled to avoid loss.
iv) PERT/CPM: - These are the network techniques used for controlling the action and
performance. The full meaning of PERT is Programme Evaluation and Review
Technique and the full meaning of CPM is Critical Path Method. Under the PERT/CPM
method a network diagram is prepared to display the sequence of activities necessary
for the completion of a project. So, PERT helps an organiser in planning the sched ule
of a project and to monitor and control the progress of this project. This method also
helps in identifying two possible obstacles and shifting the resources as necessary to
keep the project on schedule.
v) Inventory control: - Inventory control is also called material control, which

includes the kind, amount, location and timing of various materials. Material may be
classified mainly into three categories ie, Raw-Materials, Work-in-Progress and Finish
Goods. In order to make a smooth functioning of the production activities, inventory
control is immensely important. The main objective of inventory control is to provide
the right material at right time at right place. Different parameters of inventory
control are safety inventory level, maximum inventory level, re-ordering level, danger
level etc.

vi) Statistical Quality Control (SQC) :- SQC is a statistical method which analyse data
in the determination and control of quality. This statistical technique of quality
control is based on mathematical theory of probability. By this method of production
quality can be maintained in an economical manner. This method can immediately
rectify the error. It is a preventive method and can save cost and time of inspection
work.
vii) Financial statement: - Profit and Loss account and balance sheet are the two
principle financial statements. These financial statements show the working as well as
finantial position of a business. There are various techniques of analyzing these
financial statements such as ratio analysis, comparative statement, break-even point,
trend analysis etc. which can be used as techniques of controlling the day-to-day
financial activities of an organisation.
viii) Human Resource Accounting: - According to Eric Flamholt Human Resource

Accounting is the accounting for people as an organizational resource. It involves
measuring the costs incurred by business firms and other organizations to recruit,
select, hire, train and develop human assets. It also involves measuring the economic
value of people to the organisation. Human Resource Accounting can change the
attitude of executives and in this way it can provide necessary data and information
for controlling human resource of an organisation.
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ix) Management by Objectives: - It is also called Result Management. At first Peter
Drucker introduced the concept of Management by Objectives in the year 1954. Peter
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Drucker defines Management by objectives as a system for improving performance in
both the individual managers and the enterprise as a whole by setting the objectives
at the corporate, department and individual manager’s level. Under the process of
MBO, periodic review is made and employees are provided with adequate feedback on
the actual performance as compared to the planned performance. So, this method
can be used as a control technique.
x) Management Information System :- Under the Management Information System

selected decision oriented information is provided by management for planning,
controlling and evaluating the activities of the corporation. It is designed to control
the organizational activities at all levels. The Management Information System
requires the current as well as future information on marketing, administration,
production, research functions etc. On the basis of the data and information supplied
by the Management Information System, the top management can formulate
appropriate control technique.

Principles of Management
Module VI
Leading & Controlling
Leadership
“According to Koontz and O'Donnell “Leadership is generally defined as influence, the art of process of
influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals”
Leadership Styles
1. Autocrat
2. Democratic Leader
3. Laissez fair or Free Rein Leader
4. Task or Production Oriented Leader
5. People Oriented Leader
6. Japanese Leadership styles
Autocrat :Self-centered& Work centered, Concentrates on Power & Authority, Stress more on
Punishment & Penalties, Negative Motivation oriented, Followers are afraid, Leads to frustration,
Dissatisfaction, Fear & Conflict
1. Benevolent Autocrat: An autocratic leader with some good qualities like, helping poor, Kindness in
mind, God fearing…etc...
2. Tough Autocrat: Autocratic leader with crooked mind & negative thinking
Democratic Leader : Decentralized Authority, Encourages participation of subordinates in decision

making, Give prominence to cooperation, involvement, communication, ideas, team spirit among
members, Make use of full talents & abilities of members, Rewards & Appreciations to employees,
Increased job satisfaction and job performance
Laissez fair or Free Rein Leader :There are no Leaders at all, Group plays a dominant role, and Sets
own goals &solves its own problems. They motivate themselves, Members have a freedom to decide their
own goals, and No one is there to appreciate the members.
Task or Production Oriented Leader:Focus on Job to be done, Induce to concentrate on the Job,
Bother about Production, Productivity, andProduct.
People Oriented Leader :Stress more on reducing tension. Make Job pleasant & Happy. Leaders get
the support
Prof. Baiju B.S., H.O.D., Dept. of Applied Sciences, MEA Engineering College, Perinthalmanna, Malappuram

