Student Notes:

CORALS
Contents
1. Corals .......................................................................................................................................... 2

1.1. Coral Reef ............................................................................................................................ 2

1.2. Coral Reef Relief Features ................................................................................................... 2

1.2.1. Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs)......................................................................................... 3

1.2.2. Barrier Reefs ................................................................................................................. 3

1.2.3. Atolls............................................................................................................................. 3

1.3. Development of Major Coral Reef Types ............................................................................ 4

1.4. Importance of Corals ........................................................................................................... 4

1.5. Coral Bleaching .................................................................................................................... 4

1.5.1. Natural Causes of Coral Bleaching ............................................................................... 5

1.5.2 Anthropogenic Cause of Coral Bleaching ...................................................................... 6

1.6. Impact of Coral Bleaching ................................................................................................... 7

1.7. Global Initiatives.................................................................................................................. 7

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1.7.1. International Coral Reefs Initiative (ICRI) ..................................................................... 7

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1.7.2. Global Coral Reef monitoring network ........................................................................ 7

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1.7.3. International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) ....................................................... 7

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1.7.4. Coral Triangle Initiative ................................................................................................ 7

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1.8. Conservation of Coral Reefs in India ................................................................................... 8

1.9. Steps to be taken ................................................................................................................. 9

2. UPSC Previous Years Questions ................................................................................................ 10

3. Vision IAS Previous Years Test Series Questions....................................................................... 11

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1. Corals Student Notes:

1.1. Coral Reef

• Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—that are
related to anemones and jellyfish.
• Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous
skeleton. The polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to form these hard skeletons.
• The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky sea floor.
• The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky mass,
collectively called corals.
• When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton [coral] on which new polyps grow.
• The cycle is repeated for over millions of years leading to accumulation of layers of corals
[shallow rock created by these depositions is called reef].
• These layers at different stages give rise to various marine landforms. One such important
landform is called coral reef.
• Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into coral islands (e.g. Lakshadweep).
• The corals occur in different forms and colours, depending upon the nature of salts or
constituents they are made of.
• Small marine plants (algae) also deposit calcium carbonate contributing to coral growth.

1.2. Coral Reef Relief Features

• Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are formed on atolls) are the most
important relief features.
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1.2.1. Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs) Student Notes:
• Fringing reefs are reefs that grow directly from a shore. They are located very close to land,
and often form a shallow lagoon between the beach and the main body of the reef.
• A fringing reef runs as a narrow belt [1-2 km wide]. This type of reef grows from the deep sea
bottom with the seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea. Coral polyps do not extend
outwards because of sudden and large increase in depth.
• The fringing reef is by far the most common of the three major types of coral reefs, with
numerous examples in all major regions of coral reef development.
• Fringing reefs can be seen at the New Hebrides Society islands off Australia and off the
southern coast of Florida.
Lagoon
A lagoon – as used in the context of coral reef typology – refers to a comparatively wide band of water
that lies between the shore and the main area of reef development and contains at least some deep
portions.

1.2.2. Barrier Reefs

• Barrier reefs are extensive linear reef complexes that parallel a shore and are separated
from it by lagoon.
• This is the largest (in size, not distribution) of the three reefs, runs for hundreds of kilometers
and is several kilometers wide. It extends as a broken, irregular ring around the coast or an
island, running almost parallel to it.
• Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs or atolls, although examples can be
found in the tropical Atlantic as well as the Pacific.
• The 1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the world’s largest
example of this reef type.
• The GBR is not actually a single reef as the name implies, but rather a very large complex
consisting of many reefs.
1.2.3. Atolls
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• An atoll is a roughly circular (annular) oceanic reef system surrounding a large (and often
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deep) central lagoon.

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• The lagoon has a depth 80-150 meters and may be joined with sea water through a number
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of channels cutting across the reef.

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Atolls are located at great distances from deep see platforms, where the submarine features
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may help in formation of atolls, such as a submerged island or a volcanic cone which may
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reach a level suitable for coral growth.

