Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy (2021) 23:203–218

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-020-01982-0

ORIGINAL PAPER

Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India

Joseph Fiksel1 · Praveena Sanjay2 · Kavya Raman3

Received: 29 September 2020 / Accepted: 30 October 2020 / Published online: 11 November 2020
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
Developing nations, including India, face a number of daunting challenges in the twenty-first century, including popula-
tion growth, political strife, rapid urbanization, food and water scarcity, environmental pollution, infectious diseases, and
climate change. In this turbulent era, there is a need for resilience at every level—from the village family to the corporate
boardroom to the halls of government. We argue that achieving resilience will require both enlightened government policies
and successful initiatives by social and environmental innovators that demonstrate the capacity for adapting to these chal-
lenges. Such practical first steps can serve as models for creating a more resilient and sustainable economy in India. One way
to stimulate rapid progress is development of circular economy solutions that create innovative pathways for utilization of
discarded materials, thus seeking to eliminate waste. Previous research has shown that such initiatives reduce environmental
pressures and improve community resilience, while stimulating the regional economy. An international conference on Waste
Management Innovation, held in 2017 in Mumbai with funding from the US Consulate General, resulted in the award of
seed grants to two Indian non-profits that sought to apply circular economy principles to regional communities—one urban
and one rural. These initiatives provide case studies of circular economy implementation. The World Institute of Sustainable
Energy has developed an action plan to capture at least 60 percent of the electronic waste generated in the city of Pune, one
of the largest metropolitan areas in India. Their approach is based on circular economy principles, and has been embraced
in stakeholder meetings with city officials as well as local residents and non-governmental organizations. Barefoot College
has established and demonstrated a low-cost, end-to-end solid waste management model for rural villages that is designed by
the local community. Their unique approach ensures sanitation, environmental protection, income and livelihood generation,
and drives behavioral change in village residents by motivating them to maintain community hygiene. This paper presents
the results of these two efforts, and suggests what lessons were learned. One overarching insight is that an integrated systems
view is necessary to understand the interplay of economic, environmental, and social forces.

* Joseph Fiksel
fiksel.2@osu.edu
Praveena Sanjay
praveena.ccs@wisein.org
Kavya Raman
kavyaraman8@gmail.com
1
The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
2
World Institute of Sustainable Energy, Pune, Maharashtra,
India
3
Social Work and Research Centre, Barefoot College, Tilonia,
Rajasthan, India

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204 J. Fiksel et al.

Graphic abstract

Keywords Resilience · Waste · Circular economy · Sustainable development · Systems thinking · India

Abbreviations the focus on long-term sustainability is often trumped by

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board social and political turbulence, as well as unexpected dis-
CSO Civil Society Organization ruptions such as terrorism, industrial accidents and extreme
MeitY Ministry of Electronics and Information weather events. Most recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has
Technology dealt a severe blow to the health and safety of India’s diverse
MoEFCC Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate population, as well as to India’s burgeoning economy. Unfor-
Change tunately, the adverse impacts of these stress factors will dis-
MPCB Maharashtra Pollution Control Board proportionately affect the informal sectors of the economy
NGO Non-governmental Organization where hundreds of millions of lower-caste workers struggle
NGT National Green Tribunal to support themselves and their families.
PMC Pune Municipal Corporation In this time of disruptive change, there is a clear need
PRO Producer Responsibility Organization for resilience at every level—from the peasant family to the
SDGs Sustainable Development Goals corporate boardroom to the halls of government. We define
resilience as “the capacity for a system to survive, adapt,
and flourish in the face of turbulent change and uncertainty”
The need for resilience (Fiksel 2015). In the context of economic development, the
“system” is extremely complex, since it involves produc-
In recent years, the rapid growth of the Indian economy has ers, supply chains, consumers, waste handlers, regulators,
been accompanied by an array of social and environmental and non-governmental organizations that may be located in
stress factors, including population growth, political strife, different geographic zones. Moreover, a true systems view
rapid urbanization, food and water scarcity, environmental must consider the social and environmental consequences of
pollution, and climate change. By 2050, half of India’s popu- remaining in the current state, the potential benefits to vari-
lation will live in cities, and municipal solid waste volume ous stakeholders of proposed adaptations, and the accom-
is expected to triple to about 436 million metric tons (MT) panying uncertainties.
(Lal 2013). While India has committed to the UN Sustain- Resilience is often confounded with sustainability. The
able Development Goals (SDGs), termed the Agenda 2030 two concepts are closely related, but quite different in scope
(U.N. 2015), progress is hampered by haphazard urban and time scale. Sustainability represents a long-term view,
development and ineffective regulatory controls. Moreover, considering how decisions that we make today will influence

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Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India 205