Japanese Leadership styles
1. Well-being of the employees, Human Assets are most important

2. Managers are selected based on the quality of having best relationship with employees
3. Company sponsored cultural, athletic & recreational activities are held
II
1. Minimizes Status differences

2. Same uniform for all
3. Employees are referred as associates no designation
4. No special privileges
III
1. Share lot of information with employees at all levels
2. Workers are informed about company goals & plans
IV
1. Participate in decision making
2. Form quality circle
Managers Vs. Leaders
Managers Leaders
Develop Policies & Procedures Develop vision & Strategy
Direct & Control Motivate & Inspire
Explain “What we have to do” Where we are going
Concerned with here and now Concerned with long view
Task oriented Vision oriented
Concerned with projects Concerned with people
Doing things right Doing the right things

Trait Approach to Leadership
The scientific study of leadership began with a focus on the traits of effective leaders. The basic premise
behind trait theory was that effective leaders are born, not made, thus the name sometimes applied to
early versions of this idea, the "great man" theory.Early trait research did not consider the impact of
situational variables that might moderate the relationship between leader traits and measures of leader
effectiveness. As a result of the lack of consistent findings linking individual traits to leadership
effectiveness, empirical studies of leader traits were largely abandoned in the 1950s.
Trait theory important points
1. Focuses on personal characteristics

2. Leaders seen as different from the average person
3. Traits and effective leadership not highly correlated
4. Leaders are born not made
Various Traits identified in Managers
1. Physical Traits : Energy, Appearance , Height, Intelligence & Ability

2. Personality Traits : Adaptability, Aggressiveness, Enthusiasm & Self Confidence, Honesty and
integrity, Creativity, Charisma
3. Task Related Traits :Achievement drive, Persistence, Initiative, Motivation, Tenacity, Ambition,
Cognitive ability, Flexibility
4. Social Characteristics: Cooperativeness, Interpersonal skills, Administrative ability.
Limitations of Trait Theory
1. Traits do not guarantee effective leadership

2. Situation may limit the validity of traits
3. Traits predict the appearance of leadership, not its effectiveness
Behavioural Theories
Behavioural style determines leadership effectiveness. It assumes that there are 2 primary functions of
leadership: Orientation to task and Orientation to people. It also assumes there is one best way to approach
leadership: orientation to teamwork, democratic processes and production processes.

Contingency or Situational Approach
Contingency approach has much meaning for managerial theory and practice. They are also in to the system of
motivation.Fred E Fiedler and his associates at the University of Illinois came up with this approach.
“The theory holds that people become leaders not only because of the attributes of their personalities but also
because of various situational factors and the interactions between leaders and group members”.
Critical dimensions of the leadership situation
1. Position Power: This is the degree to which the power of a position, as distinguished from other sources
of power.
2. Task Structure: If the tasks are clear (rather than vague and unstructured) , the quality of performance
can more easily controlled and group members can be held more definitely responsible for performance.
3. Leader – Member relations: The extent to which the group members like and trust a leader and are
willing to follow the leader.
Contingency Theory – Styles of Leadership
1. Task Oriented : Leader gets satisfaction from seeing tasks performed

2. Interpersonal relations oriented : Leader gets satisfaction with good inter personal relations.
Measuring Leadership styles
Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC):A scale developed by American scientist Fred Fiedler to identify whether an
individual's leadership style is relationship-oriented or task-oriented.
Example
Think of all the different people with whom you have ever worked . . . in jobs, in social clubs, instudent projects,
or whatever. Next think of the one person with whom you could work leastwell, that is, the person with whom
you had the most difficulty getting a job done. This is theone person (a peer, boss, or subordinate) with whom
you would least want to work. Describethis person by circling numbers at the appropriate points on each of the
following pairs of bipolaradjectives. Work rapidly. There are no right or wrong answers.
Pleasant 87654321 Unpleasant

Friendly 87654321 Unfriendly
Rejecting 12345678 Accepting
Tense 12345678 Relaxed
Distant 12345678 Close
Assumed Similarity between opposites (ASO):In assumed similarity, or the “like me” effect, the observer’s
perception of others is influenced more by the observer’s own characteristics than by those of the person
observed.