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• An atoll may have any one of the following three forms-

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✓ true atoll—a circular reef enclosing a lagoon with no island;

✓ an atoll surrounding a lagoon with an island;
✓ A coral island or an atoll island which is, in fact, an atoll reef, built by the process of
erosion and deposition of waves with island crowns formed on them.
• Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than any other ocean. The Fiji atoll and the
Funafuti atoll in the Ellice/Island are well known examples of atolls. A large ‘number of atolls
also occur in the Lakshadweep Islands.
• In the South Pacific, most atolls occur in mid-ocean. Examples of this reef type are common
in French Polynesia, the Caroline and Marshall Islands, Micronesia, and the Cook Islands.
• The Indian Ocean also contains numerous atoll formations. Examples are found in
the Maldives and Chagos island groups, the Seychelles, and in the Cocos Island group.

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1.3. Development of Major Coral Reef Types Student Notes:

• The basic coral reef classification scheme

was first proposed by Charles Darwin, and
is still widely used today.
• Darwin theorized that fringing reefs began
to grow near the shorelines of new islands
as ecological conditions became ideal for
hard coral growth.
• Then, as the island began to
gradually subside into the sea, the coral
was able to keep pace in terms of growth and remained in place at the sea surface, but farther
from shore; it was now a barrier reef.
• Eventually, the island disappeared below the sea surface, leaving only the ring of coral
encircling the central lagoon; an atoll is formed.

1.4. Importance of Corals

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1.5. Coral Bleaching

• Coral bleaching happens when corals lose their vibrant colors and turn white. This occurs
when coral polyps expel algae that live inside their tissues.
• Bleaching occurs when:
o The densities of zooxanthellae decline and/or
o The concentration of photosynthetic pigments within the zooxanthellae falls. [it is no
more useful for the coral and the coral will bleach it]
• When corals bleach they commonly lose 60-90% of their zooxanthellae and each
zooxanthellae may lose 50-80% of its photosynthetic pigments.
• If the stress-causing bleaching is not too severe and if it decreases in time, the affected corals
usually regain their symbiotic algae within several weeks or a few months.

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• If zooxanthellae loss is prolonged, i.e. if the stress continues and depleted zooxanthellae Student Notes:
populations do not recover, the coral host eventually dies.
• Disturbances affecting coral reefs include anthropogenic and natural events.
• Recent accelerated coral reef decline is related mostly to anthropogenic impacts
(overexploitation, overfishing, increased sedimentation and nutrient overloading).
• Natural disturbances which cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, flooding,
high and low temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events, sub aerial
exposures, predatory outbreaks and epizootics.
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of corals to many of the various
disturbances mentioned above.
1.5.1. Natural Causes of Coral Bleaching
• Temperature
o Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin (20-29oC),
and anomalously low and high sea temperatures [corals are absent on the west coast
of tropical temperate continents because of the cold currents] can induce coral
bleaching.
o Bleaching events occur during sudden temperature drops accompanying intense
upwelling episodes [El-Nino], seasonal cold-air outbreaks.
o Most reefs recovered, with low levels of coral deaths, but damage has been severe at
places.
o This is an instance of coral reefs’ susceptibility to increased water temperatures
combined with ocean acidification.
o While the rising temperatures have increased the frequency and intensity of bleaching,
acidification has reduced corals calcifying ability.
o Small temperature increase over many weeks or large increase (3-4 °C) over a few days
will result in coral dysfunction.
o Coral bleaching has occurred mostly during the summer seasons or near the end of a
protracted warming period.
o They are reported to have taken place during times of low wind velocity, clear skies,
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calm seas and low turbidity. The conditions favour localised heating and high ultraviolet
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(UV) radiation.
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o UV radiation readily penetrates clear sea waters. The corals actually contain UV-
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absorbing compounds which can block potentially damaging UV radiation. But rising
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temperatures mean reduction in the concentration of these UV absorbing compounds in

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corals.
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Sub aerial Exposure

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o Sudden exposure of reef flat corals to the atmosphere during events such as extreme low
tides, ENSO-related sea level drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
o The consequent exposure to high or low temperatures, increased solar radiation,
desiccation, and sea water dilution by heavy rains could all play a role in zooxanthellae
loss, but could also very well lead to coral death.
• Fresh Water Dilution
o Rapid dilution of reef waters from storm-generated precipitation and runoff has been
demonstrated to cause coral reef bleaching.
o Generally, such bleaching events are rare and confined to relatively small, near shore
areas.
• Inorganic Nutrients
o Rather than causing coral reef bleaching, an increase in ambient elemental nutrient
concentrations (e.g. ammonia and nitrate) actually increases zooxanthellae densities 2-
3 times.