the well-being of both present and future generations. It is Swachh Bharat (Clean India) Mission in 2014, a series of
based on an idealistic view of productive harmony between more stringent rules were issued in 2016 for solid waste
humans and the environment. Resilience is a more prag- management, including specific requirements for plas-
matic, real-time concept—considering how to overcome tic wastes, electronic wastes, construction and demolition
unexpected disruptions while building an organization or debris, biomedical wastes, and hazardous wastes. However,
community that embraces change. despite these regulatory efforts, the Indian economy will
Generally speaking, we can say that a sustainable system continue to generate growing waste streams due to increase
is more resilient to disruptions and a resilient system is more in population, urbanization, crops and livestock, resulting in
sustainable in the long run. In other words, sustainability and significant human health and environmental impacts.
resilience are distinct but mutually reinforcing. However, For India to achieve continued economic growth, poverty
sustainability and resilience may not always be synergistic. alleviation, hunger elimination, human development, and
There are situations where sustainability and resilience are environmental improvement, new transformative solutions
opposing rather than reinforcing. For example, by storing are needed rather than incremental improvements. Beyond
backup supplies, a company may improve business conti- the obvious concerns about waste proliferation, improved
nuity but this also increases the environmental footprint. In waste management is important for controlling a significant
the Indian context, we argue that both resilience and sus- source of greenhouse gases (GHGs)—methane emissions
tainability can be achieved by a combination of enlightened from landfills, as well as nitrous oxide and methane from
government policies based on systems thinking, as well as agricultural waste combustion. Moreover, material through-
successful initiatives by social and environmental innova- put is a major driver of GHG emissions, and hence waste
tors. These practical first steps can serve as models to be reduction will significantly decrease energy and material
replicated, thus defining a path forward toward a resilient demand and the associated GHG emissions throughout
and sustainable Indian economy. global supply chains (Fiksel 2011).
This paper describes the results of a conference on Waste
Management Innovation held in Mumbai in April 2017, with
Waste management challenges in India the purpose of stimulating waste minimization strategies
based on “circular economy” principles (OSU 2017). The
For purposes of achieving both sustainability and resilience, conference was sponsored by the US Consulate in Mumbai,
a critical area that must be addressed in India is the man- which offered seed grants to non-profit organizations for
agement of municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes in demonstration of innovative approaches. The accomplish-
both urban and rural areas. As of 2016, urban areas in India, ments of two grantee organizations are described below—
representing about 377 million people, generated 62 mil- one in an urban context and the other in a rural context.
lion MT of municipal solid waste each year. Of this, only
about 70% are collected due to insufficient municipal ser-
vices. About 20% of the collected wastes are treated, and the Circular economy opportunities
remaining 50% are disposed in open landfills, without proper
treatment or containment. Based on changing consumption The concept of “circular economy” as a strategy for waste
patterns and rapid economic growth, urban municipal solid elimination has been broadly adopted in the business world.
waste generation is projected to reach 165 million MT by Companies have sought to achieve “zero waste” by find-
2030. (India Environment Portal 2016). ing uses for discarded materials and closing the loop in
In rural areas, agricultural wastes including crop and their supply network. Circularity not only offers economic
animal residues are often burnt in the fields or used as tra- benefits and reduces a company’s ecological footprint, but
ditional household fuels. These practices have resulted in also increases both business and community resilience by
severe pollution of air, soil and water, creating health prob- reducing dependence upon scarce resources and long-dis-
lems for both workers and nearby households. Recycling tance supply chains. The concept has been implemented
and composting programs are unable to keep pace with the by progressive business leaders as a cost-effective means
growth of waste, although small startup companies and of improving corporate sustainability and resilience (Ellen
NGOs are introducing new solutions ranging from high-tech MacArthur Foundation 2017).
waste processing to improve training and support for waste The practice of circular economy requires a systems
picker communities (Fiksel and Lal 2018). approach that considers the broader economic, social and
In theory, much of this waste could be beneficially used environmental systems in which commercial supply chains
as renewable energy or materials. However, the challenges operate. Figure 1 shows how a systems approach can be
of modernizing waste collection, segregation, treatment and used to model the generation and disposition of wastes
disposal are enormous. Following the establishment of the throughout the business value chain; this approach is based

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206 J. Fiksel et al.

Fig. 1  A Systems View of Circular Economy Processes

on the triple value framework, which explicitly maps the lower carbon emissions, and supply chain risk reduction
interdependencies among three types of dynamic systems— (WEF 2013). Circular economy practices include reverse
industries, communities, and the environment (Fiksel et al. logistics (eg., refurbishment of containers, pallets, used or
2014). Resources are extracted from the environment, move defective products), beneficial reuse of wasted materials
through production processes to create value for markets, or energy (e.g., composting, used oil recovery, biodiges-
and then the wastes are disposed or recycled. The lifecycle tion of organics, combined heat and power), and business
stages shown in Fig. 1 include extraction of raw materials model innovation (eg., dematerialization, resource pooling,
from terrestrial sources, transport, processing, manufactur- product-as-a-service).
ing and packaging into finished products, distribution and A particularly effective circular economy practice is
product support through various market channels, con- called by-product synergy (BPS), first introduced by the US
sumer use of products, and final disposal or recycling of the Business Council for Sustainable Development and widely
residual wastes. These wastes are generated in solid, liquid, adopted by companies in diverse industries (Cimren et al.
and gaseous forms, and may include hazardous pollutants 2010). By collaborating across industry lines, companies
and greenhouse gases. In this type of holistic analysis, it is can avoid landfilling costs and reduce material procurement
important to account for direct consequences, such as finan- costs by converting industrial or municipal wastes into feed-
cial benefits, as well as indirect or unintended consequences, stocks for other industrial processes, thus turning waste into
including environmental and social impacts. profit. This not only contributes to long-term sustainabil-
The circular economy strategy envisions that industrial ity by reducing a company’s ecological footprint, but also
and consumer wastes can replace virgin materials—so that improves a company’s resilience by reducing dependence
inefficient and harmful waste disposal is essentially elimi- on imported supplies and scarce resources. BPS is by far
nated. Many existing waste streams are underutilized; for the shortest and most efficient path to achieving a circular
example, municipal solid waste contains about 85% of bio- economy. Municipal waste recovery is much more resource-
mass and other combustible materials, comprising a mixture intensive, and in any case, municipal waste is only a small
of energy-rich fuels. Likewise, coal combustion residues fraction of the total solid waste generated by industry.
from power plants, such as fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, More broadly, taking a systems approach enables har-
and flue gas desulfurization residues, can be beneficially monization of industrial processes with natural processes,
used in concrete and cement production, structural fills, which provide industries with important ecosystem services
building products, gypsum wallboard, and surface stabili- such as flood control, pollutant absorption, and carbon (C)
zation. The World Economic Forum estimates that based on sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems such as soil, vegeta-
current technologies, the circular economy approach could tion and wetlands (Fiksel et al. 2014). These services from
save more than $1 trillion/yr globally due to lower costs, nature can mitigate climate change and air pollution, restore