For example, if you want challenges and responsibility in your job, you’ll assume that others want the same.
People who assume that others are like them can, of course, be right, but not always. Here we measure Scores on
degree to which a member is like another in all possible terms
Results:
1. Highly rated Co-workers:Highly rated co-workers are getting major satisfaction from successful
interpersonal relationships
2. Low rated Co-workers:Low rated co-workers are getting satisfaction from task performance.
Task oriented leaders are effective when situation is highly favourable or highly unfavourable, because in a
highly favourable environment the leader need not listen to anybody but concentrate only on doing the tasks
perfectly. In an unfavourable condition task oriented leader may pressure subordinates to finish the tasks
perfectly by threatening them
Human relations oriented leaders are effective when situation is moderately favourable. They will have a good
relationship with employees and will never make a situation in which it is broken.
Transformational Leadership
A transformational leader is a person who stimulates and inspires (transform) followers to achieve
extraordinary outcomes. He pays attention to the concern anddevelopmental needs of individual followers; they
change followers’ awareness of issues by helping themto look at old problems in a new way; and they are able to
arouse, excite and inspire followers to put outextra effort to achieve group goals. Transformational leadership
theory is all about leadership that createspositive change in the followers whereby they take care of each other's
interests and act in the interests ofthe group as a whole. The concept of transformational leadership was
introduced by James Macgregor Burns in 1978.
Transformational leadership enhances the motivation, morale, and performance of followers through avariety of
mechanisms. These include connecting the follower's sense of identity and self to the project andthe collective
identity of the organization; being a role model for followers that inspires them and makesthem interested;
challenging followers to take greater ownership for their work, and understanding thestrengths and weaknesses
of followers, so the leader can align followers with tasks that enhance theirperformance.
Components of transformational leadership style:
1) Charisma or idealised influence: the degree to which the leader behaves in admirable ways anddisplays
convictions and takes stands that cause followers to identify with the leader who has a clear set ofvalues and
acts as a role model for the followers.
(2) Inspirational motivation: the degree to which the leader articulates a vision that is appeals to andinspires the
followers with optimism about future goals, and offers meaning for the current tasks in hand.

(3) Intellectual stimulation:The degree, to which the leader challenges assumptions, stimulates andencourages
creativity in the followers - by providing a framework for followers to see how they connect tothe leader, the
organisation, each other, and the goal] they can creatively overcome any obstacles in theway of the mission.
(4) Personal and individual attention: the degree to which the leader attends to each individual follower'sneeds
and acts as a mentor or coach and gives respect to and appreciation of the individual's contribution tothe team.
This fulfils and enhances each individual team members' need for self-fulfilment, and self-worth and in so doing
inspires followers to further achievement and growth.
Limitations
1. The ambiguityunderlying its influences and processes.
2. The overemphasis of the theory on leadership processes at the dyadic level.
3. The theoretical rationale for differentiating among the behaviours is not clearly explained.
4. Omission of several transformational behaviour from the originaltransformational leadership theory
which empirical evidence has shown to be relevant
5. Insufficient specification of situational variables in Transformational leadership
6. The theory does not explicitly identify any situation where transformational leadership isdetrimental.
7. Like most leadership theories, transformational leadership theory assumes the heroic leadershipstereotype
Transactional Leadership
Transactional Leadership, also known as managerial leadership, focuses on the role of supervision, organization,
and group performance; transactional leadership is a style of leadership in which the leader promotes compliance
of his followers through both rewards and punishments. Unlike Transformational leadership, leaders using the
transactional approach are not looking to change the future; they are looking to merely keep things the same.
These leaders pay attention to followers' work in order to find faults and deviations. This type of leadership is
effective in crisis and emergency situations, as well as when projects need to be carried out in a specific fashion.
Within the context of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, transactional leadership works at the basic levels of need
satisfaction, where transactional leaders focus on the lower levels of the hierarchy. Transactional leaders use an
exchange model, with rewards being given for good work or positive outcomes. Transactional leaders are
effective in getting specific tasks completed by managing each portion individually. Transactional leaders are
concerned with processes rather than forward-thinking ideas. These types of leaders focus on contingent reward
(also known as contingent positive reinforcement) or contingent penalization (also known as contingent
negative reinforcement). Contingent rewards (such as praise) are given when the set goals are accomplished on-
time, ahead of time, or to keep subordinates working at a good pace at different times throughout completion.
Contingent punishments (such as suspensions) are given when performance quality or quantity falls below
production standards or goals and tasks are not met at all. Often, contingent punishments are handed down on
a management-by-exception basis, in which the exception is something going wrong.

