COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

G gives desires results

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING A accepts data from user
P process data_calculatons and operations
BASICS OF COMPUTER
Introduction
Nowadays, computers are an integral part of our lives. They are used for the reservation
of tickets for airplanes and railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposit
and withdrawal of money from banks, processing of business data, forecasting of weather
conditions, diagnosis of diseases, searching for information on the Internet, etc.
Computers are also used extensively in schools, universities, organizations, music
industry, movie industry, scientific research, law firms, fashion industry, etc. The term
computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate. A
computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results.
Computer performs both simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.
This chapter discusses the history and evolution of computer, the concept of input-
process-output and the characteristics of computer. This chapter also discusses the
classification of digital computers based on their size and type, and the application of
computer in different domain areas.

Digital and Analog Computers

A digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information
are represented using the digits 0s and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and
offices are digital computers. Analog computer is another kind of a computer that
represents data as variable across a continuous range of values. The earliest computers
were analog computers. Analog computers are used for measuring of parameters that
vary continuously in real time, such as temperature, pressure and voltage. Analog
computers may be more flexible but generally less precise than digital computers. Slide
rule is an example of an analog computer. This book deals only with the digital computer
and uses the term computer for them.
DVdS Are Small
v s t o r a g e
d
i e
s
p
Characteristics of Computer
a
c
r
l e cSpeed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key
i s e ucharacteristics of a computer.
g a d r
e t
a
n i
cA brief overview of these characteristics are-
c l
y
e i  Speed The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
t
y instructions per second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days
1
 to complete otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.
For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands of employees
of an organization, weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of
data related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places, etc.

 Accuracy Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the

computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10
decimal places.

 Diligence When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired
or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed
and accuracy from the start till the end.

 Storage Capability Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the
computer and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be
stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like
floppy disk and compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.

history of  Versatility Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks
computers with the same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter
just gun that document and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.
mnemonic
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it has been
programmed to do. Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It
executes instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.
B babbage
H hollerith History of Computer CNS PLP BH
Until the development of the first generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there had
pascals been several developments in the computing technology related to the mechanical
P punched cards
computing devices. The key developments that took place till the first computer was
L leibniz developed are as follows—
A abacus
N napier's Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for
counting of large numbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consists of
S slide rule bars in horizontal positions on which sets of beads are inserted. The horizontal bars have
10 beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc.

Napier’s bones was a mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication in 1617
M by an English mathematician John Napier.

Slide Rule was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th
century. Using the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It was used extensively till late 1970s. Figure 1.2 shows a
slide rule.
DAMS

2
 SA Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could add
and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.

MD Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine was a mechanical device that could both
multiply and divide. The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built
it around 1673.

Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in 1801. He
invented the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of hole in the
punched card as binary one and the absence of the hole as binary zero. The 0s and 1s are
the basis of the modern digital computer. A punched card is shown in Figure 1.3.

Babbage’s Analytical Engine An English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical

machine to do complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823. The machine was
called as difference engine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a
general-purpose calculating machine, the analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also
called the father of computer.

Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine was invented by Herman Hollerith. The
machine could read the information from a punched card and process it electronically.

The developments discussed above and several others not discussed here, resulted in the
development of the first computer in the 1940s.

Generations of Computer
The computer has evolved from a large-sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but
much more powerful machine. The evolution of computer to the current state is defined
in terms of the generations of computer. Each generation of computer is designed based
on a new technological development, resulting in better, cheaper and smaller computers
that are more powerful, faster and efficient than their predecessors. Currently, there are
five generations of computer. In the following subsections, we will discuss the
generations of computer in terms of—

1. The technology used by them (hardware and software),

2. Computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per
second),
3. Physical appearance and
4. Their applications.

1940-1956 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes

16 YEARS Hardware Technology The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry
and magnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was through punched cards
and paper tapes. The output was displayed as printouts.

3
for second geneation
divide the 16 years over 2
16/2= 8 years

Software Technology The instructions were written in machine language. Machine

language uses 0s and 1s for coding of the instructions. The first generation computers
could solve one problem at a time.

Computing Characteristics The computation time was in milliseconds.

Physical Appearance These computers were enormous in size and required a large room
for installation.

Application They were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest computing
device of their time.
UNIVAC
ENIAC Examples UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator
EDVAC And Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
(EDVAC).

The first generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus generated a
lot of heat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to operate. The
machines were prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant maintenance.
Since first generation computers used machine language, they were difficult to program.

1956-1963
Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors
Hardware Technology Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes of the first generation of
8 YEARS computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, energy
efficient and reliable. The second generation computers used magnetic core technology
for primary memory. They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for secondary
storage. The input was still through punched cards and the output using printouts. They
used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in the memory of
computer.

Software Technology The instructions were written using the assembly language.
Assembly language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for
coding of the instructions. It is easier to write instructions in assembly language, as
compared to writing instructions in machine language. High-level programming
languages, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during
this period.

Computing Characteristics The computation time was in microseconds.

Physical Appearance Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus, the
size of the computer was also reduced.

Application The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high,
though less than the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled
CDC 1604 manually in second generation computers.
IBM 1401
Examples PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604
PDP 8
4
 1 YEARS PASSED
Second generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than the first
generation computers. They required less maintenance than the first generation
computers.

1964-1971 Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits

Hardware Technology The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC)
chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a silicon chip. Silicon is a type of
semiconductor. The use of IC chip increased the speed and the efficiency of computer,
manifold. The keyboard and monitor were used to interact with the third generation
computer, instead of the punched card and printouts.

Software Technology The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the
operating system. Operating system allowed different applications to run at the same
time. High-level languages were used extensively for programming, instead of machine
language and assembly language.

Computing Characteristics The computation time was in nanoseconds.

Physical Appearance The size of these computers was quite small compared to the
second generation computers.

Application Computers became accessible to mass audience. Computers were produced

commercially, and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
IBM 370 Examples IBM 370, PDP 11
PDP 11
The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the second
generation computers. The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual
components of the computer were not required to be assembled manually. The
maintenance cost of the computers was also less compared to their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors

Hardware Technology They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small
silicon chip using LSI technology.

VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to be integrated in a small chip. This

era is marked by the development of microprocessor.

Microprocessor is a chip containing millions of transistors and components, and,

designed using LSI and VLSI technology. This generation of computers gave rise to
Personal Computer (PC). Semiconductor memory replaced the earlier magnetic core
memory, resulting in fast random access to memory. Secondary storage device like
magnetic disks became smaller in physical size and larger in capacity. The linking of
computers is another key development of this era. The computers were linked to form

5
 networks that led to the emergence of the Internet. This generation also saw the
development of pointing devices like mouse, and handheld devices.
MICROSOFT DISK
Software Technology Several new operating systems like OP MS-DOS and
the MS-
GUI
Windows developed during this time. This generation of computers supported Graphical
User Interface (GUI). GUI is a user friendly interface that allows user to interact with the
computer via menus and icons. High-level programming languages are used for the
writing of programs.

Computing Characteristics The computation time is in picoseconds.

Physical Appearance They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation.
Some can even fit into the palm of the hand.

Application They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal computers
became available to the home user.
INTEL 4004 CHIP
Examples The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the
computer like Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip.
In 1981, IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the
Macintosh.

The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and
cheaper than their predecessors. The fourth generation computers are also portable and
more reliable. They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to
their predecessors. GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the
computer. Networking has resulted in resource sharing and communication among
different computers.

Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence

The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of
fifth generation learning and self-organization. The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale
all you need to Integrated (SLSI) chips that are able to store millions of components on a single chip.
now is that
mnemonic These computers have large memory requirements.

This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to
be executed in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster
processing speed. The Intel dual-core microprocessor uses parallel processing.
The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to
simulate the human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas
like Expert System (ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice
recognition, robotics, etc.

V voice reconition
E expert system
R robotics

N natural language
S speech recognition 6
 classification just follow the
alphabetical order of how the
letters are after 'MI' ...c..n..i..
then S which is supercomptuers
Classification of Computer
The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The
computers are broadly classified into four categories (Figure 1.8) based on their size and
type—(1) Microcomputers, (2) Minicomputers, (3) Mainframe computers, and (4)
Supercomputer.

Microcomputers
Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of
CPU, input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are
stand-alone machines, they can be connected together to create a network of computers
that can serve more than one user.

IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some examples of
microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop computers, notebook computers or
pc laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and net book.
2
PLaNTS
PDA l
n t s
Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) is the most common type of
a e a m microcomputer. It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk. Externally, it
p t b a
b l consists of three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU,
t r
o o e t memory, hard disk drive, etc. It is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a
p o t
k single user at home, small business units, and organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell
p
h and Lenovo are some of the PC manufacturers.
o
n
e
Notebook Computers or Laptops resemble a notebook. They are portable and have all the
s features of a desktop computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size (can
be put inside a briefcase), can be carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the
functionality of the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap while working (hence the
name). Laptops are costlier than the desktop machines.

Netbook These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are
designed for accessing web-based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in late
2007, they have gained significant popularity now. Netbooks deliver the performance
needed to enjoy popular activities like streaming videos or music, emailing, Web surfing
or instant messaging. The word netbook was created as a blend of Internet and notebook.

7
 Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a
stylus or a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer. Tablet
computer are the new kind of PCs.

Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small computer that can
be held on the top of the palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a
pen or a stylus for input. PDAs do not have a disk drive. They have a limited memory and
are less powerful. PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless connection. Casio
and Apple are some of the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs have
merged into mobile phones to create smart phones.

Smart Phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They
may use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the
Internet wirelessly. They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play
games, etc.
Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the manufacturers of smart phones.

Minicomputers
Minicomputers are digital computers, generally used in multiuser systems. They have
high processing speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers.
Minicomputers can support 4–200 users simultaneously. The users can access the
minicomputer through their PCs or terminal. They are used for real-time applications in
industries, research centers, etc. PDP 11, IBM (8000 series) are some of the widely used
minicomputers.

Mainframe Computers
Mainframe computers are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance
computers. They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can
handle the workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful
systems generally used in centralized databases. The user accesses the mainframe
computer via a terminal that may be a dumb terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC. A
dumb terminal cannot store data or do processing of its own. It has the input and output
device only. An intelligent terminal has the input and output device, can do processing,
but, cannot store data of its own. The dumb and the intelligent terminal use the
processing power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer. Mainframe
computers are used in organizations like banks or companies, where many people require
frequent access to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBM
ES000 series.

Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high
FLOPS processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is
generally measured in FLOPS (FLoating point Operations Per Second). Some of the
faster supercomputers can perform trillions of calculations per second. Supercomputers
are built by interconnecting thousands of processors that can work in parallel.

8
 Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather
forecasting, climate research (global warming), molecular research, biological research,
nuclear research and aircraft design. They are also used in major universities, military
agencies and scientific research laboratories. Some examples of supercomputers are IBM
Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel ASCI red. PARAM is a series of supercomputer
CDAC assembled in India by CDAC (Center for Development of Advanced Computing), in
Pune. PARAM Padma is the latest machine in this series. The peak computing power of
PARAM Padma is 1 Tera FLOP (TFLOP).

The Computer System

Computer is an electronic device that accepts data as input, processes the input data by
performing mathematical and logical operations on it, and gives the desired output. The
computer system consists of four parts—(1) Hardware, (2) Software, (3) Data, and (4)
Users.

Hardware consists of the mechanical parts that make up the computer as a machine. The
hardware consists of physical devices of the computer. The devices are required for input,
output, storage and processing of the data. Keyboard, monitor, hard disk drive, floppy
disk drive, printer, processor and motherboard are some of the hardware devices.

Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed
and how these tasks are to be performed. Program is a set of instructions, written in a
language understood by the computer, to perform a specific task. A set of programs and
documents are collectively called software. The hardware of the computer system cannot
perform any task on its own. The hardware needs to be instructed about the task to be
performed. Software instructs the computer about the task to be performed. The hardware
carries out these tasks. Different software can be loaded on the same hardware to perform
different kinds of tasks.

Data are isolated values or raw facts, which by themselves have no much significance.
For example, the data like 29, January, and 1994 just represent values. The data is
provided as input to the computer, which is processed to generate some meaningful
information. For example, 29, January and 1994 are processed by the computer to give
the date of birth of a person.

Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer.
Programmers, data entry operators, system analyst and computer hardware engineers fall
into this category
APoloGeS
The Input-Process-Output Concept
A computer is an electronic device that (1) accepts data, (2) processes data, (3) generates
output, and (4) stores data. The concept of generating output information from the input
data is also referred to as input-process-output concept.

The input-process-output concept of the computer is explained as follows—

9
Input The computer accepts input data from the user via an input device like keyboard.
The input data can be characters, word, text, sound, images, document, etc.

Process The computer processes the input data. For this, it performs some actions on the
data by using the instructions or program given by the user of the data. The action could
be an arithmetic or logic calculation, editing, modifying a document, etc. During
processing, the data, instructions and the output are stored temporarily in the computer’s
main memory.

Output The output is the result generated after the processing of data. The output may be
in the form of text, sound, image, document, etc. The computer may display the output on
a monitor, send output to the printer for printing, play the output, etc. Storage The input
data, instructions and output are stored permanently in the secondary storage devices like
disk or tape. The stored data can be retrieved later, whenever needed.

Components of Computer Hardware gun the mnemonic M I C

The computer system hardware comprises of three main components —

1. Input/Output (I/O) Unit, MIC

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU), and
3. Memory Unit.

The I/O unit consists of the input unit and the output unit. CPU performs calculations and
processing on the input data, to generate the output. The memory unit is used to store the
data, the instructions and the output information. The figure below illustrates the typical
interaction among the different components of the computer.

Figure: The computer system interaction

10
Input/Output Unit The user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The Input unit
accepts data from the user and the Output unit provides the processed data i.e. the
information to the user. The Input unit converts the data that it accepts from the user, into
a form that is understandable by the computer. Similarly, the Output unit provides the
output in a form that is understandable by the user. The input is provided to the computer
using input devices like keyboard, trackball and mouse. Some of the commonly used
output devices are monitor and printer.

Central Processing Unit CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the
computer. It is responsible for processing of the input data. CPU consists of Arithmetic
Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic
operations on the input data.

CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of
execution of instructions, and, controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the
units of computer. Additionally, CPU also has a set of registers for temporary storage of
data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of calculation.

Memory Unit Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output,
temporarily, during the processing of data. This memory is also called the main memory
or primary memory of the computer. The input data that is to be processed is brought into
the main memory before processing. The instructions required for processing of data and
any intermediate results are also stored in the main memory. The output is stored in
memory before being transferred to the output device. CPU can work with the
information stored in the main memory. Another kind of storage unit is also referred to as
the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the programs and the output are stored
permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Magnetic disks, optical disks and
magnetic tapes are examples of secondary memory.
just gun the mnemonic only
big letters only,powers means the word repeats 2 2
Application of Computers SAME Hot Girls
Computers have proliferated into various areas of our lives. For a user, computer is a tool
that provides the desired information, whenever needed. You may use computer to get
information about the reservation of tickets (railways, airplanes and cinema halls), books
in a library, medical history of a person, a place in a map, or the dictionary meaning of a
word. The information may be presented to you in the form of text, images, video clips,
etc.

Some of the application areas of the computer are listed below—

Education Computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting
education. Educators use computers to prepare notes and presentations of their lectures.
Computers are used to develop computer based training packages, to provide distance
education using the e-learning software, and to conduct online examinations. Researchers
use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details and to get global
access to the research material.

11
Entertainment Computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The
user can download and view movies, play games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use
multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects using computers,
etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music, create music using
computers, etc.

Sports A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play
games (like chess, etc.) and create games. They are also used for the purposes of training
players.

Advertising Computer is a powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed

on different websites, electronic-mails can be sent and reviews of a product by different
customers can be posted. Computers are also used to create an advertisement using the
visual and the sound effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium via which the
advertisements can be viewed globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor
in the marketing plans of almost all companies. In fact, the business model of Google is
mainly dependent on web advertising for generating revenues.

Medicine Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information

about the advances in medical research or to take opinion of doctors globally. The
medical history of patients is stored in the computers. Computers are also an integral part
of various kinds of sophisticated medical equipments like ultrasound machine, CAT scan
machine, MRI scan machine, etc. Computers also provide assistance to the medical
surgeons during critical surgery operations like laparoscopic operations, etc.

Science and Engineering Scientists and engineers use computers for performing
complex scientific calculations, for designing and making drawings (CAD/CAM
applications) and also for simulating and testing the designs. Computers are used for
storing the complex data, performing complex calculations and for visualizing 3-
dimensional objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the rockets, space
exploration, etc., are not possible without the computers.

Government The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also for
e-governance. The websites of the different government departments provide information
to the users. Compute are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online
submission of water and electricity bills, for the access of land record details, etc. The
police department uses computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc.

Home Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home,
people use computers to play games, to maintain the home accounts, for communicating
with friends and relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education and learning, etc.
Microprocessors are embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food
processors, home theatres, security devices, etc.

The list of applications of computers is so long that it is not possible to discuss all of
them here. In addition to the applications of the computers discussed above, computers

12
have also proliferated into areas like banks, investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket
reservation, military operations, meteorological predictions, social networking, business
organizations, police department, video conferencing, book publishing, web newspapers,
and information sharing.

13