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 o Although eutrophication is Current Situation of Corals Student Notes:
not directly involved in • Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef regions
zooxanthellae loss, it could (Caribbean/ western Atlantic, eastern Pacific, central and
cause secondary adverse western Pacific, Indian Ocean, Arabian Gulf, Red Sea)
effects such as lowering of experienced some degree of coral bleaching and
coral resistance and mortality during the 1980s.
greater susceptibility to • Prior to the 1980s, most mass coral moralities were
diseases. related to non-thermal disturbances such as storms,
aerial exposures during extreme low tides, and
• Xenobiotic
Acanthaster outbreaks. Coral bleaching accompanied
o When corals are exposed some of the mortality events prior to the 1980s during
to high concentrations of periods of elevated sea water temperature, but these
chemical contaminants like disturbances were geographically isolated and restricted
copper, herbicides and oil, to particular reefs zones. In contrast, many of the coral
coral bleaching happens. bleaching events observed in the 1980s occurred over
• Epizootics large geographic regions and at all depths.
o Pathogen induced The third global coral bleaching
bleaching is different from • The third global coral bleaching is in progress (2015-16)
other sorts of bleaching. — after events in 1998 and 2010.
• The present one is the longest and most severe so far.
o Most coral diseases cause
• The longest and most severe El Niño ever is the main
patchy or whole colony
cause.
death and sloughing of soft • Recent research has revealed that corals that are
tissues, resulting in a white consistently exposed to low levels of stress may develop
skeleton (not to be some kind of resistance to bleaching.
confused with bleached
corals).
1.5.2 Anthropogenic Cause of Coral Bleaching
• Chemical Pollution: Increased nutrient concentrations affect corals by promoting
phytoplankton growth, which in turn supports increased numbers of organisms that
compete with coral for space.
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• Increased Sedimentation: Land clearing and coastal construction result in high rates of
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erosion and a higher density of suspended silt particles which can

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o smother corals when particles settle out (sedimentation),

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o reducing light availability (turbidity) and

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o Potentially reducing coral photosynthesis and growth.

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• Other reasons: Over-fishing, pollution from agricultural and industrial runoff, coral mining,
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development of industrial areas near coral ecosystems also adversely impact corals.
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1.6. Impact of Coral Bleaching Student Notes:

• Ecological Impacts of bleaching:

o Decline in marine species diversity
o Land masses will be directly exposed to waves leading to a risk of erosion.
o Changes in coral communities affect the species that depend on them
• Socioeconomic impacts of bleaching
o Degraded coral reefs are not able to provide the ecosystem services on which local
human communities depend.
o Reefs damaged by coral bleaching can quickly lose many of the features that is important
for the aesthetic appeal that is fundamental to reef tourism. Thus there is loss of revenue
from tourism.
o It can drive large shifts in fish communities. This results into reduced catches for fishers
targeting reef fish species, which in turn impacts food supply and associated economic
activities.
o Coral reefs are a valuable source of pharmaceutical compounds. Degraded and dead
reefs are less likely to serve as a source for important medicinal resources.

1.7. Global Initiatives

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has included coral reef conservation and
restoration as an ecosystem based adaptation measure (EBA) for coastal protection.
1.7.1. International Coral Reefs Initiative (ICRI)
• The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) is an informal partnership between Nations and
organizations which aims to preserve coral reefs and related ecosystems around the world.
• The Initiative was founded in 1994 by eight countries: Australia, France, Japan, Jamaica, the
Philippines, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. India is a
member of ICRI.
• Main objectives are:
o Encourage the adoption of best practice in sustainable management of coral reefs and
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associated ecosystems
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o Capacity Building
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o Raise awareness at all levels on the plight of coral reefs around the world.
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• The ICRI declared 2018 as the third International Year of the Reef (IYOR).
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1.7.2. Global Coral Reef monitoring network

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• It is a network under ICRI which works to provide scientific information and communication
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on the status of coral reef ecosystems to increase conservation and management for coral
reefs
1.7.3. International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)
• ICRAN is a strategic alliance of private and public organizations that acts worldwide to
address the management of coral reef ecosystems and the needs of the communities that
depend upon them.
• It operates by sharing and promoting traditional knowledge, current research, and best
practices in order to strengthen reef management.
1.7.4. Coral Triangle Initiative
• The six governments of the Coral Triangle – Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the
Philippines, Solomon Islands, and Timor Leste have established partnership to conserve coral
reefs and the multitude of species and fisheries they support.