Within management-by-exception, there are active and passive routes. Active management-by-exception means
that the leader continually looks at each subordinate's performance and makes changes to the subordinate's
work to make corrections throughout the process. Passive management-by-exception leaders wait for issues to
come up before fixing the problems.

DISC Personality Profile - Managers
DiSC® is a personal assessment tool used to improve work productivity, teamwork, leadership and
communication. DiSC measures personality and behavioral style. It does not measure intelligence, aptitude,
mental health or values. DiSC profiles describe human behavior in various situations, for example how a
manger respond to challenges, how influence others, preferred pace and how respond to rules and procedures.
The DiSC model discusses four reference points:
Dominance – direct, strong-willed and forceful

Influence – sociable, talkative and lively
Steadiness – gentle, accommodating and soft-hearted
Conscientiousness – private, analytical and logical
Dimensions of Leadership
The 8 Dimensions of Leadership is a tool by Jeffrey Sugerman, Mark Scullard and Emma Wilhelm (Berret-
Koehler, 2011), which helps us identify our primary leadership dimension and ways to become a multi-
dimensional leader.

1. Pioneering Leader features
Goals: Quick action, new opportunities, exciting breakthroughs, Adventurous, Dynamic &
Charismatic, punctual, Optimistic & Persuasive style
Influences others through: Charm, bold action, passion, Good at Making Connections, Help others to
reach their goals

Judges others by: Confidence, influence, ability to think creatively.
Fears: Loss of power, stifling environments, loss of attention
2. EnergizingLeader features
Goals: Popularity, approval, excitement
Influences others through: Charm, optimism, energy, personal connection
Judges others by: Openness, social skills, enthusiasm
Fears: Rejection, not being heard, not being liked
3. AffirmingLeader features
Goals: Friendship, acceptance, close relationships
Influences others through: Agreeableness, empathy, being patient
Judges others by: Ability to see good in others, warmth, approachability
Fears: Pressuring others, being disliked, facing aggression
4. InclusiveLeader features
Goals: Harmony, stability, acceptance
Influences others through: Accommodating others, consistent performance
Judges others by: Dependability, sincerity
Fears: Letting people down, rapid change
5. HumbleLeader features
Goals: Stability, reliable outcomes, calm environment
Influences others through: Practicality, diplomacy, self-control, humility
Judges others by: Precise standards, reliability, even temperament
Fears: Emotionally charged situations, ambiguity, time pressure, chaos
6. DeliberateLeader features
Goals: Accuracy, objective processes
Influences others through: Logic, exacting standards
Judges others by: Expertise, systematic processes
Fears: Being wrong, strong displays of emotion
7. ResoluteLeader features
Goals: Independence, personal accomplishment, efficient results
Influences others through: High standards, determination, strict standards
Judges others by: Competence, common sense, use of logic
Fears: Failure to achieve their standards, lack of control

