CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATION AND THE FREE RESPONSE

Viscous Damping

1
Viscous Damping
• All real systems dissipate energy when they vibrate.
➔ Damping must be taken into account to the factor in the dissipation of energy.
• The simplest form of damping is called viscous damping.
• A viscous damper (or dashpot) produces a force that is proportional to velocity.

Mostly a mathematically motivated form, allowing a solution

• Damper (c) to the resulting equations of motion that predicts reasonable
(observed) amounts of energy dissipation.
𝑓𝑐 = −𝑐𝑣(𝑡) = −𝑐𝑥(𝑡)
ሶ
𝑥

𝑓𝑐 = −𝑐 𝑥ሶ

2
Differential Equation Including Damping
• For this damped single degree of freedom system, the force acting on the mass is
due to the spring and the dashpot i.e. 𝑓𝑚 = −𝑓𝑘 − 𝑓𝑐 .
𝑐 𝑥

𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑡 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑥ሶ 𝑡 𝑚

𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑥ሶ
𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑥ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑡 = 0 𝑘 𝑚 = 𝑚
𝑚𝑥ሷ
𝑘𝑥

• To solve this for of the equation it is useful to assume a solution of the form

𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑡

3
Solution to DE with damping included (dates to 1743 by Euler)
• The velocity and acceleration can then be calculated as:

𝑥ሶ 𝑡 = 𝜆𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝑥(𝑡)
ሷ = 𝜆2 𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑡

• If this is substituted into the equation of motion we get:

𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑡 𝑚𝜆2 + 𝑐𝜆 + 𝑘 = 0

• Divide equation by m, substitute for natural frequency and assume a non-trivial

solution
𝑐 𝑘
𝑎𝑒 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝜆 + 𝜆 + 𝜔𝑛2 = 0
𝜆𝑡 2
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚 𝑚

4
Solution to our differential equation with damping included:
• For convenience we will define a term known as the damping ratio as:
𝑐
𝜁=
2 𝑘𝑚 𝑚𝑥ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑐 𝑥ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 𝑡 = 0
• The equation of motion then becomes: 𝑥ሷ 𝑡 + 𝑐/𝑚𝑥ሶ 𝑡 + 𝑘/𝑚𝑥 𝑡 = 0

𝑥ሷ 𝑡 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥ሶ 𝑡 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 𝑡 = 0 𝑘
𝜔𝑛 =
𝑚
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑡 (𝜆2 + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝜆 + 𝜔𝑛2 )𝑎𝑒 𝜆𝑡 = 0
= 0 ➔ Characteristic equation
• Solving for 𝜆 then gives,

𝜆1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1

5
Case I: Underdamped motion
• An underdamped case occurs when 𝜁 < 1 . The roots of the equation are
complex conjugate pairs. This is the most common case and the only one that
yields oscillation.
𝜁2 − 1 = 𝑗 1 − 𝜁2
𝜆1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝑗 1 − 𝜁 2

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑎1 𝑒 −𝑗 1−𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑗 1−𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡

= 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙

• The frequency of oscillation 𝜔𝑑 is called the damped natural frequency

is given by.
𝑒 𝑗θ = cos θ + 𝑗 sin θ
𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2

6
Case I: Underdamped motion
• As before 𝐴 and 𝜙 can be calculated from initial conditions (𝑡 = 0),
1 1−𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 1−𝜁 2 𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑎1 𝑒 −𝑗 + 𝑎2 𝑒 𝑗
𝐴= 𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 2 + 𝑥0 𝜔𝑑 2
𝜔𝑑 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙

𝑥0 𝜔𝑑
𝜙 = tan−1
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0

• Gives an oscillating response

with exponential decay
• Most natural systems vibrate 𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔
𝑐
with and underdamped response 𝑐 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝜁 = 0.125 =
𝑘 = 8𝑁/𝑚 2 𝑘𝑚

7
Case II: Critically damped motion
• Critical damping occurs when 𝜁 = 1. The damping coefficient 𝑐 in this case is
given by:
𝜁 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐𝑟 = 2 𝑘𝑚 = 2𝑚𝜔𝑛

Critical damping coefficient

• Solving for λ then gives, 𝜆1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1

𝜆1,2 = −1 ∙ 𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 12 − 1 = −𝜔𝑛
A repeated, real root
• The solution then takes the form
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑎1 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡
Additional term by the repeated root

8
*Note about the repeated roots
• Interpretation from the vibration

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙 sin 𝛼 + 𝛽 = cos 𝛼 sin 𝛽 + sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽

𝜆1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos 𝜙 sin 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜙 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝐼𝑚 𝜔𝑑 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 𝜁 2
𝜁=0 Repeated roots; 𝜁 ⟶ 1, 𝜔𝑑 ⟶ 0
𝜔𝑛 1 2 2
𝐴= 𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 + 𝑥0 𝜔𝑑
𝜔𝑑
𝜆1 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛𝑡 cos 𝜙 ∙ 𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + sin 𝜙 𝜙 = tan−1
𝑥0 𝜔𝑑
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
0
𝑅𝑒 = 𝐴𝜔𝑑 cos 𝜙 𝑡𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡 + 𝐴 sin 𝜙 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛𝑡
𝜁=1 𝜆2
= 𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 2 + 𝑥0 𝜔𝑑 2 𝑥0 𝜔𝑑 cos 𝜙 ⟶ 1
=𝐴
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 sin 𝜙 ⟶ tan 𝜙
= 𝑣0 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝑥0 2 2
= 𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0 + 𝑥0 𝜔𝑑
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0

𝑒 𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑗 sin 𝜃 = 𝑥0

9
Case II: Critically damped motion
𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔
• 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 can be calculated from initial conditions (t=0), 𝑐 = 8𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝜁=1 =
𝑐
2 𝑘𝑚
𝑥 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑡 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑘 = 8𝑁/𝑚

⇒ 𝑎1 = 𝑥0

𝑣 = −𝜔𝑛 𝑎1 − 𝜔𝑛 𝑎2 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡
𝑣0 = −𝜔𝑛 𝑎1 + 𝑎2
⇒ 𝑎2 = 𝑣0 + 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0

• No oscillation occurs
• Useful in door mechanisms, analog gauges

11
Case III: Overdamped motion
𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔
• An overdamped case occurs when 𝜁 > 1. 𝑐 = 32𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝜁=4 =
𝑐
Both roots of the equation are real. 𝑘 = 8𝑁/𝑚 2 𝑘𝑚
𝜆1,2 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 ± 𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1
𝜁 2 −1 𝜁 2 −1
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (𝑎1 𝑒 −𝜔𝑛 𝑡 + 𝑎2 𝑒 𝜔𝑛 𝑡 )

• 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 can again be calculated

from initial conditions (𝑡 = 0)
−𝑣0 + −𝜁 + 𝜁 2 − 1 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝑎1 =
2𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1 Slower to respond than critically
damped case
𝑣0 + 𝜁 + 𝜁 2 − 1 𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
𝑎2 =
2𝜔𝑛 𝜁 2 − 1

12
 𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔 𝑐
𝑐 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝑥0 = 1𝑚, 𝑣0 = 0𝑚/𝑠 𝜁=
Damping Motions by 𝜁 𝑘 = 8𝑁/𝑚 2 𝑘𝑚

Under damping Critical damping Over damping

𝜁 = 0.125 𝜁=1 𝜁=4

13
Example 1.3.1:
• consider the spring of 1.2.1, if 𝑐 = 0.11𝑘𝑔/𝑠, determine the damping ratio of
the spring-bolt system.
𝑚 = 49.2 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔, 𝑘 = 857.8 𝑁/𝑚
𝑐𝑐𝑟 = 2 𝑘𝑚 = 2 49.2 × 10−3 × 857.8
= 12.993 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝑐 0.11𝑘𝑔/𝑠
𝜁= = = 0.0085
𝑐𝑐𝑟 12.993𝑘𝑔/𝑠

⇒ the motion is underdamped and the bolt will oscillate

14
Example 1.3.2
• The human leg has a measured natural frequency of around 20 Hz when in its
rigid (knee-locked) position, in the longitudinal direction (i.e., along the length of
the one) with a damping ratio of 𝜁 = 0.224. Calculate the response of the tip if
the leg one to an initial velocity of 𝑣0 = 0.6 𝑚/𝑠 and zero initial displacement
(this would correspond to the vibration induced while landing on your feet, with
your knees locked form a height of 18 mm) and plot the response. What is the
maximum acceleration experienced by the leg assuming no damping?

15
Example 1.3.2
• Solution:
20 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜔𝑛 = = 125.66 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
1 𝑠 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝜔𝑑 = 125.66 1 − 0.224 2 = 122.467 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
(0.6 + (0.224)(125.66)(0))2 + (0)(122.467)2
𝐴= = 0.005 𝑚
122.467
−1
(0)(𝜔𝑑 )
𝜙 = tan ( )=0
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 (0)
⇒ 𝑥 𝑡 = 0.005𝑒 −28.148𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(122.467𝑡)

16
Example 1.3.2
• Use the undamped formula to get maximum acceleration:

2
𝑣0
𝐴= 𝑥02 + , 𝜔𝑛 = 125.66, 𝑣0 = 0.6, 𝑥0 = 0
𝜔𝑛
𝑣0 0.6
𝐴= 𝑚 = 𝑚
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
2 0.6
max 𝑥ሷ = 𝜔𝑛 𝐴 = −𝜔𝑛 ( )
𝜔 𝑛
= 0.6 125.66𝑚/𝑠 2 = 75.396𝑚/𝑠 2
75.396 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 2 𝑔 = 7.68g
29.81 𝑚/𝑠
Here is a plot of the displacement
response versus time

17
Example 1.3.3
• Compute the form of the response of an underdamped system using the
Cartesian form of the solution given in Window 1.5
sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙) = 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (𝐴1 sin𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
𝑥(0) = 𝑥0 = 𝑒 0 (𝐴1 sin(0) + 𝐴2 cos(0)) ⇒ 𝐴2 = 𝑥0
𝑥ሷ = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 (𝐴1 sin𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝐴2 cos𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
+𝜔𝑑 𝑒 −𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑡 𝐴1 cos𝜔𝑑 𝑡 − 𝐴2 sin𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑣0 = −𝜁𝜔𝑛 (𝐴1 sin0 + 𝑥0 cos0) + 𝜔𝑑 (𝐴1 cos0 − 𝑥0 sin 0)
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
⇒ 𝐴1 =
𝜔𝑑
−𝜁𝜔 𝑡
𝑣0 + 𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥0
⇒ 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑒 𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑥0 cos𝜔𝑑 𝑡)
𝜔𝑑

18