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1.8. Conservation of Coral Reefs in India Student Notes:

• The protection of coral reef has been stressed under Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and
Environmental Protection Act, 1986 and Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). Corals are included
in Schedule I of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972.
• Coastal Zone Regulation
o In India, the CRZ Rules govern human and industrial activity close to the coastline, in
order to protect the fragile ecosystems near the sea.
o They restrict certain kinds of activities — like large constructions, setting up of new
industries, storage or disposal of hazardous material, mining, reclamation and bunding
— within a certain distance from the coastline.
o After the passing of the Environment Protection Act in 1986, CRZ Rules were first
framed in 1991.
o After these were found to be restrictive, the Centre notified new Rules in 2011, which
also included exemptions for the construction of the Navi Mumbai airport and for
projects of the Department of Atomic Energy.
o In 2018, fresh Rules were issued, which aimed to remove certain restrictions on building,
streamlined the clearance process, and aimed to encourage tourism in coastal areas.
o While the CRZ Rules are made by the Union environment ministry, implementation is
to be ensured by state governments through their Coastal Zone Management
Authorities.
• Application of Rules.
o In all Rules, the regulation zone has been defined as the area up to 500 m from the high-
tide line.
o The restrictions depend on criteria such as the population of the area, the ecological
sensitivity, the distance from the shore, and whether the area had been designated as
a natural park or wildlife zone.
o The latest Rules have a no-development zone of 20 m for all islands close to the mainland
coast, and for all backwater islands in the mainland.
• Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM) also takes up the issue of coral
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reef habitat destruction

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On the recommendations of the National Committee on Mangroves and Coral Reefs

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following coral reef areas in the country have been identified for intensive conservation and
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management since 1987:

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o Andaman & Nicobar Islands

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o Lakshadweep Islands
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o Gulf of Kutch (Gujarat)

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o Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu)

• The Coral Bleaching Alert System (CBAS) has been initiated by INCOIS since 2011. This model
uses the satellite derived Sea Surface Temperature (SST) in order to assess the thermal stress
accumulated in the coral environs. This information yields in drawing the early signs of the
intensity and spatial extents of coral bleaching
• Based on the recommendations of National Committees on Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral
Reefs, 24 wetland, 33 mangrove and four coral reef areas in the country have been identified
by the Ministry for conservation and management
• National Coral Reef Research Centre has been established at Port Blair. Database Network
and Website on Coral Reefs has also been established.
• Blue flag Certification of beaches- Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate
Change (MoEFCC) has announced the first time eight beaches of India are recommended for
the coveted International eco-label, the Blue flag certification.

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 Blue Flag Certification: Student Notes:
• This Certification is accorded by an international agency “Foundation for Environment Education,
Denmark” based on 33 stringent criteria in four major heads i.e
o Environmental Education and Information,
o Bathing Water Quality,
o Environment Management and Conservation and
o Safety and Services on the beaches.
• It started in France in 1985 and has been implemented in Europe since 1987, and in areas outside
Europe since 2001 when South Africa joined.
• Japan and South Korea are the only countries in South and southeastern Asia to have Blue Flag
beaches.
o Spain tops the list with 566 such beaches; Greece and France follow with 515 and 395,
respectively.

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1.9. Steps to be taken

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• It is important to undertake immediate actions to address climate change under the Paris
Agreement’s goal of limiting global average temperature increase to 1.5℃ above pre-
industrial temperatures.
• Measures to combat local stressors causing coral bleaching:
o Regulate tourism
o Check water pollution by treating industrial effluents before discharging them into the
sea, reduction is use of chemical fertilizers in farms
o Ban fishing and harvesting of protected species.
o Regularly service and maintain fishing vessels so that they cause minimum pollution
o Regulate construction along the coast
o Banning of the quarrying of massive corals.
• Coral restoration programs can play an important role in conserving coral reefs. For example,
the innovative Force Blue project is training retired Special Forces soldiers to transplant
endangered coral species

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• A recent paper published in Nature argues that there should be focus on strengthening the Student Notes:
reefs, to make them immune to pollution (for example through genetic engineering and of
restoring reefs by targeting more resilient corals)
• Improved scientific knowledge is required to inform an effective response to threats to coral
reefs
• Community awareness and education programmes are required to educate and inform the
public, policymakers and other stakeholders of the ecological and socio-economic values of
coral reef ecosystems.
• Recommendations of Task Force on Islands, Coral Reefs, Mangroves and Wetlands (11th Five
Year Plan 2007-2012) on empowerment of coastal community and sustainable solutions to
be implemented.
• Bio Rock Technology- This technology works by passing a small amount of electrical current
through electrodes in the water.
o Bio rock is the name given to the substance formed by electro accumulation of minerals
dissolved in seawater on steel structures that are lowered onto the sea bed and are
connected to a power source, (solar panels that float on the surface of water)
o When a positively charged anode and negatively charged cathode are placed on the sea
floor, with an electric current flowing between them, calcium ions combine with
carbonate ions and adhere to the structure (cathode).
o This results in calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow
quickly.
o In 2015, a group of ZSI scientists had successfully restored branching coral species
(staghorn corals) belonging to the family Acroporidae (Acropora formosa, Acropora
humilis, Montipora digitata) that had gone extinct about 10,000 years ago to the Gulf of
Kachchh.

2. UPSC Previous Years Questions

Mains
1. Assess the impact of global warming on the coral life system with examples.(2019)
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Prelims
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1. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2015)

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1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

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2. Gulf of Kutch
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3. Gulf of Mannar
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4. Sunderbans
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Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Solution: (A)

2. The scientific view is that the increase in global temperature should not exceed 2 °C
above pre-industrial level. If the global temperature increases beyond 3°C above the pre-
industrial level, what can be its possible impact/impacts on the world? (2015)
1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon source
2. Widespread coral mortality will occur.
3. All the global wetlands will permanently disappear.
4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible anywhere in the world.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Solution: (B)

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3. Vision IAS Previous Years Test Series Questions Student Notes:

1. Define corals and reefs. Describe the ideal conditions for coral reef formation? Also give
an account of distribution of coral reefs in India.
Approach:
Questions are very basic and specific in nature. So, specific answers should be provided
for each part.
Answer:
A reef is a strip or ridge of rocks, sand, or coral that rises to or near the surface of a body
of water. The best-known reefs are the coral reefs developed through biotic processes
dominated by corals and calcareous algae.
Corals are animals, even though they may exhibit some of the characteristics of plants
and are often mistaken for rocks. Corals can exist as individual polyps (a small sea animal
that has a body shaped like a tube), or in colonies and communities that contain
hundreds to hundreds of thousands of polyps. Corals are found throughout the oceans,
from deep, cold waters to shallow, tropical waters.
Conditions needed for growth of Coral Reefs:
• Shallow coral reefs grow best in warm water.
• Reef-building corals prefer clear and shallow water with lots of sunlight.
• Corals also need salt water to survive.
• Other factors influencing coral distribution are availability of hard-bottom substrate
and the availability of food such as plankton.
Coral Reefs in India
The coral reef ecosystems are found in four regions of India which are:
Region Type of Reef
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Andaman & Nicobar Islands Fringing Reefs

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Gulf of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Fringing Reefs

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Gulf of Kutchh (Gujarat) Fringing Reefs

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Lakshadweep Islands Atolls

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2. Lakshadweep has been facing a drastic decline in coral cover in recent years. Discuss
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various environmental and anthropogenic factors behind this phenomenon. How can
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El Nino be disastrous for the world’s coral reefs? Illustrate.

Approach:
Answer can be framed simply in three parts. First, brief introduction of the phenomenon.
Second, explanation of underlying factors of coral bleaching. Third, description of effects
of El Nino on corals, with examples.
Answer:
Lakshadweep is the major area of coral formation in India. Unfortunately it is facing
decline in coral reefs as reported that till 2010, the live coral reef cover in the island was
recorded at 27 per cent, which dropped to 11 per cent in the subsequent year because
of the May 2010 bleaching. This decline is presenting the serious threat to marine
ecosystem and livelihood prospects of local community.
The various environmental and anthropogenic factors that are contributing to coral
degradation are:

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 Student Notes:
(i) Environmental
• Climate change: the rise in sea surface temperature due to El-Nino phenomenon
during 1998 caused extensive coral reef bleaching impacting over 40 to 90% of live
coral cover.
• Coastal erosion: It is a serious problem faced by the islands every year resulting in
loss of land.
• Increasing sedimentation and pollution of water is disturbing the delicate balance
of coral and their survival need.
(ii) Anthropogenic
• Population pressure: Changing demographic pattern and lifestyle, coupled with
resource harvest from the reefs have brought many reefs in the Lakshadweep to
various degrees of stress.
• Developmental activities: Overexploitation and mindless mining of coral reef
colonies led to degrading of coral reef.
• Coral tourism: Lakshadweep increasingly being promoted as major tourist
destination for sea sports like scuba diving. This results in environmental pollution
particularly of sea water.
El Nino as an anomaly is not well understood phenomenon but it is cites as major threat
to coral by scientists. It raises the sea temperature and sea level disturbing the delicate
ecosystem of corals. Further, it is well established that the last big El Niño in 1997/98
caused the worst coral bleaching in recorded history. In total, 16% of the world’s coral
was lost and some countries like the Maldives lost up to 90% of their reef coverage

3. Explain the importance of coral reefs as an ecosystem. Why are corals rare along the
western coast of the continents?
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Approach:
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Briefly introduce what are Coral Reefs.

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• Then explain the importance of Coral reefs as an ecosystem. The key word is
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“ecosystem”. Concentrate on the role of Coral reefs as an ecosystem. No need to

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write everything about Coral reefs.

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Then come to the reason behind absence of Coral reefs on the western coast of the
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continents.
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Answer:
Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems formed due to the accumulation and
solidification of lime secreting organisms known as Coral Polyps. They are also known as
the "tropical rainforests of the sea" for their astounding richness of life.
Importance of Coral reefs as an ecosystem:
• Coral reefs support more species per unit area than any other marine environment,
including about 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of
other species.
• Coral reefs are the source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for marine food
chains. They also assist in carbon and nitrogen fixing. They help with nutrient
recycling.
• As a healthy and diverse ecosystem, Coral reefs helps in recycling and purification of
water and air, the creation of soil, and the break-down of pollutants.

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 • Coral are very important in controlling the amount of carbon dioxide in the ocean Student Notes:
water. Coral polyp turns carbon dioxide in the water into a limestone shell. Without
coral, the amount of carbon dioxide in the water would rise.
• Coral reefs protect coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical
storms.
• Coral reefs with diverse range of species provide a larger gene pool, giving natural
communities survival options when environmental conditions and climates change.
The greater the number of species and hence genetic diversity in an ecosystem, the
lesser will be the impact of removing individual species.
Corals are rare along the western coast of the continents primarily due to upwelling and
strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas. Coral reefs
are very sensitive organisms and grow only in particular conditions. They are usually
found in the Tropical seas upto a depth of 200-300 ft where Sun rays reach. The ideal
temperature for their growth is 20-25 0 C. Both high Salinity and fresh water are harmful
for their growth. These ideal conditions required for the growth of Corals are usually
absent along the western coast of the continents due to upwelling of cold Currents.

4. Coral reefs are the most biologically diverse and economically valuable ecosystems on
earth. Elaborate. Discuss the factors responsible for the decline of coral reefs across the
world. Also, list some measures that have been taken for their preservation.
Approach:
• Introduce the answer by bringing out facts to show that coral reefs are the most
biologically diverse and economically valuable.
• Enumerate and analyse the factors responsible for the decline of coral reefs, such as
rising temperature, sedimentation etc.
• Enumerate the measures taken to save coral reefs, you should bring measures taken
both in India and worldwide. The questions demands measures taken, avoid giving
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suggestions.
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Answer:
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Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth. Coral reefs
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support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, including about
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4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of other species. They have
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high productivity and are referred to as ‘the Tropical Rainforests of the oceans’.
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• Reef building corals lay down the foundation of calcium carbonate which act as home
to a wide array of plants and animals.
• Coral ecosystems are a source of food for millions.
• Coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines from wave action and prevent erosion,
property damage and loss of life.
• Healthy reefs contribute to local economies through tourism.
• They provide habitat, spawning and nursery grounds for economically important fish
species.
• The coral biodiversity is considered key to finding new medicines for the 21st century.
Factors responsible for decline:
• Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature margin hence low and high
sea temperatures can induce coral bleaching.
• When corals are exposed to high concentrations of chemical contaminants or
pathogens, coral bleaching happens.

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 • Increasing demand of fish for food and tourism has resulted in over fishing of not Student Notes:
only deep-water commercial fish, but key reef species as well.
• The growth of coastal cities and towns generates a range of threats to nearby coral
reefs.
• With increased pollution, Carbon Dioxide is absorbed by Ocean leading to rise in
Carbonic acid in water. As Coral has Calcium carbonate as main component, it reacts
with Carbonic acid and slowly dissolves down.
Measures taken for preservation of coral reefs:
• Chapter 17 of “Agenda 21” specifically addresses the protection and sustainable
development of the marine and coastal environment within the context of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
• In 2003, UN-Oceans was created as an inter-agency coordination mechanism on
ocean and coastal issues, including coral reefs.
• India has taken steps to protect its coral reefs under Coastal Ocean Monitoring and
Prediction system (COMAPS), Land Ocean Interactions in Coastal zones (LOICZ) and
Integrated Coastal and Marine Area Management (ICMAM).
• It has notified Coastal Regulation Zones (CRZ) and has setup National Coastal Zone
Management Authority and State Coastal Zone Management Authority to protect
coral reefs.

5. State the conditions that are conducive for the formation of coral reefs. Mention the
anthropogenic factors that have resulted in their decline. Also highlight its
consequences.
Approach:
• Mention the conditions that are conducive for formation of coral reefs.
• State the anthropogenic factors that have resulted in the decline of coral reefs.
• Additionally, list the consequences of decline of coral reefs.
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Answer:
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Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate
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structures secreted by corals. They are built by colonies of coral polyps found in marine
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water and are generally classified into Warm and Cold water coral reefs.
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Conditions conducive to Warm water/Tropical coral reefs:

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• Water temperature in the range of 22-29 degrees Celsius. Thus, areal distribution of
corals is limited to tropical and sub-tropical zones. They will not flourish in areas of
cold currents but thrive in warm current regions. Therefore, they are generally absent
on western coasts of continents. E.g. Due to the Gulf Stream, corals are found far to
the north of West Indies in Atlantic Ocean.
• Depth of water should not exceed 180 feet as the sunlight is too faint for
photosynthesis which is essential for survival of microscopic algae on which coral
polyps depend. However, there should be plenty of water as polyps cannot survive
for too long out of water.
• Water should be salty and free of sediments. Corals are best developed on seaward
side of reef, where constantly moving waves, tides and currents maintain an
abundant supply of clear, oxygenated water.
Conditions conducive to Cold Water Corals:
• They are commonly found where current flow is fast.

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 • They are found on continental shelf, and also in deep-sea areas with topographic Student Notes:
highs, such as seamounts, mounds, ridges, and pinnacles.
• They don't have symbiotic algae living in their polyps so don’t need sunlight to
survive, hence can occur at greater depth.
• Their polyps are bigger hence they can capture food particles from lesser nutrient
holding water.

Anthropogenic factors that have resulted in decline of corals:

• Increase in temperature due to climate change and pollution: Since corals survive
in very narrow range of temperature, slight change in temperature can lead to
massive decline.
• Run off from agricultural land and chemical pollution: Results in eutrophication and
subsequent oxygen depletion.
• Overfishing: Leads to an average decrease in size of the fish and a reduction in
predatory target fish, thus, resulting in large-scale ecosystem change. This affects
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coral ecosystem.
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• Destructive fishing and boating practices: Leads to habitat destruction and

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disintegration of reef ecosystem.

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• Marine Pollution: Incidents such as increase in sea transport, oil spill etc. destroy
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coral reefs
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• Uncontrolled tourism activities: Lead to breakage of coral colonies and leads to

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tissue damage.
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• Coastal construction and shoreline development: Results in heavy sedimentation,

which can lead to coral reef destruction.
• Introduction of invasive species in ocean by humans too lead to change in the coral
ecosystem.
• Coral mining: Live coral is removed from reefs for use as bricks etc.
About 60% of the world's reefs may be at risk due to destructive, human-related activities
and climate change. Further, by 2030s, 90% of reefs are expected to be at risk; and by
2050, it is predicted that all coral reefs will be in danger.
Its consequences include:
• It will impact marine ecosystem, as coral reefs are some of the most bio diverse and
productive ecosystems.
• Reefs act as natural barriers to shorelines, protecting them from the effects of
moving water. As coral reefs die, coastlines become more susceptible to damage and
flooding from storms, hurricanes, and cyclones.

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 • Without coral reefs, ocean will not be able to absorb as much CO2, leaving more CO2 Student Notes:
in atmosphere.
• Loss of the coral reefs will have a devastating impact on tropical countries’
economies, food supplies, and safety of their coastal communities.
Hence, it is important that efforts be taken to conserve them else thousands of years of
natural change, will not survive.

6. Highlight the significance of corals in marine ecosystem. Also, throw a light on the
phenomena of coral bleaching.
Approach:
• Briefly explain the corals and coral reefs.
• Discuss the significance of coral reefs in marine ecosystem.
• Explain coral bleaching and factors responsible for it.
Answer:
Coral reefs are large underwater structures composed of the skeletons of colonial marine
invertebrates called coral. The coral species extract calcium carbonate from seawater to
create a hard, durable exoskeleton that protects their soft, sac-like bodies.
They are known as the tropical rainforests of the seas. A quarter of all marine life depends
on coral reefs and over 500 million people worldwide rely on coral reefs for food security,
economic well-being, and cultural identity. In India, majority of coral reefs are
situated in Andaman & Nicobar, Lakshadweep, Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar
and Malvan.
Significance of coral reefs in marine ecosystem:
• Coastal protection: Coral reefs break the power of the waves during storms,
hurricanes, typhoons, and even tsumanis. By preventing coastal erosion, flooding,
and loss of property on the shore, the reefs help save economic and human cost
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related to destruction and displacement.

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• Habitats: Reefs provide habitats and shelter for many marine organisms. They are
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vital to the world’s fisheries and form the nurseries for about a quarter of the ocean's
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fish.
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Nutrient recycling: Reefs assist in carbon and nitrogen fixing and help with nutrient
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recycling. Corals are also the source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for
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marine food chains.

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• Water Filtration: They act as filter feeders, which means that they consume
particulate matter suspended in the water column. This contributes to enhanced
quality and clarity of oceanic water.
• Climate records: The study of coral reefs provide a clear, scientifically-testable record
of climatic events over the past million years or so.
However, corals are now facing threat of Coral bleaching due to various different
anthropogenic factors. Coral bleaching occurs when abnormal environmental conditions,
such as warmer sea temperatures, cause corals to expel tiny photosynthetic algae,
draining them of their color. It is a stress response to other biotic and abiotic factors such
as:
• Exposure to increased solar irradiance: Photosynthetically active radiation and
ultraviolet band light combined with thermal stress causes bleaching in shallow-
water corals.
• Runoff and pollution: Storm generated precipitation can rapidly dilute ocean water
and run-off can carry pollutants, which can bleach near shore corals.

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 Student Notes:

• Extreme low tides: They can also cause bleaching in shallow corals due to exposure
to the air during these tides.
Recognizing these threats, there are many global initiatives focused on protecting Coral
reefs around the globe such as - Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN), Global
Coral Reef Alliance (GCRA), and International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). They play an
important role in monitoring the reef zones and raising awareness in the public.
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Additionally, prohibiting establishment of industries causing harm to corals reefs and

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preventing plastic pollution would protect coral ecosystems.

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