8. CommandingLeader features
Goals: Bottom-line results, victory
Influences others through: Assertiveness, insistence, competition
Judges others by: Ability to achieve results
Fears: Being taken advantage of, appearing weak
CONTROL
The measurement and correction of performance in order to make sure those enterprise objectives and the plans
devised to attain them are being accomplished.
Basic Control Process

1. Establishing Standards:
The first step in any control process logically would be the plan. But it may vary in detail and
complexity. So monitoring the same will be very difficult and hence special standards are established, they
are also known as performance criteria
E.g. Standard cost, time and quality.
2. Measurement of Performance:
Measurement of performance is not always easy. It should be done in a forward looking basis so that a
deviation may be detected in advance and avoided by proper actions before it occurs. If it is not possible a
deviation should be detected and reported as early as possible
E.g. No. of rejects per hour, cost per unit ...etc.
3. Correction of Deviations
When there is deviation or chance for deviation corrective measures should be applied. Correction of
deviations is the point at which control can be seen as part of the whole system of management and can be
related to other functions of management. Managers may correct deviations by redrawing their plans or by
modifying their goals.
E.g. Reassignment or clarification of duties, additional staffing, training & development...etc
Critical control points

“The principle of critical point control states that effective control requires attention to those factors critical to
evaluating performance against plans.”
Types of critical point standards

1. Physical Standards : Non-monetary measurements such as Labour hours, per unit output, fuel used
per hpor per hour ...etc
2. Cost Standards: Monetary measurements such as direct and indirect cost per unit produced, labour
cost per unit, material cost per unit etc...
3. Capital Standards : The most widely used standard for new investment , as well as over all control is
return on investment
4. Revenue Standards: Attaching monetary values to sales. E.g. Average sales per customer.
5. Program Standards: Standards fixed to appraise a program such as development of a new product.
Timing of the same can be used as objective standard.
6. Intangible Standards: It is highly challenging to fix standards for measuring competency of an
employee, loyalty of an employee...etc
7. Goals as Standards: It is possible to define goals as standards
8. Strategic plans: Systematic monitoring of strategic control points and modifying the organization's
strategy based on this evaluation. It creates a dynamic ever-changing environment
9. Bench Marking: An approach for setting goals and productivity measures based on best industry
practices.
 Strategic Bench Marking : Compares various strategies and identifies the key strategic
elements of success
 Operational Bench Marking: Compares relative costs or possibilities for product
differentiation.
 Management Bench Marking: Focuses on support functions such as market planning,
information systems...etc...
Control as a feedback system
Many systems control themselves through information feedback, which shows deviations standards and
initiat“Management Control is usually perceived as a feedback system similar to the common house hold
thermostat”
Real-Time Information and control: It is the information about what is happening while it is happening.
The sooner managers know that activities for which they are responsible are not proceeding in accordance with
plan, the faster they can take actions to make corrections.
E.g. Airline ticket booking, Inventory control in a super market ...etc changes.

Feed forward or preventive control
Managers need a system that will tell them potential problems, giving them time to take corrective action before
those problems occur.
Examples
1. Employment of preventive maintenance program to prevent a breakdown of machinery
2. A company communicates their policy regarding absenteeism to their new employees
3. Sales forecasts
4. Careful planning of the availability of cash to meet future requirements
5. Human system: A motorist going up a hill will keep the acceleration in such a way for a constant speed.

“Feed forward systems monitor inputs in to a process to ascertain if the inputs are as planned ; if they
are not, the inputs or the process is changed in order to obtain the desired results.”
Requirements for Feed forward control
1. Make a thorough and careful analysis of the planning and control system, and identify the more
important input variables
2. Develop a model of the system
3. Take care to keep the model up to date
4. Collect data on input variables regularly and put them in to the system
5. Regularly asses the variations of actual input data from planned-for inputs , and evaluate the
impact on the expected result.
6. Take action. Like any other technique of planning and control, all the system can do is indicate
problems, people must obviously take action to solve them
Requirements for Effective Control
Tailoring Controls to Plans and Positions

Managers need information that will tell them how the plans are progressingControl should be tailored to
positions, the controls needed for sales department will be different from that of financeControl should also
reflect the organization structure.
Tailoring Controls to Individual managers