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Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India 207

soil health, enhance the quality and renewability of water management, and sustainable intensification, i.e., produc-
resources, and generally improve the environment. Today, ing more from less, can increase soil resilience and restore
many progressive companies are recognizing the importance the carbon pool, providing multiple benefits—greenhouse
of ecosystem services to ensure the resilience of their supply gas sequestration, improved water quality and conserva-
chains, and are pursuing resource efficiency together with tion, decreased nutrient loss, reduced soil erosion, greater
end-of-life waste minimization, recovery, and reuse (Fiksel crop yields, and food and nutritional security (Lal 2016).
2015). India generates an estimated 1.6 MMT per year of agri-
Circular economy design should strive to be inclusive by cultural wastes, but a large proportion of these resources
considering how management decisions may impact various can be composted and used as soil amendments. With
stakeholder groups, including the poor and other underrep- judicious use of chemical fertilizers, this would eliminate
resented segments of society that are especially vulnerable the nutrient deficit in agricultural soils while sequestering
to the health impacts of waste proliferation. Stewardship of carbon and improving the health of soil, plants, animals,
natural capital (i.e., ecological resources) and social capital people and the environment. Agricultural wastes can also
(i.e., community solidarity) will help companies to achieve be utilized as industrial raw materials; for example, rice
profitable waste reduction or avoidance in ways that not only husk ash is a valuable industrial raw material for steel,
benefit their shareholders and business partners but also earn cement, and refractory bricks, and can also be used for
the respect and appreciation of public stakeholders. Thus, waste water treatment, thermal insulation, mortar and con-
judicious management of all waste sources (industrial, agri- crete production, soil amendment, and silica production.
cultural and municipal) can advance progress toward many Similarly, bagasse from sugarcane can be used to generate
of the UN SDGs. In particular, circular economy practices energy.
will contribute to Goal 12—environmentally sound man- A recent Accenture study suggested that India can
agement of chemicals and wastes, including reduction in unlock approximately half-a-trillion dollars of economic
releases, and Goal 3—ensuring healthy lives and well-being, value by 2030 through adoption of Circular Economy busi-
including reduction in deaths and illnesses due to environ- ness models. As shown in Fig. 2, this could be achieved by
mental pollution. a combination of strategies—reduction in wasted material
In the agricultural sector, best management practices and energy resources, improved utilization of products and
such as conservation agriculture, integrated nutrient capital assets, product life extension, and value recovery
from waste streams.

Fig. 2  Value Realization Potential from Circular Business Models by 2030 (Accenture 2019)

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208 J. Fiksel et al.

Case study: circular economy system • Assessment of the circular economy framework for
for urban electronic waste e-waste, both at the global and national level, with the
objective of extrapolating best practices in the model
The World Institute of Sustainable Energy (WISE) is a e-waste framework for Pune city.
not-for-profit organization established in 2004, based in • Analysis of health and environmental risks associated
Pune, India. WISE is committed to the cause of promoting with unscientific e-waste handling.
sustainable energy and sustainable development through • Analysis of current e-waste management system
the advancement of low-carbon, renewable, and energy and loss in value due to rudimentary techniques and
efficient pathways that pave the way toward achieving the improper handling of e-waste.
sustainability goals of energy security, livelihood security,
and climate security. Mediating public policy through pro- The WISE team spent considerable effort to character-
active interventions is the prime objective of the Institute. ize the e-waste regulatory regime and management prac-
This seed grant supported WISE’s efforts to engage tices in India (see Fig. 3). E-waste is primarily managed
with concerned stakeholders regarding the current elec- by civil society organizations (CSOs) and the private sec-
tronic waste (e-waste) management systems and practices tor. Government legislation provides the framework for
in the city of Pune. The WISE team was able to identify this process, and the 2018 E-waste Management Rules
the challenges and issues faced by the various stakeholder include Extended Producer Responsibility. The Central
groups, including government authorities, civil society Pollution Control Board (CPCB), a statutory body under
organizations, private entrepreneurs, citizens’ groups, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change
waste-pickers, and household consumers. Based on these (MoEFCC), prepares guidelines for implementation of
insights, WISE developed a comprehensive action plan the e-waste rules by the respective State Pollution Con-
that provides practical strategies to enable a circular econ- trol Boards. For Pune, the Maharashtra Pollution Control
omy for urban e-waste management. Board (MPCB) is the state regulatory body responsible for
The electrical and electronics market in India has grown granting and monitoring authorizations for e-waste man-
rapidly, and was projected to reach $400 billion by 2020 agement. PMC is the urban civic body that governs Pune
(ASSOCHAM 2018). However, rapid technological obsoles- and is responsible for solid waste management in the city.
cence and increased consumer purchasing power have led a PMC currently has only a small e-waste cell. In the
sharp increase in the generation of e-waste. India accounted absence of appropriate guidelines, the role of the munici-
for 2 million MT of global e-waste in 2016, ranking fourth in pal corporation and the e-waste cell is not defined and
the world after China, the USA, and Japan. Within India, the there are no dedicated human resources for e-waste man-
state of Maharashtra accounted for the most e-waste genera- agement. While the PMC has designated 177 temporary
tion (about 20%). Pune is the cultural and educational capi- centers for collection of e-waste in the city, there is an
tal of Maharashtra, and one of the eight largest metropoli- almost complete lack of awareness among citizens regard-
tan cities in the country. The Pune Municipal Corporation ing these centers. This has resulted in the formal sector
(PMC) estimated that the city generated around 16,000 MT (comprising local NGOs and private organizations) taking
of e-waste in 2016, of which only 8.64 MT was recycled. up the responsibility of e-waste management in the city.
Recognizing the urgent need for e-waste recycling, However, only a handful of formal e-waste collecting
WISE set out to conduct a detailed study of the challenges and dismantling centers are currently functioning in Pune,
and gaps prevalent in Pune’s current e-waste management and 95% of e-waste is managed by the informal sector
system. The objective of the study was to develop a plan (waste-pickers, known as kabadiwalas). WISE found that
for capturing at least 60 percent of e-waste generated in the this group has a keen interest in being part of the formal
next two years by enabling a circular economy system. The chain and to work as licensed collectors, and expressed
study methodology involved the following steps: the need for regulatory initiatives to integrate them into
the formal e-waste chain and assure them of healthy and
Step 1 Current scenario assessment secure work conditions.
The WISE team performed an assessment of the chal- In summary, the following are the key findings of
lenges, gaps, and issues present in the e-waste manage- WISE’s assessment of major gaps and challenges related
ment system currently present in Pune city. This included: to e-waste management in Pune City.

• Assessment of the current practices and methods adopted • The current mandate segregates only wet and dry
by the stakeholders and analysis of their effectiveness at waste. No guidelines exist for e-waste segregation and
different levels—governance, technical, financial, etc. management.

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Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India 209

Fig. 3  E-Waste Management Stakeholder Roles in India (derived from ASSOCHAM-EY 2019)

• There are no defined baseline targets, benchmarks or • Progress is inhibited by lack of appropriate infrastructure,
timelines for e-waste management. capacity building, and information awareness, along with
• No monitoring and evaluation mechanism is in place, lack of funding and financial incentives for the formal
resulting in operational inefficiency at different stages of sector.
e-waste management.
• There is a lack of proper communication and coordina-
tion among the key stakeholders, namely MPCB, PMC, Step 2 Action plan preparation
and the formal sector, leading to ineffective e-waste gov- Based on the findings from the above assessments,
ernance and management. WISE proceeded to develop a Strategic Action Plan based

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210 J. Fiksel et al.

on extensive engagement with key stakeholder groups. renewable purchase obligation that mandates a certain
This plan includes: percentage of renewable energy in power purchases).
• Conduct impact assessment studies to analyze the health,
• One-on-one discussions and roundtable meetings with environmental and economic impacts of improper
stakeholders, comprising waste collectors, municipal e-waste recycling by the informal sector in Pune, and at
authorities, NGOs, recyclers and dismantlers, estab- a national level.
lished and non-established supply chain entities, and • Organize capacity building training programs and work-
others. shops (by PMC) for the formal and (especially) informal
• Separate interactions with domestic consumers to under- sectors, on the adverse health and environmental impacts
stand their awareness levels and expectations. of handling, dismantling, and recycling e-waste in an
• Development of an implementation strategy and corre- improper and unscientific manner.
sponding Action Plan to be carried out over the short • Develop appropriate business and financial models for a
term (2 years) and long term (5 years) by the concerned circular e-waste economy that would attract more fund-
stakeholders. ing from private institutions into the electrical and elec-
tronics sector.
Table 1 provides a detailed summary of the Strategic • Undertake studies and organize conferences, seminars,
Action Plan. (A list of acronyms used appears at the end of community drives and workshops to educate citizens
the paper). about the value of adopting a more sustainable lifestyle.
• Carry out feasibility studies for designing ‘product ser-
Step 3 Knowledge dissemination vice systems’ that would integrate products, services,
The Action Plan was disseminated through a variety of supporting networks and infrastructure, to reduce waste
channels including WISE and OSU websites, stakeholder and form a circular economy.
websites, email blasts, and social media. Additionally, focus • Conduct research to facilitate adoption of the ‘cradle-
group meetings were held to ensure the feasibility of plan to-cradle’ approach, transitioning from a resource-inten-
implementation. The final report of the WISE project has sive to a resource-efficient economy that decouples the
met with wide acceptability among city officials and key environmental footprint from economic prosperity and
stakeholders across the value chain. In particular, the WISE human well-being (i.e., doing more with less for longer).
team briefed the Joint Municipal Commissioner, Solid Waste
Management, PMC and other key stakeholders, and received
an enthusiastic response (see Fig. 4). It appears that the rec- Case study: waste management system
ommended Strategic Action Plan can pave the way for more for rural villages
informed decisions by policy-makers and e-waste chain par-
ticipants, leading to development of a circular economy in The Social Work and Research Centre, widely known as
Pune. Barefoot College, is a voluntary organization founded by
The following summarizes the strategic action recom- Bunker Roy in 1972. Full-time volunteers are working in
mendations that were developed in this project. the fields of education, skill development, health, drinking
water, women empowerment and electrification through
• Draft guidelines for streamlining e-waste management solar power for the upliftment of rural people.
in Pune; prescribe rules, regulations, and penalties, if Rural areas of India present a different set of challenges
any; define stakeholder roles, and integrate these into a from those that exist in densely populated cities. In rural
circular economy framework. villages, there tends to be a lack of understanding of the
• Conduct a baseline study to assess and evaluate the total importance of personal hygiene and proper waste disposal.
consumption of resources in the electronics sector and The objective of this seed grant was to establish and dem-
the e-waste generated, thus enabling adoption of suit- onstrate a low-cost, end-to-end rural solid waste manage-
able benchmarks and targets for reducing e-waste. Such ment model that is designed by the local community. This
a study would also be relevant for national-level targets. model aims to ensure sanitation, environmental protection,
• Develop a long-term resource efficiency strategy for Pune and income and livelihood generation, and drives behavioral
that would strive for a circular economy, reducing both change in village residents by motivating them to maintain
virgin resource use by manufacturers and consumer con- community hygiene. Thus, the project not only addresses the
sumption. UN SDGs mentioned earlier—responsible consumption and
• Develop guidelines for mandating a certain percentage human health—but also contributes to poverty elimination
of recycled e-waste in manufacturing. This will enable (Goal 1), clean water (Goal 6), and sustainable communities
strengthening of the formal e-waste sector (similar to the (Goal 11).

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 Table 1  Strategic action plan
Challenges Recommended actions Stakeholders in Implementation
Short term (2 years) Long term (5 years)

Lack of defined guidelines, targets and bench- Draft detailed guidelines in coordination with Periodic review of the guidelines and amend- Local think-tanks, PMC, NGOs, voluntary
marks for e-waste management PMC and concerned stakeholders ments to make it commensurate with the groups, experts from the industry, academia,
Form an Expert Committee from government, advancements in technology and overall government
industry, and academia to provide guidance functioning of the e-waste management
Conduct a baseline study to assess and system
evaluate total consumption of resources and Develop a long-term resource efficiency strat-
e-waste generated egy that would gradually eliminate e-waste
Set benchmarks and targets for reducing Transition gradually into a circular economy
e-waste by achieving the targets set
General lack of awareness among citizens Periodic drives targeting focused groups from PMC assign implementation budget for action PMC, NGOs, industry, think- tanks, hous-
Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India

about e-waste management the industry, business, academic and house- plans ing society committees, voluntary citizens’
hold sectors Form Coordination Committee to oversee groups, print and digital media groups
Disseminate literature and undertake digital implementation
campaigns to communicate details of Provide maps of collection centers and bin
e-waste management, including safety, locations, and list collectors and recyclers on
health, and environmental impacts municipal/recycler websites
Develop an action plan for awareness genera- Provide key information on e-waste to public
tion through print, digital, and social media
Gaps in functioning of the E- waste cell at Strengthen the Cell by deploying dedicated Recruit skilled, dedicated staff with core PMC, MPCB, public and private academic
PMC and Maharashtra Pollution Control government team to coordinate cell activities competencies institutes, industry experts
Board (MPCB) Capacity building of the E-waste cell Develop curricula/courses for building skills
and specialized expertise
PMC/MPCB to make provisions for a dedi-
cated budget for functioning of the e-waste
cell
Inadequate Infrastructure and logistics for Renovate existing collection centers to expand Establish permanent infra-structure for PMC, PROs, transportation agencies, recyclers
e-waste management activities space for storage improved e-waste collection and storage
Provide supervised collection centers with PMC to fund enhanced infrastructure and
weight scales to track e-waste logistics
Place collection bins in high-traffic public Establish pooled fund for private transporters
locations Set up a centralized, formal recycling plant
Improve transportation services to reach even that will reduce unsafe recycling practices
the most dispersed locations and establish a closed loop system that
returns secondary material to manufacturers
Huge dominance of informal sector creates a Frequent interactions and training for waste- Channel funds to the formal sector to improve PMC, PRO, local think tanks, private and
parallel e-waste system with redundancy in pickers on unsafe practices, encouraging e-waste business attractiveness government organizations, NGOs
the collection channels integration into formal sector Encourage development of cooperatives with
Incentivize entrepreneurs to enter the e-waste inclusion of waste-pickers, to support job
business and expand the formal sector creation, safe practices, and integration into
PMC to facilitate and promote licensing of formal sector
informal collectors, and encourage their inte- Develop business models to encourage NGO-
gration into the formal sector private-informal sector partnerships

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211
 Table 1  (continued)
212

Challenges Recommended actions Stakeholders in Implementation

13
Short term (2 years) Long term (5 years)

Lack of adequate reporting, monitoring and Set up Monitoring Committee to ensure a Recruit dedicated staff to maintain data PMC, MPCB, IT consultant/staff, NGOs, guid-
evaluation mechanism in MPCB and PMC structured method for e-waste monitoring repository ance from local think tanks
Set up a centralized, online system to monitor,Develop modern retrieval system for statisti-
review and report data to the public on a cal and other information, and ensure easy
regular basis access by the public
Establish a dedicated desk for MPCB in Periodic reviews to evaluate performance and
the PMC office to facilitate coordination challenges in meeting the given targets
between the two entities A grievance redressal cell for concerned
stakeholders
Unsafe and unhealthy dismantling and Schedule regular training programs and work- Develop guidelines for percent of recycled PMC, MPCB, think-tanks and academia, NGT,
recycling practices cause threats to health, shops in different wards for the informal material used in manufacturing NGOs, MoEFCC, MeitY, research organiza-
society, and the environment sector to learn about the hazards of e-waste Conduct environmental impact assessment on tions
handling hazards of e-waste management
Draft and disseminate safe practices handbook Conduct safety checks and levy fines to dis-
courage unsafe practices
Lack of funding and subsidy schemes for the Allocate a portion of corporate social respon- Manufacturers to contribute to a common Manufacturers, state government, PMC, private
formal sector sibility funds to e-waste management fund for use by the formal sector corporations
Introduce incentives and schemes to promote Develop business models to promote public–
safe e-waste practices handling private partnerships for funding
Unsustainable lifestyle practices leading to Build awareness of the social and moral Drive change in consumer behavior and NGOs, think-tanks, CSOs, print and digital
wasteful production and overconsumption of obligations of sustainable production and mindsets of policy-makers, industry repre- media, publicity managers, consumer forums,
natural resources consumption practices through print and sentatives and citizens on unsustainable con- think-tanks
digital campaigns and social media, aimed at sumerism via community drives, workshops,
industry, academia, and households and national conferences
J. Fiksel et al.
Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India 213

Fig. 4  Joint Municipal Commissioner, PMC (Dnyaneshwar Molak, center) launches the WISE report on “Enabling a circular economy for
E-waste in Pune City” accompanied by stakeholders and WISE staff

The village selected for this project was Nalu, near understand the general attitudes, and survey data were col-
the campus of Barefoot College in the Ajmer district of lected from 25% of the households. The survey results are
Rajasthan. The population consists of approximately 660 shown in Fig. 5. Key findings were as follows:
families comprising a total of 3000 residents. The major
occupations of these villagers include farming, animal • Existing waste disposal system While organic waste and
husbandry, marble industry, firework factories. Many are metals are largely disposed in a non-harmful manner
employed as contract laborers, including work supported (composting or selling), non-biodegradable waste mate-
by the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, which rials such as plastics, cloth, rubber are either dumped in
aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by provid- the open or burned. These practices threaten the integrity
ing at least 100 days of wage employment per year to every of local soils and water bodies, and may endanger the
household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled health of both humans and grazing animals.
manual work. • Existing cleaning arrangements Members of the
Drinking water, electricity, education, and basic health “sweeper community” are forced to clean villages for
facilities are available in the village. However, sanitation low and infrequent wages. They are a marginalized and
facilities and practices are notably deficient. Although 90% oppressed group, treated as untouchables by the rest of
of the families have toilets, only about half of these families the village, and are not allowed to engage in other liveli-
actually use their toilets. The rest practice open defecation in hood activities.
the fields, a traditional practice that they find more agreeable • Interest in a waste management system All households
than being shut in a small room. Moreover, the community agreed upon the need for a scientific waste management
lacks any type of waste management system, so that most system and were prepared to support the system with
trash is simply burned or discarded in nearby fields. a monthly contribution of Rs. 40 (about 60 cents) per
Baseline survey In January 2019, a baseline survey was household.
conducted to understand the current knowledge, attitudes • Stakeholder involvement The local governance body
and practices of the community related to waste disposal and (Panchayat), consisting of influential men and women
management. Each household in the village was visited to from the community, was completely aligned with the

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214 J. Fiksel et al.

Fig. 5  Percent of Nalu households following various disposal practices for different kinds of waste

idea of setting up a waste management system in the vil- likely take responsibility for 3 or 4 neighboring villages
lage, and expressed support toward maintaining such a in the region.
system. Implementation of this design in the village of Nalu was
accomplished by the fall of 2019, enabling the following
System design Accordingly, the Barefoot College team key activities:
set out to design a low-cost, end-to-end rural solid waste
management system with the participation of the village • Waste collection The cleanliness workers collect segre-
community, illustrated in Fig. 6. The team estimated that gated waste from households every day. Waste is segre-
the system would employ about 2 or 3 cleanliness work- gated into ‘Organic’, ‘Plastic and other recyclables’ and
ers per village, and that a supervisor would be appointed ‘Hazardous’ at the household level. Waste collection is
in each village. Once trained, the supervisor could most accomplished using an electric-powered cart.

Fig. 6  Overview of the design and operation of a rural waste management system

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Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India 215

• Waste treatment All waste is transported to the recy- supportive of setting up a waste management system in
cling facility for processing as follows: the village.

(a) Organic waste is converted into nutrient-rich com- Step 2 Leadership and commitment
post through a 3-month low-cost composting tech- In March 2019, an all-female village committee was
nique. formed to design, build and implement the waste man-
(b) Recyclable waste is further segregated into plastic agement system. This approach ensures local relevance of
bottles, plastic food packaging, polyethylene bags, the design as well as long-term sustainability and owner-
cloth, glass, rubber, metal, cardboard, and other ship of the system within the community. The committee
materials. Each type of waste is stored separately mobilized residents to contribute money toward the waste
and sold to recycling plants periodically. management system, and was able to raise Rs 9600 (about
(c) Bio-medical wastes such as sanitary pads, diapers, $640) from the local governance (Gram Panchayat), and
and blood-stained cloth are incinerated. other influential village families.
(d) Any other residual waste is sent to a sanitary land-
fill. After implementation of this system, less than Step 3 Recycling infrastructure.
5% of household waste is being sent to the land- During April 2019, the team focused on setting up
fills. household infrastructure to promote source segregation.
(e) All the waste collected is weighed daily and docu- Discarded oil cans were refurbished to create visually
mented. appealing and functional dustbins. In a period of one
month, more than 1000 s-hand oil cans were washed,
• Waste value recovery Compost and recyclable waste painted and marked with ‘Organic waste,’ ‘Plastic and
are sold and the revenue generated is reinvested into other dry waste’ and ‘Hazardous waste.’ The bins were dis-
the system to offset operational cost. A service charge tributed to 337 households as well as the shops, schools,
is also collected from the village residents to ensure and other publicly used spaces in the village. This activity
long-term ownership of the system. had the following advantages:

Implementation of this project proceeded through the • No new material was used to manufacture the dustbins,
following series of steps: which served as a message to the community that old
and discarded items can be refurbished into useful and
Step 1 Community sensitization attractive products
February and March of 2019 were spent generating • The cost per dustbin was almost half of the price to pur-
awareness of the project and sensitizing the community chase new dustbins of similar quality
to the importance of waste management. Focus group dis- • Five local people were given employment for 2 to
cussions, mass awareness sessions using puppetry, house- 3 weeks for preparation of the bins.
hold-level awareness generation, and randomized aware-
ness meetings were conducted to engage the villagers in
dialogue and inform them about appropriate waste man- Step 4 Waste treatment infrastructure.
agement and source segregation methods. These activities The local governance body (Gram Panchayat) allocated
included: land to the organization to build waste management infra-
structure. From April to June 2019, the land was leveled,
• Seven informal group discussions engaging 100 people cleared of bushes, fenced, and made ready for construction.
• Four ward level awareness presentations engaging 300 Four compost pits and one segregation and storage unit were
women constructed to treat all the waste generated by the village.
• One mass awareness puppet show engaging > 500 resi-
dents Step 5 Village clean-up
• Two cleaning camps in the government school involving From June to August 2019, two persons from the mar-
more than 250 students ginalized Dalit community in the village were selected and
• Sensitization workshops with a village youth group (12 trained to carry out the activities of sanitation workers. The
members) and a group of local governance officials (nine two workers have taken on this role as a full-time job earn-
members) ing a regular salary. Through their efforts, all the traditional
village dumping spots were cleared and have since remained
As a result, almost every person in the village was made clear of open dumping. A landfill was created to replace the
aware of the concept that was being introduced and was existing dump sites.

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216 J. Fiksel et al.

Step 6 Waste collection launch. operation and maintenance of the system, including mainte-
Beginning in July 2019, door-to-door collection was ini- nance of the resource recovery site and overall performance
tiated using a manual cycle trolley. However, this mode of tracking.
transport proved to be unsuccessful and laborious due to In summary, this project was successful despite numerous
the many unpaved roads in the village. By September 2019, challenges, including the following:
an electric three-wheeler was purchased, making waste col-
lection much faster and easier. (See Fig. 7) More houses • Waste management and community hygiene are not a pri-
could be covered each day and the team had more time for ority for village residents; hence, it is difficult to support
segregation and treatment of the waste. Each household such systems solely through community contributions.
has been trained on source segregation, and mixed waste is • Initially, the District Administration did not provide any
not accepted from the households. Student volunteers were support for this project. There was a month’s delay in
engaged in conducting awareness sessions with households obtaining the necessary documents for land allocation
to promote source segregation. toward the project, which delayed the setup of infrastruc-
ture.
Step 7 Waste management system • Existing waste in various dumping spots around the vil-
The final step of implementation, during August to Sep- lage was an ongoing hazard, since it could not be treated
tember 2019, was the establishment of an ongoing system or recycled.
for treatment, storage, and recycling of the collected waste. • Extreme weather conditions and the 2019 heat wave in
Wet waste is composted organically in aerobic NADEP Rajasthan resulted in fewer working hours per day; the
(Narayan Deotao Pandharipande) method of composting, team was able to work only during early morning and late
which uses a wide range of organic materials such as crop evening hours.
residues, weeds, forest litter and kitchen waste with an end-
product of a fertilizer that serves as a good alternative to Notwithstanding these challenges, the project demon-
farmyard manure. Within 3 months of filling a pit, the pit can strated the feasibility of establishing a low-cost, community-
be emptied and the compost can be used in fields. Dry waste driven waste management system in rural villages within the
is segregated and stored under different categories—plastics, space of one year. The beneficial impacts of this work can
cardboard, glass, metal, cloth, etc.—for eventual recycling. be summarized as follows.

Step 8 Ongoing operation and monitoring. • Environmental protection All dumping areas in the vil-
During the final months of the project, the operation of lage have been cleared, thus preventing animals from eat-
the waste management system was closely monitored by ing plastic and other non-biodegradable waste littered on
Barefoot College and a village-level supervisor. An ongoing the streets. Clogged drains have been cleared of waste.
process is being developed for supervision of the continued Water bodies, soil, and ground water are no longer pol-

Fig. 7  Villagers bring full

dustbins to the waste collection
truck

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Steps toward a resilient circular economy in India 217

luted by toxic non-biodegradable waste, making the vil- face of turbulent change, but also will deliver benefits
lage hygienic and safe for living. including climate mitigation, food and water security,
• Behavioral change The 3000 village residents, including enhanced biodiversity, job creation, and empowerment
men, women and children, have been sensitized regarding of underprivileged communities.
appropriate waste disposal and management. Almost all • Innovations in design and communication are necessary
households practice source segregation and have ceased to induce behavior change, ranging from recycling of
dumping and burning waste in the open. trash to the use of toilets rather than open defecation.
• Livelihood generation Two persons from the village have Customized strategies are needed due to the vast differ-
been employed as cleanliness workers, earning a regu- ences between rural villagers and urban populations.
lar income and considering themselves as members of a
dignified occupational group with high social impact. In order to advance toward a circular economy, changes
• Value recovery from waste In the space of 4 months, over in policy are needed to stimulate technological innova-
1000 kg of wet waste were converted to organic com- tion and waste management improvements. The Swachh
post that is being used to nourish farmers’ soil. Approxi- Bharat Mission represents a major step forward in raising
mately, 50 kg of dry waste have been segregated and consciousness and investing in cleaner practices. Indian
diverted from landfills. industries and municipalities have shown that they can
• Broader awareness Many neighboring villages have benefit from borrowing global best practices and proven
learned about this waste management model and are approaches that provide benefits in terms of public health,
now demanding that it be set up in their communities as sanitation, energy supply, water and land protection, and
well. The Sub-Divisional Magistrate and Block Develop- of course cost savings.
ment Officer visited the waste management site and have There are a variety of instruments available to govern-
expressed interest in funding replication of this project in ments in order to accelerate adoption of circular economy
other villages. principles. These include regulatory requirements, market-
based incentives such as subsidies, taxes, or cap and trade
It is important to ensure that these benefits are enduring schemes, payments for enhancement of essential ecosystem
over time, and that villagers do not revert to their previous services such as recarbonization of soil, and information
unhygienic practices. Monitoring of the waste management campaigns to encourage voluntary initiatives.
system is currently being performed by the Barefoot College A number of policy-based initiatives were recommended
team and the village committee representatives. The long- by an expert panel that examined the potential for circular
term aim is to fully transition the supervision of the system material and energy flows across key sectors of the Indian
to the local governance authorities in order to ensure con- economy, including automotive, electronics, and construc-
tinuity and sustainability. The Barefoot College team plans tion. (India Resource Panel, Ministry of Environment, For-
to reevaluate the impact of the program after 3 years, so ests and Climate Change 2016) The panel noted a need to
that they can better understand and document the impacts of improve the design and implementation of circular economy
the waste management system on environmental and social approaches, and offered a variety of policy recommenda-
parameters. tions, including:

• Product eco-labeling schemes to disclose recycled con-

The path forward tent and other environmental benefits
• Tax incentives to stimulate the use of greener and cleaner
The conference on Waste Management Innovation and product and process technologies
the subsequent seed grants resulted in a number of use- • Design standards that include resource efficiency and use
ful insights and recommendations, which are summarized of secondary raw materials
below. • Standard business models and financial mechanisms for
end-of-life product recovery
• Based on circular economy principles, urban and agri- • Social innovations that support sharing, renting, leasing
cultural wastes can be repurposed as industrial resources. or pooling of products
There are a variety of proven methods and technologies • Special Economic Zones providing incentives for estab-
available, ranging from centralized waste collection and lishment of recycling capabilities
processing to decentralized applications that could func- • Preferential “green” procurement schemes based on cri-
tion at a neighborhood or individual household scale. teria or approved product lists
• Circular economy advances will not only improve the • Raising consumer awareness through campaigns in print,
resilience of urban and agricultural economies in the broadcast, and social media

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218 J. Fiksel et al.

• Stakeholder consultations on policy implementation Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSO-
experiences and possible improvements CHAM), NEC Technologies India (NECTI) (2018) Electrical
and electronics manufacturing in India
Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSO-
Stimulation of voluntary compliance and innovation will CHAM), Ernst and Young (EY), Consumer Electronics and
be critical to the future success of waste management and Appliances Manufacturers Association (CEAMA), Association of
circular economy programs. The systems approach sug- Public-Safety Communications Officials (APCO) (2019) E-waste
in India: the Big ”W” impact
gested in this paper can provide a holistic framework for Cimren E, Fiksel J, Posner ME, Sikdar K (2010) Material flow optimi-
understanding the challenges, opportunities, and benefits zation in by-product synergy networks. J Ind Ecol 15(2):315–332
associated with various social, environmental, and indus- Ellen MacArthur Foundation (2017) What is a circular economy?.
trial initiatives. Hopefully, this will lead to a coordinated https​://www.ellen​macar ​t hurf​ounda​tion.org/circu​lar-econo​my.
Accessed 23 Dec 2017
portfolio of policies that will reduce waste proliferation and Fiksel J (2011) Design for environment, 2nd edn. A guide to sustain-
enable sustainable growth of the Indian economy. able product development, McGraw-Hill, New York
In summary, enlightened policies provide a foundation for Fiksel J, Bruins R, Gatchett A, Gilliland A, ten Brink M (2014) The
change, but successful policy implementation will require triple value model: a systems approach to sustainable solutions.
Clean Technol Environ Policy 16(4):691–702
stimulus for innovative demonstration programs at the local Fiksel J (2015) Resilient by design: creating businesses that adapt and
and regional level. The seed grants described here are exam- flourish in a changing world. Island Press, Washington, DC
ples of initiatives that show the practical feasibility of circu- Fiksel J, Lal R (2018) Transforming waste into resources for the Indian
lar economy approaches and develop community commit- economy. Environ Dev 26:123–128
India Environment Portal (2016) Solid waste management rules. https​
ment through active engagement of stakeholders. ://www.indiae​ nviro​ nment​ porta​ l.org.in/conten​ t/427824​ /solid-​ waste​
-manag​ement​-rules​-2016/. Accessed 25 July 2020
Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank Neha Tiple and Debar- Lal R (2013) Soil and Sanskriti. J Indian Soc Soil Sci 61:267–274
shi Gupta of WISE, who co-authored several sections of this report. Lal R (2016) Feeding 11 billion on 0.5 billion hectare of land area
We are grateful to the US Consulate General, Mumbai, for funding the under cereals. Food Energy Secur J 5(4):239–251
2017 conference and the subsequent seed grants, especially the efforts Ohio State University (OSU) (2017). In: Conference proceedings. https​
of Tasneem Kalsekar and Tejaswini Karalkar. We also thank the Ohio ://u.osu.edu/waste​manag​ement​innov​ation​/
State University (OSU) staff who supported the seed grants, including U.N. 2015 (2015) Sustainable development goals for people and planet.
the contract officer, Geetha Sampathkumar and the director of the OSU U.N. Department of Public Information, United Nations, S-108,
Mumbai Gateway Office, Nikhil Tambe. Finally, we wish to acknowl- New York, NY 10017, USA
edge the contributions of the entire WISE Project team in Pune, as well World Economic Forum (WEF) (2013) Towards the circular economy:
as the many volunteers at Barefoot College who supported development accelerating the scale-up across global supply chains
of a rural waste management system.
Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
References
Accenture and Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Indus-
try (FICCI) (2019) Accelerating India’s circular economy shift

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