Some managers need information in the form of complex tables and some other need graph, charts or in any
other statistical form.
Designing Controls to Point up Exceptions at critical points

Efficient control requires that managers look for exceptions, effective control requires that managers pay
primary attention to things that are most importantsome deviations from standards have little meaning while
others have a great dealException principle should be accompanied in practice by the principle of critical point
control.
Seeking objectivity of controls

Control should be objective accurate and suitable in terms of standards. If controls are subjective a manager’s or
subordinate’s personality may influence judgments.
Ensuring Flexibility of Controls

Control should remain workable in the face of changed plans or unforeseen circumstances. For this controls
should be flexible.

Fitting the control system to the organization culture
The control system must fit in the organization culture. A tight control system in an organization where
employees are already enjoying considerable freedom and participation in decision making will be a failure.
E.g. in Mercedes- Benz, earlier each car produced was checked by many inspectors. But later this responsibility
is given to individual production workers
Achieving Economy of Controls

Control system must be worth its cost. The benefits derived from the control system should be more than the
cost of exercising a control system
Establishing Controls that lead to Corrective Action

An effective control system will disclose where failures are occurring and who is responsible for them.Control is
justified when deviations from plans are corrected through appropriate planning, organizing, staffing and
leading
Control Techniques
Budget as a control device
1. Widely used device for managerial control

2. Budgeting is the formulation of plans for a given future period in numerical terms.
3. They are statements of anticipated results either in financial terms like revenue, expenses or in non-
financial terms like direct labor hours, materials, physical sales volume…etc
Limitations
1. Budget may be expensive and meaning less
2. Managers may give up a good idea due to budgetary control
Zero Base Budgeting
1. Dividing enterprise programs into packages composed of goals, activities and needed resources and
calculating costs for each package from base zero.
2. The common tendency in budgeting of looking only at changes from a previous period has been avoided
here.
3. This technique has generally been applied to support areas like marketing research & development
etc…rather than production
4. The major advantage is that this method forces the manager to plan each program afresh
Traditional NON budgetary Control devices
Gantt Charts :

A bar chart that shows the time relationships between the events of a production program, Developed by Henry
L Gantt. The total program goal is considered as a series of interrelated supporting plans or events.
Milestone Budgeting:
Mile stone budgeting or mile post budgeting and PERT was devised from Gantt Chart. A milestone budgeting
break a project down in to controllable pieces and then carefully follows them.Mile stones are defined as
identifiable segments
Program evaluation & Review technique (PERT)
A time event network analysis system in which the various events in a program or project are identified with a
planned time established for each.

Critical path: - It is that sequence of activities which decide the total project duration. It uses maximum sources.
Critical path is formed by critical activities.
Estimation of activity time: - For dealing with uncertainties associated with different activities PERT
approach computes expected time for each activity from the following three time estimates
Optimistic time (to):- It is the shortest possible time in which an activity can be completed if everything goes
exceptionally well
Most likely time (tm):- It is the time in which the activity is normally expected to complete under normal
contingencies
Pessimistic time (tp):- It is the time which an activity will take to complete in case of difficulty , i.e. if mostly
the things go wrong. It is the longest of all the three time estimates.
Expected time te =to + (4 X tm) + tp
PERT – ADVANTAGES
1. It forces managers to plan

2. It forces planning all the way from top to bottom
3. It concentrates attention on critical elements that may need correction
4. It makes possible a kind of forward looking control
5. It enables managers to aim reports and pressure for action at the right spot right time
PERT LIMITATIONS
1. It is not useful when the program is nebulous

2. It emphasises only on time
3. It does not focus on costs
Other techniques
1. Statistical Control Reports
2. Personal Observation
3. Cost Accounting and Cost Control
4. Break Even Analysis
5. Management Audit
6. Standard Costing
7. Management Information System

Over all Controls & preventive controls
Control of overall performance
Control devices have been developed for measuring the over all performance of an organization”
Reasons
1. Just as overall planning must apply to the enterprise, over all control also should be there to analyze the
achievements of organizational goals
2. Decentralization of authority creates semi-independent units, these must be subjected to overall control
in order to avoid confusions.
3. It permits the measurement of an integrated area.
Many overall controls in business are Financial

1. Finance is the binding force in business.
2. It accurately indicate the total expense s for resources in reaching the goals
3. A manager must have a way of knowing what goal achievement has cost in terms of resources.
4. It has to be tailored to the specific needs of the enterprise or position
5. A deviation from planned costs, may lead a manager to find the causes in poor planning, inadequate
training of employees or other nonfinancial factors.
Profit & loss control
• Profit & Loss statement shows all revenues and expenses for a given period.
• Profits are a definite standard against which to measure success
• It is summary of results of business operations
• Each part/division of the enterprise should contribute towards this
Limitations
1. Cost & Time required is very high
2. Duplication of records
3. Difficult to allocate many overhead costs
Control through return on investment
1. Return on Investment is the rate of return that a company or a division can earn on the capital
allocated to it
2. It shows the relative success of an organization
3. It recognizes the fundamental fact that capital is a critical factor in any enterprise

Management Audits & Accounting firms
1. Accounting audit agencies/firms do various types of auditing in companies

2. It is an independent process, aims at pointing out the inefficiency in the performance of
management functions.
3. It is not compulsory and not enforced by law
Bureaucratic & clan control
1. Bureaucratic control is characterized by the wide use of rules, regulations, policies, procedures
and formal authority
2. Clan control is based on norms, shared values, expected behavior, and other cultural variables
Preventive control
The principle of preventive control states that, the higher the quality of managers and their subordinates, the
less will be the need for direct controls.

Assumptions in the Principle of Preventive Control:
1. Qualified Managers make a minimum errors

2. Managerial performance can be measured. Concepts, Principles and techniques are useful
diagnostic standards in measuring managerial performance
3. The application of management fundamentals can be evaluated
ADVANTAGES OF PREVENTIVE CONTROL
1. Greater accuracy is achieved in assigning personal responsibility

2. Preventive control hasten corrective action and make it more effective
3. Preventive control lightens managerial burden
4. Psychological advantage. Subordinate managers know what is expected of them, understand the
nature of managing, and feel a close relationship between performance and measurement

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Leading S .

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“Leadership is the ability of a manager to induce subordinates to work with

confidence and zeal.”-Koontz and O’Donnell.

“Leadership is the exercise of authority and making of decisions.” -Dubin, R.

“Leadership is the ability to secure desirable actions from a group of

followers voluntarily, without the use of coercion.”-Allford and Beaty.

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Following are the important functions of a leader:

5. Direction and Motivation:

6. Link between Management and Workers:

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Some of the qualities of a good leader are as follows:

I. Leadership Style Based on Attitude and Behaviour:

1. Autocratic or authoritarian style leader.

2. Laissez-faire or Free-rein style leader.

3. Democratic or participative style leader.

4. Paternalistic style leader.

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2. Laissez-faire or Free-rein Style Leader:

It provides necessary motivation to the workers by ensuring their participation and

4. Paternalistic Style Leader:

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Leadership can be described as transactional or transformational. Transactional

Transactional leadership promotes compliance with existing organizational goals and

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Nature Reactive Proactive

Best suited for Settled Environment Turbulent Environment

Works for Developing the existing Changing the existing organizational

Style Bureaucratic Charismatic

How many leaders Only one More than One

Motivational tool KTU NOT

Attracting followers by putting

Stimulating followers by setting group

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The Pioneering Dimension:

Strengths and Motivators

The Energizing Dimension:

Strengths and Motivators

The Affirming Dimension

Strengths and Motivators

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AFFIRMING leaders would increase their effectiveness through acknowledging others’

The Inclusive Dimension

Strengths and Motivators

The Humble Dimension

Strengths and Motivators

The Deliberate Dimension

Strengths and Motivators

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The Resolute Dimension

Strengths and Motivators

The Commanding Dimension

The eight dimensions can be briefly summarised as:

1. Pioneering – dynamic, charismatic, and adventurous

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Examples of Leadership Traits: