City Group of Colleges Booklet Sem 1

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INDEX
UNIT– 1: PAGE NO.
 SYLLABUS 3
 UNIT-WISE DEMARCATION OF PYQ. 4-5
 LECTURE PLAN 6
 UNIT 01, LEC.1, NOTES 8-9
 UNIT 01, LEC.9 NOTES 24-25
 WORKSHEETS 26-35
UNIT– 2
UNIT– 3
UNIT– 4:
 GLOSSERY 88-90
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LL.B. (Integrated) Five Years Degree Course
(First Year) Ist Semester
Paper Code : LB-105
Paper V : Sociology I
 Unit I : Basic Concepts :

i. Sociology, Meaning, Scope and Subject matter.
ii. Society, Community, Association, Institutes, Mores
iii. Social Group : Meaning and Classification of Social groups,
iv. Family, Traditional and Modern
 Unit II : Pioneers of Social Thought :

i. Auguste Comte : Law of three stages,
ii Positivism and Religion of humanity
iii. Emile Durkheim : Social Solidarity, The theory of Division of Labour, theory of Religion and Suicide.
iv. Karl Marx : Marxism Concept of Social change, Class struggle, Division of Labour
v. Max Weber : Sociology of Religion, The Concept of authority and the Concept of Social action
 Unit III : Social Change and Social Control :

i. Social Change, meaning, factors,
ii. Distinction between Social and Cultural Change
iii. Social Control, Meaning and importance of Social control,
iv. Means of Social Control, Public opinion and propaganda, Reward and Punishment,
v. Agencies of Social Control : Religion, Family and State
 Unit IV : Sociology of Profession :

i. Profession and Professionalisms
ii. Distinction between Profession and Occupation.
iii. Society and Professional Ethics,
iv. Sociology of Law, Relationship between Law and Society
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S0CIOLOGY ( SEM.- 1 )
 Previous Year Questions :

 Unit:1-BASIC CONCEPTS :
Q.1: Define sociology,what is the nature of sociology?{2019}
Q.2:What do you mean by social group? Distinguish between Primary and Secondary group?(2019]
Q.3: Define the concept of Family in sociology.Distinguish between Modern and Traditional Family?(2019}
Q.4:”Sociology studies each and everything under the Sun.”Discuss.{2021}
Q.5:Define Family.Discuss its importance and responsible factors to convert a traditional family to
modern.[2021)
Q.6:While family fulfils man’s need for collectivity,it also provides him emotional support.Explain.(2023}
Q.7:The feeling of ‘We’ is strong in the community .Examine critically.[2023}
 Unit:2-PIONEERS OF SOCIAL THOUGHT:

Q.8: Discuss the Comtes view on “Religion Of Humanity.{2019}
Q.9:Explain the relationship between Religion and Capatalism as elaborated by Max Weber.{2019}
Q.10:Discuss the concept of Social Action of Max Weber.{2021}
Q.11:Discuss the concept of Historical Materialism given By Karl Marx.{2021}
Q.12:Religion has developed to establish moral values and unity in society- Durkheim.clarify.{2023}
Q.13:Sociology is a science like other natural science.Comte.Explain.(2023}
Q.14:Criticallyb explain Marx’s historical socialism.{2023}
 Unit:3-SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL CONTROL:

Q.15:What do you understand by Social Change? Difference between Social and Cultural change?{2019
Q.16:Discuss the Social Control. Examine the role of Religion in social control.{2019)
Q.17:’’Social Change is a universal and compulsory phenomena.” Discuss.{2021}
Q.18:What is the meaning and definition of social control?Describe means of social control?(2021}
Q.19:The speed of social change depends on social activities.Examine.{2023}
Q.20:Social change is a universal phenomena ,it cannot be stopped.Evaluate critically.{2023}
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 Unit:4-SOCIOLOGY OF PROFESSION :
Q.21: What do you understand by Professionalism?Establish a relationship between Law and Society.(2021}
Q.22:”Ethics are very important for any profession”In the light of this statement discuss society and
professional ethics.{2021}
Q.23:Law is a profession not only an occupation.In this context ,explain the characteristics of profession and
establish the law as a profession.{2022}
Q.24:What do you understand by legal sociology ?Explain the utility of sociology study in legal study.{2022}
Q.25:Define profession and describe the characteristics of Law profession.{2023}
Q.26:What do you understand by business values?Explain the professional values of legal profession.{2023}
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S0CIOLOGY ( Lecture Plan )
 Unit I : Basic Concepts :

( LECTURE) ( TOPIC )
LEC. 1 ------------------- Sociology : Meaning & Subject Matter
LEC. 2 ------------------ Scope of Sociology
LEC. 3 ------------------ Society : Meaning & Characteristics
LEC. 4 ------------------ Community : Meaning & Elements
LEC. 5 ----------------- Association : Meaning & Elements :
LEC.6 ------------------ Institution : Meaning & Characteristics
LEC. 7 ------------------ Social Group : Meaning & Characteristics
LEC. 8 ------------------ Classification of Social Group
LEC. 9 ------------------ Family: Traditional and Modern
 Unit II : Pioneers of Social Thought :
LEC. 1-------------------- Comte : Law of 3 stages & Positivism

LEC. 2------------------- Comte : Religion of Huminity
LEC. 3------------------- Durkheim : Theory of Scicide
LEC. 4------------------- Durkheim : Division of Labour & Solidarity
LEC. 5-------------------- Durkheim: Theory of Religion
LEC. 6-------------------- Weber : Theory of Authority
LEC. 7-------------------- Weber : Social Action
LEC. 8-------------------- Marx : Theory of Class Struggle
 Unit III : Social Change and Social Control :
LEC. 1-------------------- Social Change : Meaning ,Nature & Patterns

LEC. 2-------------------- Social Change : Factors , Cultural Change
LEC. 3-------------------- Social Control : Meaning ,Needs & Types
LEC. 4-------------------- Social Control : Means & Agencies
 Unit IV : Sociology of Profession :
LEC. 1-------------------- Profession and Professionalism

LEC. 2-------------------- Profession and Occupation
LEC. 3-------------------- Sociery and Professional Ethics
LEC. 4-------------------- Sociology of Law, Law and Society
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SOCIOLOGY
( UNIT- 1 )
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LEC.-1: Sociology : Meaning & Subject Matter :
Q. 1A: Explain the meaning of Sociology ?
 Sociology is a discipline in social sciences concerned with the human society and human social
activities.
 It is one of the youngest social sciences.
 Auguste Comte, a French social thinker, is traditionally known as the ‘Father of Sociology’ as he
coined the term ‘Sociology’ in 1839.
 Sociology is the study of man’s behaviour in groups or of the inter-action among human beings, of
social relationships and the processes by which human group activity takes place.
 Sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that
preserve and change them.
 Sociology is the scientific study of human society .
 It is a social science that help us to understand the world we live in .
 The word sociology is derived from both Latin and Greek origins.
Socious (Latin): Companion ; Logos (Greek): Study ----
Q.1B: Write the Definitions of Sociology ?

The following are the definitions of sociology given by various scholars—
1. According to Max Weber, "Sociology is a science which tries to give an objective (explanatory)
understanding of social action."
2. Let's see Johnson's views on Sociology, "Sociology is the science that studies social groups, their
internal forms or types of organization, the processes that attempt to maintain or change these forms
of organization, and the relationships between groups.
3. As per MacIver and Page, "MacIver and Page, "Sociology is a network of social relationships.""
4. According to Maurice Ginsberg, "Sociology studies human interactions, their states of
interactions and their consequences."
5 .Durkheim believes, "Sociology is the science of collective representation."
6. According to Auguste Comte, "Iociology is the science of social system and progress."
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Q.1C: Explain the Subject Matter of Sociology ?
1. Sociology is the study of society :
 Sociology is the study of society. This means that Sociology examines the different forms of
societies.
2. Sociology is the study of social human life :
 Sociology is the study of social human life. This involves examining the different aspects of
human life that are spent in groups and influenced by culture.
3 .Sociology is the study of social institutions :
 This includes examining the various organizations that are formed to meet the basic needs of
society, such as 1.family, 2.marriage, 3.polity, 4.economy, 5.religion, 6.education, 7.law, 8.media
etc.
4. Sociology is the study of social relations :
 Sociology is the study of social relations. This means examining the social relationships that exist
between individuals, groups, and society. For example, the study of social class would examine
the different classes in a society, their relationships, and the impact of social class on individuals
and groups.
5. Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups :
 Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups. This involves understanding the root causes
of consistent behavior of an individual or group. An example of this is the study of deviant
behavior, which examines why some individuals engage in behavior that is considered deviant by
society.
6. Sociology is the study of social activities and interactions :
 Sociology is the study of social activities and interactions. This includes examining the actions and
behaviors of individuals, as well as interactions between individuals and groups. For instance, the
study of socialization would focus on how individuals learn to interact with others in a society.
7.Sociology is the study of social groups and social systems :
 Sociology is the study of social groups and social systems. This involves examining the different groups
that exist in a society, such as primary groups like family and secondary groups like schools and
political parties. An example of this is the study of social movements, which examines how groups
come together to achieve a common goal.
8.Sociology is the study of society as a whole :
 Sociology is the study of society as a whole. This means examining all factors that affect human
life in a society. For instance, the study of globalization would examine how the integration of
different societies impacts the lives of individuals and groups .
9. Some of the key subject matters of sociology include:
 Social institutions: Sociology examines institutions such as family, education, religion,
government, and the economy, and how they shape and influence social life.
 Social structure: This includes the study of social hierarchies, social classes, social mobility,
and the distribution of power and resources in society.
 Social change: Sociologists study how societies change over time, including processes such
as modernization, globalization, and social movements.
 Socialization: Sociology investigates how individuals learn and internalize social norms,
values, and roles through processes of socialization within families, schools, and other social
institutions.
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LEC.- 2 : Scope of Sociology :
Q.-2A: Explain the Scope of Sociology ?
 If the social being etc are changing then it is difficult to find its scope.
 Due to its changing nature it is difficult to say what the scope is moreover we cannot even define
sociology.
 Scope means the subject matter or the areas of study or the boundaries of a subject. What we have
to study in a particular subject is known as its scope.
 Every science has its own field of inquiry. It becomes difficult to study a science systematically
unless its boundary or scope or boundaries. But there is no one opinion about the scope of
Sociology.
 However, there are two main schools of thought regarding the scope of Sociology:
 There is a good deal of controversy about the scope of Sociology between the two schools.
Q.-2B : Define Specialistic or Formalistic School ?
 The name is so because sociology is a special science to study society.
 The main views of the school regarding the scope of Sociology are –
1. Sociology is a specific, pure and independent social science.
2. Sociology studies the various forms of social relationships.
3. Scope of Sociology is very narrow and limited.
4. Sociology deals with specific form of human relationship .
 The supporters of this school of thought are George Simmel, Vierkandt, Max Weber, Vonwise, and F.
Tonnies .
1 Simmel’s view:
 According to Simmel, Sociology is a specific social science which describes, classifies, analyses and
delineates the forms of social relationships.
2. Vierkandt’s view:
 He defined social as ,Social is the study of the ultimate form of mental and psychic relationship which
link one to another’. He gives important to emotional relationship.
3. Max Weber’s view:
 Max Weber also makes out a definite field for Sociology. According to him, the aim of Sociology is to
interpret or understand social behavior.
 Sociology is , according to him, concerned with the analysis and classification of types of social
relationships.
4. Von Wiese’s view:
 According to Von Wiese, the scope of Sociology is the study of forms of social relationships. He has
divided these social relationships into many kinds.
5. Tonnie’s view ;
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 He said that Sociology is pure and independent. He divided society into two groups 1. Society and 2.
Community. He said society is urban society whereas community is rural society.
Q.-2C: Define Synthetic School ?
 The school of thought believes that sociology should study society as a whole and not confine itself to
the study of only limited social problems.
 The synthetic school wants to make sociology a synthesis of the social sciences or a general science,
 According to this school ---
(i) Sociology is a general and systematic social science.
(ii) Scope of Sociology is very vast.
(iii) Sociology needs help from other social sciences.
(iv) It is a synthesis of social science.
(v) Sociology is closely related with other social sciences
 The supporters of synthetic school are the sociologists like Ginsberg, Durkheim, Comte, Sorokin,
Spencer, F. Ward, and L.T. Hobhouse.
1.Durkheim’s view:
"Sociology is a science of collective representation". He believes in the collection of people in society.
When there is collection there must be wider scope for collective representation there must be majority
of people hence it will be social facts.
2.Sorokin’s view:
"Sociology is the generalizing science". He is the profounder of systematic study. In his book
'contemporary sociology' he observes that social is a general science. It studies the general
characteristics of the society of the relationship of social and non-social phenomena .
3.Hobhouse’s view:
"Social is the synthesis of various social sciences". He means social is a general study which studies
society as a whole from all aspects i.e. the combination of all social sciences .
4.Ginsberg’s view:
Ginsberg has summed up the chief functions of sociology as follows. Firstly, Sociology seeks to provide a
classification of types and forms of social relationships especially of those which have come to be
defined institutions and associations Secondly, it tries to determine the relation between different parts
of factors of social life .
 Conclusion:
Thus, the scope of Sociology is very wide. It is a general science but it is also a special science. As a
matter of fact, the subject matter of all social sciences is society. What distinguishes them from one
another is their viewpoint. Thus economics studies society from an economic viewpoint; political
science studies it from political viewpoint while history is a study of society from a historical point of
view Sociology alone studies social relationships and society itself. MacIver correctly remarks, What
distinguishes each from each is the selective interest. Green also remarks, “The focus of attention upon
relationships makes Sociology a distinctive field, however closely allied to certain others it may be.”
Sociology studies all the various aspects of society such as social traditions, social processes, social
morphology, social control, social pathology, effect of extra-social elements upon social relationships etc.
Actually, it is neither possible nor essential to delimit the scope of sociology because, this would be, as
Sprott put it, “A brave attempt to confine an enormous mass of slippery material into a relatively simple
system of pigeon holes.”
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LEC.-3 : Society : Meaning & Characteristics
Q.-3A: Explain the meaning of Society ?
 Society is an important basic concept of sociology. Sociology is the science of society. Hence, for proper
understanding of sociology, it is necessary to understand society. Besides, the existence of man is tied up
to that of society.
 Society is as old as human being itself. Interactions and relationships among human beings are studied
by sociology. These human interactions and relationships are taking place in society.
 The term society has been derived from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means a companion, association
or fellowship. It is because man always lives in the company of his fellow beings. This led George Simmel
to remark that sociability is the essence of society.
 Society means-- A web of social relations
 The term Society is derived from latin word- „socius‟ , which means –companionship or friendship.
 Companionship means – Sociability .
 Society Socius Companionship Sociobility
 Man is a social animal. Man never live alone .
 Man needs society for his living, working & enjoy .
 Sociologists have defined society with two angles:
1. In abstract terms, as a network of relationships between people or between groups.
2. In concrete terms, as a collection of people or an organisation of persons.
 An earlier social scientist, L.T. Hobhouse defined society as “tissues of relationships”. R.M. Maclver
also defined it in more or less the same terms as “web of social relations which is always changing”.
Refining this definition, MacIver, along with his co-writer Charles Page, later on defined it in his new
book Society: An Introductory Analysis thus: “It (society) is a system of usages and procedures, of
authority and mutual aid, of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human behaviour and of
liberties. This ever changing, complex system we call society.” For Maclver and Page, society is an
abstract entity as they write, “We may see the people but cannot see society or social structure but only
its external aspects … society is distinct from physical reality”.
Q.-3B: Write definitions of Society ?
1. According to Maclaver, "Society is a web of social relationships"
2. . According to C.H. Cooley, "Society is a complex of form or processes each of which is living and growing
by interaction with the others, the whole being so unified that what takes place in one part effects all the
rest."
3. According to Ginsberg, "Society is a collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of
behavior which mark them offfrom others who do not enter into these relations or who differ from them in
behavior".
4. According to Parsons, "Society may be defined as the total complex of human relationships.
Q.-3C: Explain the characteristics of Society ?
(1) Population:
A society must have population. Without a group of people no society could be formed. Of course, society r
efers not to a group of people but to system of social relationships. But for the establishment of social
relationships a group of people is necessary. This population is a self perpetuating individuals who
reproduces itselfthrough some sort of mating relationship. Hence it is the first requirement of society.
(2) Likeness :
Likeness is the most important characteristic of society. Famous sociologist MacIver opines that society
means likeness. Without a sense of likeness, there could be no mutual recognition of ‘belonging together’
and therefore no society. This sense of likeness was found in early society on kinship and in modern
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societies the conditions of social likeness have broadened out into the principles of nationality. Society
consists of like bodied and likeminded individuals.
(3) Differences:
Along with likeness, differences is another important characteristic of society. Because society involves
differences and it depends on it as much as on likeness. That is why MacIver opines that “primary likeness
and secondary differences create the greatest of all institutions-the division of labour”. Because, differences
is complementary to social relationship. If people will be alike in all respect society could not be formed and
there would be little reciprocity and relationship became limited. Family as the first society based on
biological differences and differences in aptitude, interest and capacity
(4) Inter-dependence:
interdependence is another important characteristic of society. This fact of interdependence is visible in
every aspect of present day society. Famous Greek Philosopher, Aristotle remarked that ‘Man is a social
animal’. As a social animal he is dependent on others. The survival and well being of each member is very
much depended on this interdependence. No individual is self sufficient. He have to depend on others for,
shelter and security and for the fulfillment of many of his needs an others for, shelter and security and for
the fulfillment of many of his needs and necessities.
(5) Co-operation and Conflict :
Both co-operation and conflict are two another important characteristics of society. Because famous
sociologist MacIver once remarked that “Society is Co-operation crossed by conflict”. Co-operation is
essentially essential for the formation of society. Without co-operation there can be no society. People can’t
maintain a happy life without co-operation Family being the first society rests on co-operation. Co-
operation avoids mutual destructiveness and results in economy in expenditure.
(6) Society is a network or web of social relationship :
Social relationships is the foundation of society. That is why famous sociologist MacIver remarked that
society is a network of social relationship. Hence it is difficult to classify social relationships. But this social
relationship is based on mutual awareness or recognition to which Cooley call we-feeling, Giddings call
consciousness of kind and Thomas as common propensity. Without these social relationships no society
could be formed.
(7) Permanent Nature :
Permanency is another important characteristic of society. It is not a temporary organization of individuals.
Society continues to exist even after the death of individual members. Society is a co-herent organization (8)
Society is Abstract : Society is an abstract concept. As MacIver opines society is a web of social relationships.
We can’t see this relationship but we can feel it. Hence, it is an abstract concept.
(9) Society is Dynamic :
The very nature of society is dynamic and changeable. No society is static. Every society changes and
changes continuously. Old customs, traditions, folkways, more values and institutions got changed and new
customs and values takes place. Society changes from it’s traditional nature to modern nature. Community
Introduction: Man cannot live in isolation. He cannot live alone. He keeps contact with his fell.
(10) Society is abstract:
If society is viewed as web of social relation-ships, it is distinct from physical entity which we can see and
perceive through senses. As written earlier, Maclver argued, “we may see the people but cannot see society
or social structure, but only its only external aspects”. Social relationships are invisible and abstract. We can
just realize them but cannot see or touch them. Therefore, society is abstract. Reuter wrote: “Just as life is
not a thing but a process of living, so society is not a thing but a process of associating”.
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LEC.-4 : Community : Meaning & Elements :
Q.-4A: Explain the meaning of Community ?
 Man cannot live in isolation. He cannot live alone.
 He keeps contact with his fellow beings for his survival. It is not possible for him to keep contact with all
the people or to belong as a member of all the groups existing in the world.
 He establishes contact with a few people who live in close proximity or presence to him in a particular
area or locality.
 It is quite natural for people living in a particular locality for a longer period of time to develop a sort of
likeness or similarity among themselves. They develop common ideas, common customs, common
feelings, common traditions etc.
 They also develop a sense of belonging together or a sense of we-feeling. This kind of common social
living in a specific locality gives rise to the community.
 The examples of community include a village, a tribe, a city or town. For example in a village
community, all the villagers lend each other hand in the event of need in agriculture and in other
occupations.
 The word community has been derived from two words of Latin namely ‘com’ and munis. In English
‘com’ means together and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus, community means to serve together.
 It means, the community is an organisation of human beings framed for the purpose of serving together.
 Community is a people living within a geographical area in common inter-dependence. It exists within
the society. It is bound by the territorial units. It is a specific group while society is abstract. “Community
living is natural to man.
 Consequently, a community represents a collective of individuals joined together for mutual assistance.
It embodies people dwelling in shared interdependence within a specific geographical locale,
constituting a fundamental unit within society. Unlike the abstract concept of society, a community is
tangible and defined. Human existence naturally gravitates towards community life, shaping individuals
from birth according to its norms and practices, enveloping them in their own microcosm
Q.-4B: Write definitions of Community ?
1.Osborne and Neumeyer , “Community is a group of people living in a contiguous geographic area, having
common centres of interests and activities, and functioning together in the chief concerns of life.
2.According to Kingsley Davis, “Community is the smallest territorial group that can embrace all aspects of
social life.”
3.For Bogardus it is a social groups with some degree of “we feeling” and “living in a given area.”
4.Mannheim describes community as “any circle of people who live together and belong together in such a
way that they do not share this or that particular interest only but a whole set of interest.
Q.-4C: Explain main Elements of Community ?
According to Maclver and Page, there are two main bases or essential elements on the basis of which
community is formed --
(i) Locality:
Locality implies a particular or territorial area unless a group of people live in a particular locality; they
cannot establish relations and generate the we-feeling among themselves. Living together facilities people
to develop social contacts, give protection, safety and security. Locality continues to be a basic factor of
community life.
(ii) Community Sentiment:
Community can be formed on the basis of community sentiment. It is extremely essential. It implies ‘a
feeling of belonging together.” It is a ‘we-feeling’ among the members of a community. People living in a
community lead a common life, speak the same language, conform to the same mores, feel almost the same
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sentiment and therefore, they develop a feeling of unity among themselves. The community sentiments are
developed by we-feeling. The members of community develop we-feeling by their mutual interdependence.
 Other Elements of Community :
(i) Group of people:
Fundamentally, a community consists of a group of people. A solitary individual cannot form a community
when a group of people share the basic conditions a common life, they form community.
(ii) Naturality:
A community is not deliberately or purposively created. It is a spontaneous or natural growth. An
individual is born in a community. It is my virtue of community that he develops.
(iii) Permanence:
A community is generally not temporary or short-lived like a crowd or a revolutionary mob. It is a
permanent organisation or durable social group. This durability is evident from the age-old communities
existing in modern times. A community continues as long as members are there.
(iv) Likeness:
In a community there is a likeness or similarity in language, custom, mores, traditions etc. among the
members. So A. W. Green has rightly said, “A community is a cluster of people living within narrow
territorial radius who share a common way of life.”
(v) A Particular Name:
Every community is always known with a particular name, their immediate bases of origin give such
community a particular name. For example based on the linguistic condition people living in Orissa are
called Oriyas; living in Kashmiri culture are called Kashmiris.
(vi) Spontaneity:
Every community grows itself spontaneously. A community is not deliberately or purposively created. A
kind of natural force acts behind the origin and development of communities. Various factors like customs,
conventions, and religious beliefs bind the individuals together.
(vii) Common Life:
Some sociologists like Elwood says that the life ofthe people in a community is near about the same. There
is no epochal difference between the way of life of the individuals. Their eating pattern, dressing style,
language etc. are found to be similar. Due to their inhabitation on a particular geographical area, they
develop a kind of emotional and cultural uniformity. Community is never formed with a particular aim. But
they are the outcome of social uniformity among the individuals.
(viii) Common Interests:
In community, all the members have common and collective interests. People live in community and work
together to fulfill these interests. Thus, Newmeyer says, community is a group of people living in a delimited
geographic area, having common interests and activities and functioning together in their concern of life.
Q.-4D: Write distinction between Society and Community ?
1. Society is a web social relationships. But community consists of a group of individuals. It is a specific
group.
2. Society is abstract. Community is concrete .
3. A definite geographical area is not necessary for society. But a definite geographical area is essential for a
community. It is bound by the territorial units.
4. There can be more than one community in a society. Most societies consist of more than one community,
varying in size, physical appearance, organization and specialized functions.
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LEC.-5 : Association : Meaning & Elements :
Q.-5A: Explain the meaning of Association ?
 An association is a group of people organised for a particular purpose or a limited number of purposes.
To constitute an association there must be, firstly, a group of people, secondly, these people must be “an
organized one” i.e. there must be certain rules for their conduct in the group, and thirdly, they must have
a common purpose of a specific nature to pursue. Thus family, church, trade union all are the instance of
association.
 An association is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or a limited number of purposes.
 To constitute an association there must be, firstly, a group of people; secondly, these people must be
organized one, i.e., there must be certain rules for their conduct in the groups, and thirdly, they must
have a common purpose of a specific nature to pursue.
 Thus, family, church, trade union, music club all are the instances of association.
 Associations may be formed on several bases, for example—
1. on the basis of duration, i.e. temporary or permanent like Flood Relief Association which is
temporary and State which is permanent;
2. on the basis of power, i.e. sovereign like state, semi-sovereign like university and non-sovereign like
club,
3. on the basis of function, i.e. biological like family, vocational like Trade Union or Teachers’
Association, recreational like Tennis Club or Music Club, Philanthropic like charitable societies .
Q.-5B: Write defenitions of Association ?
1. According to Maclver, “An organization deliberately formed for the collective pursuit of some interest
or set of interest, which the members of it share, is termed as association.
2. Ginsberg writes, “An association is a group of social beings related to one another by the fact that they
posses or have instituted in common an organization with a view to securing specific end or specific
ends.”
3. Bogardus, “Association is usually a working together of people to achieve some purpose.
4. Gillin & Gillin,” An Association is a group of individuals united for a specific purpose or purposes.”
Q.-5C: Explain main Elements of Association ?
(1) It is a concrete form of Organization:
Association is a group of persons collected together with some particular aim. It is, thus, a concrete
group which can be seen; while at work. Thus, in contrary to society’ Association is a concrete form of
organization of human beings.
(2) It is established:
Like community, association does not grow spontaneously. It has no natural growth and it does not
grow itself. They are created by men to satisfy some motive or cause Rules and regulations are formed
to run a particular kind of association and the member of the association run it on the basis of these
rules and regulation.
(3) Its aim is determined:
No association is formed without any aim. First, there is the problem and the solution of which, becomes
the aim of the association formed to solve such problems. For example, ifit is a dramatic association,
then its aim will naturally be to stage dramas and plays. No association can maintain its identity without
any distinct aim and object.
(4) Followers of rules and regulations are the only members:
Every association floats on the ground of certain rules and regulations. It also contains code of conduct
for the members. Those who follow the rules^ and regulations provided for and participate in the
pursuit of the aim of the association are only called as the members of it.
(5) Its membership is voluntary:
16
An association is not an essential organization like State or society. Neither it is a natural organization
in which every one’s contribution can be asked for on natural grounds. Neither there is any common
instinct among the persons based on common and unified ideology to become the member of a
particular association. And, also there is no ‘whips’ from the heaven or State to every citizen to form a
association and to become its member.
(6) An association exists for its aims and objects:
The life of an association is upto the achievement of the aim for which it has been created. The existence
of association after his achievement of the aim becomes, immaterial and irrelevant. It becomes nominal
and lifeless body offormalities only. “The aim is the soul of the association.
(7) A group of People:
An association is basically a group of people who have some common objectives. Without a group of
people no association can be formed. Hence a group of people is important.
(8) Organization:
Association does not refer to any ordinary group of people rather it refers to an organized group of
people. In other words when a group of people organize themselves for the pursuit of some common
interest an association is formed. Hence association is called as an organized group. There is certain
rules which guide the people.
(9) Common Aims and Objectives:
It is the most important characteristic of association. Because association does not refers to a mere
collection of human beings rather it refers to those group of individuals who have some common aims
and objectives. All the members tries to achieve the common objectives. Hence association is a means to
achieve common objectives. For example people having similar political objectives may join in a
particular political party.
(10) Some rules and regulations:
We know association is an organised group. Every organised group or organization based on some rules
and regulations. This body of rules and regulations governs and guides the relations of its members.
These rules and regulations are either written or unwritten. Members or officials of an association obey
these rules and works according to these rules and regulation.
(11) Co-operative Spirit :
Association is the result of cooperative spirit of some organised individuals. Hence the other name of
association is co-operation. Here people work together with a cooperative spirit to fulfil some common
purposes. This co-operative spirit helps them to realize their objectives. When this spirit is lacking there
is no co-operation and no association.
(12) Voluntary Membership :
The membership of an association is voluntary in nature. People voluntarily join in aassociation to fulfill
their desired aims and objectives. They can also withdraw their membership when they feel so. Similarly
no one can compel them to be a member of any association. But he have to obey the rules and
regulations of the association.
17
LEC. 6 : Institution : Meaning & Characteristics
Q.-6A: Explain the meaning of Institution ?
 An institution is a system for organizing standardized patterns of social behavior. In other words, a
group consists of people, and an institution consists of actions. For example, when sociologists discuss a
family (say the Smith family), they are referring to a particular group of people.
 Institutions are formal or informal social structures that govern or regulate certain aspects of human
behavior. They are created and maintained by human beings to serve specific social functions and are an
integral part of every society.
 Social institutions are systems of established and organized social norms, values, beliefs, and practices
that shape and guide behavior within a society.
 Institutions are the established ways of doing things.
 Institution is an abstract thing which refers to those rules and regulations, norms and values which
come into being through social interaction and subsequently regulate the behaviour pattern of the
members of the society.
 It is important to remember that institutions are simply, abstract concepts of organized habits and
standardized ways of doing things.
 We cannot see institutions. What we can see are families, schools, banks, temples, hospitals etc.
 Set of rules & traditions .
 Organised for basic human needs .
 A system for manage purpose of Association.
Q.-6B: Write definitions of Institution ?
1. According to Maclver, “An institution is a set of formal, regular and established procedures,
characteristic of a group or number of groups that perform a similar function within a society. In short, an
institution is an organized way of doing something”.
2. Ogburn & Nimcoff ,” Social Institutions are organiged and established ways of satisfying certain
basic human needs.”
Q.-6C: Explain the characteristics of Institution ?
1. Cluster of Social Usage:
Institutions are composed of customs, mores, rules organized into a functioning unit. An institution is an
organization of rules, and behaviour and is manifested through social activity and its material products.
In short, the institution functions as a unit in the cultural system viewed as a whole.
2. Relative degree of Permanence:
Our beliefs and actions are not institutionalized until they are accepted by others over a period of time.
Once these beliefs and behaviour get recognition they become the yardstick for evaluation of the beliefs
and actions of others. In short, institutions have a degree of permanence.
3. Well-defined Objectives:
Institutions have fairly well defined objectives which are in conformity with the cultural norms. The
institution of marriage has the objective of regulating the network of social relationships and the
members of the society would consciously work for the attainment of the disobjective. For example,
marriage in the same caste or class. Objective has to be differentiated from different functions to which
the members may be unaware of e.g. the function of marriage or gratification of sex urge and to have
children.
4. Cultural Objects ofUtilitarian Value:
Cultural objects help in the attainment of institutional objectives. The cultural artifacts, beliefs and
values system must help the institutions to attain their objectives. Cultural objects of utilitarian value
which are used to accomplish the purposes of the institution are usually involved –buildings, tools,
machinery, furniture and the like.
18
5. Symbols are a Characteristic Feature of Institution:
A symbol may be defined as anything which depicts something else. Symbols may be either material or
non-material in form. The institutions can have permanency, identity and solidarity if they have some
symbols. The members ofthat institution feels quite closer to each other by sharing the common
symbols
6. Institutions are Transmitters ofthe Social Heritage:
Social institutions are the great conservers and transmitters of the social heritage. It is in the institutions
that individual learns basic values ofthe life. The child initially plays a role of general receptivity in the
basic and multi-functional institution of the family and in this way receives the largest share of the social
heritage. In his initial helpless state, culture is passed onto him by his family.
7. Institutions are Resistant to Social Change:
As patterned forms of behaviour, social institutions are more resistant to social change than behaviour
where such uniformity and regularity do not apply. Institutional behaviour is by definition behaviour
invested with social sanctions and structures to carry out these sanctions.
Q.-6D : Differences between Institution and Association ?
1. Association represents human aspect. An association is a group of people organised for the pursuit of
a specific purpose. Institutions, on the other hand, are the rules of procedure. Family is an association
organised for the preparation of children, while marriage is its main institution.
2. An institution is considered as a ‘form of procedure’. It has no form and is abstract. On the other hand,
association is considered as “an organised group”. It is a group of people organised for the purpose of
fulfilling a need or needs. It has form and it is concrete.
3. Institutions grow, while associations are formed deliberately.
4. Association indicates membership, while institution indicates procedure of work.
5. Every association bears a particular name, while every institution is based on cultural symbol.
6. An institution is an organised procedure, an association is organised group.
7. Institutions fulfil all the primary and basic need of people. But association is a group of people
organized for the pursuit of some specific purposes.
8. The rules of an institution are based on informal mean of social control such as customs, traditions
etc., while the laws of association are formed on the basis of formal means of social control
9.Institutions are traditions and customs that are followed for generations, whereas associations are
made up of people with common interest or goal.
10.Associations are concrete (mostly), whereas institutions are abstract (such as democracy, marriage
etc).
11. Associations are creations of necessity, and get formed whenever there is a need. On the other hand,
institutions get evolved, and are time tested and trusted.
12.Associations have an interest in mind whether religious or business, and last as long as this
interest is served. On the other hand, institutions are more or less permanent.
13. Associations are born out of institutions, but institutions never grow out of associations..
(Association) (Institutions)
1. Family
(Association) Marriage, sucession
(Institutions)
1. 2.College
Family Examination
marriage, system
sucession
3.Trade Union
2.College Strike, Protest
Examination system
4.State Constitution, legal code
19
LEC. 7 : Social Groups : Meaning & Characteristics :
Q.-7A: Explain the meaning of Social Group ?
 Man is social animal. He rarely, if ever, exists alone. His daily life is made up largely of participation in
groups.
 Social group is a collection of human being. In its elementary sense, a group is a number of units of
anything in close proximity to one another.
 In the human field, by group we mean any collection of human beings who are brought into social
relationships with one another.
 Famous Sociologist H. M. Johnson remarked that, “sociology is the science that deals with social groups.”
This shows the importance of social group in sociology.
 Human beings never live in isolation. He rarely exists alone. Human life is essentially a group life.
As a social animal he always lives in group. He begins his life as a participating member of the group i.e.
family.
 He born, live, grows and die in group.
 Social group we mean a collection of human being . *social group is a collection of interaction individuals
who participate in similar activities and have a consciousness of joint interaction.
Q.-7B: Write defenitions of Social Group ?
1. According to Harry M. Johnson says that “A social group is a system of social interaction.”
2. According to Marshal Jones is of the opinion that a social group is “two or more people between whom
there is an established pattern of interaction.”
3. Ogburn and Nimkoff-"Whenever two or more individuals come together and influence one another, they
may be said to constitute a social group.”
4. Bogardus-" A social group may be thought of as a number of person, two or more, who have some
common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and participate
in similar activities".
Q.-7C: Write the Characteristics of Social Group ?
(1) Given number of Individual:
Without a number of individuals no social group can be formed. Two or more than that individual are
necessary to form a group. This number may vary.
2) Reciprocal Relations:
There exist reciprocal relations among the members of a social group. These reciprocal relations among the
members are the basis or foundation of social group without which social group cannot be formed. The
members must interact or inter-related with each other.
(3) Common Goals:
It is another important characteristic of a social group. The aims, objectives and ideals of the members are
common. For the fulfillment of these common goals social groups are formed. Here individual interests are
sacrificed for group interests.
(4) Sense of unity and solidarity:
Members of a social group are always tied by a sense of unity and bond of solidarity, common goals and
mutual relations strengthens this bond of unity and solidarity. This creates loyalty and sympathy among the
members of social group.
(5) A strong sense of awe-feeling:
Members of a social group is characterized by a strong sense of awe-feeling. This we- feeling fosters co-
operation among members. Because of this we- feeling the members identify themselves with the group and
consider others as outsiders.
(6) Group Norms:
20
Every social group has its own, regulations and norms which the members are supposed to follow. With the
help of these rules and norms the group exercises control over it’s members. • These norms may be written
or unwritten. Any violation of group norms is followed by punishment. The group norms maintain unity and
integrity in the group.
(7) Similar Behavior:
Members of a social group show similar behavior. As the interests, ideals and values of a group are common
hence its members behave in a similar manner. This similar behavior helps in the achievement of common
goals.
(8) Awareness:
Members of a social group are aware about the membership which distinguishes them from others. This is
perhaps due to ‘the consciousness of kind’ as opined by Giddings.
(9) Group Control:
Social group exercises some sort of control over its members and over their activities. This control may be
direct or indirect. Of course group exercises control only over non-conformists or deviants
(10)Mutual Awareness:
The members of a social group must be mutually related to one another. A more aggregate of individuals
cannot constitute a social group unless reciprocal awareness exist among them. Mutual attachment, is
therefore, regarded as its important and distinctive feature. It forms an essential feature of a group.
(11)One or more Common Interests :
Groups are mostly formed for the fulfillment of certain interests. The individuals who form a group should
possess one or more than one common interests and ideals. It is for the realization of common interests that
they meet together. Groups always originates, starts and proceed with a common interests.
(12)We-feeling:
A sense of we-feeling refers to the tendency on the part of the members to identify themselves with the
group. They treat the members of their own group as friends and the members belonging to other groups as
outsiders. They cooperate with those who belong to their groups and all of them protect their interests
unitedly. We-feeling generates sympathy, loyalty and fosters cooperation among members
Q.7D : Write The Importance of Social Groups ?
 Social groups, primary groups, such as family, close friends, and religious groups, in particular, are
instrumental an individuals socialization process. Socialization is the process by which individuals learn
how to behave in accordance with the group and ultimately societies norms and values
 . According to Cooley self-identity is developed through social interaction. Hence, from an identity
perspective, primary social groups offer the means through which an individual can create and mold
their identity. The development of identity is most rapid and crucial in childhood, hence the importance
of family and friends, but the development of identity does continue throughout one’s life.
 Additionally, from a psychological perspective, primary groups are able to offer comfort and support.
Secondary groups, such as members of a group assignment, tend to have less of an influence on identity,
in part because individuals within these types of groups are older and hence have a self-identity as well
as are familiar with the socialization process.
21
LEC. 8 : Classification of Social Group :
Q.-8A : Write the Characteristics of Primary Group ?

 The concept of Primary Group is given by C.H Cooley. Primary groups have the following characteristics:
1. There is face-to-face interaction among its members.
2. There are frequent interactions among its members.
3. The relations among the members are too personal, intimate and intense.
4. There is a sense of 'we-feeling' in the members of the group..
5. The members possess similar attributes such as language, interests, culture, religion etc.
6. There is physical proximity among the members.
7. These groups are smaller in size.
 Examples: Family, Neighborhood, Local brotherhood, Close friends and peers.
 Primary groups have great importance in our society. For instance, the family provides food, shelter and
care to a child. An individual learns his culture and develops a healthy personality within this primary
group to become a productive citizen of society.
Q.-8B : Write the Characteristics of Secondary Group ?
1. The group is formed by relations secondary to the primary group.
2. There is comparatively less face-to-face interaction.
3. There is comparatively less frequent interaction.
4. The relations among the members are impersonal and secondary. These relations are relatively less
personal, less intimate and less intense.
5. The members have specific aims or interest to achieve.
6. There is less physical proximity among the members.
7. These groups are larger in size.
 Examples: A shopkeeper-customer relation, a doctor-patient relation, an advocate- client relation, an
teacher-student relation, a candidate-voter relation. These types of relationship consitute secondary
groups.
Q.-8C: Write the Characteristics of In Group ?
1.A group, to which we directly belong, is called our in-group.
2.It can be our own family, tribe, sex, occupation, games or interest group.
3.For example, if I am player of a cricket team, my cricket-team is an in-group for me.
4. A religious group is an in-group for its followers. A geographical community is an in-group for its
residents.
5. The term 'in- group' is used when an individual wants to identify himself with a group or show an
association with his group, such as by saying: We are Americans. We are English. We are Christians. We
are Muslims. We are students. We are doctors. We are musicians.
6.The members of an in-group have a sense of 'we-feeling' and belongingness towards their in-group.
Q.-8D: Write the Characteristics of Out Group ?
1. A group, to which we do not belong, is called an out-group.
22
2. It can be any group of others (not ours) including a family, tribe, ethnicity, sex, occupations or interest
groups. For example, If I am a student of Psychology, the students of psychology are in-group for me, but
the students of any other discipline (other than psychology) are an out- group for me.
3. The term 'out-group' is used to distinguish one's identity from that of others or to compare one's
identity to that of others, such as by saying: We are Americans (in-group) and they are Indians (out-
group). We are Muslims (in-group) and they are Christians (out-group). We are doctors (in-group) and
they are engineers (out-group).
4.There is a sense of 'they-feeling' in relation to an out-group.
Q.-8E : Explain difference between Primary and Secondary Group ?
Criteria Primary Group Secondary Group
Definition A small, intimate, and long-lasting social
A larger, formal, and impersonal social
group characterized by close personal group characterized by limited personal
relationships relationships
Relationship Based on strong emotional ties, trust, and
Based on shared interests, goals, or
mutual support activities, rather than deep emotional
connections
Interaction Involves face-to-face and frequent Interaction may be less frequent and
interaction among members primarily based on specific roles or
activities
Duration Long-lasting and enduring relationships, Relationships may be temporary, formed
often formed early in life for specific purposes or situations
Size Typically consists of a small number of Can be larger in size, ranging from a few
members, usually in single digits individuals to larger collectives or
organizations
Q.-8F : Explain difference between In and Out Group ?
1) The groups with which individual identifies himself are his in group. one’s family, one’s college are
example of his in group. But out groups refers to those groups with which individual do not identify himself.
These are outside groups. Pakistan is an out group for Indians.
(2) In group members use the term ‘we’ to express themselves but they use the term ‘they’ for the members
of out-group.
(3) Individual is the member of his in group whereas he is not at all a member of his out group.
(4) In group based on ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is one of the important characteristic of in group. But
out group is not based on ethnocentrism.
(5) Similarity in behavior, attitude and opinion is observed among the members of in group. But they show
dissimilar behavior; attitude and opinion towards the members of out group.
(6) In group members have positive attitude towards their own in group but they have negative attitudes
towards their out group.
(7) Members of in group display co-operation, good-will, mutual help and possess a sense of solidarity, a
feeling of brotherhood and readiness to sacrifice themselves for the group. But individual shows a sense of
avoidance, dislike, indifference and antagonism towards the members of out group.
(8) In group is a group to which individual belongs to but all other group to which he does not belongs to
are his out group.
23
LEC. 9 : Family : Traditional & Modern
Q.-9A: Explain the meaning of Family ?
 Famous Greek Philosopher Aristotle opines that Man is a social animal. He neverlives alone.
 An utterly isolated individual is unthinkable.
 He begins his day as a member of a group, i.e., family.
 Hence of all human groups, the family is the most important primary group.
 No known society, ancient or modern, is free from the family system.
 Family is a unique social institution that has no substitute. It is the basic unit of social organization.
Family is the nucleus of all social structures.
 The term ‘family’ has been derived from the Roman word ‘Famulus’ which means a servant. A family is
a small group that consists of a father, mother, and children who are related to each other by kinship ties
based on marriage, blood, or adoption. A family is a biological unit that consists of parents and children .
Q.-9B: Write defenitions of Family ?
 According to Eliot and Merrill-Family is" the biological social unit composed of husband wife and
children".
 According to Clare-Family is "a system of relationships existing between parents and childern".
Q.-9C : Write Distinctive features of the family ?
1. Emotional basis:
2. Universality:
3. Limited Size:
4. Nuclear position in social structures:
5. Social regulation:
6. Persistence and Change:
7. Responsibility of the Mem
8. Formative influence:
Q.-9D : Define the types of Family ?
Types OF Family
Traditional Family/Joint Modern Family/ Nuclear

Family Family
24
1. Traditional Family :
 The family in India does not consist only of husband, wife and their children but also uncles, aunts and
cousins and grandsons.
 This system called joint family or extended family system is a peculiar and characteristic to the Indian
Social life.
 A son after marriage does not usually separate himself from the parents but continues to stay with them
under the same roof messing together and holding property in common.
 The family has joint property and every person has his share in it since the time he is born.
 Definitions of joint family / traditional family :
According to Karve-"A joint family is a group of people who generally live under one roof, who eat food
cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in common worship and are
related to each other as some particular type of kindred.
 Characteristics of Joint family-
(1)-Large size (2)-Joint Property (3)-Common Residence (4)-Co-operative organization (5)- Common
Religion (6)- A Productive Unit (7)- Mutual rights and obligations
2. Modern Family :
 Of all human groups the family is the most important primary group. It is a small social group consisting
ordinarily of a father mother and one or more children.
 The modern family is democratic based on equality between husband and wife, with consensus in
marking decision and with increasing participation by children as they grow older.
 In the modern family, marriage is in the hand of young people and selection on the basis of romance,
affection and personality adjustment to each other.
 The achievement of personal happiness desire for innovation are watch words of the modern family.
 features of modern family:
(1) Decreased Control of the Marriage Contract. (2) Changes in the relationship of man and woman. (3)
Laxity in sex relationships. (4) Economic independence.(5) Smaller family (6) Decline of Religious
control. (7)- Separation of non-essential functions. (8) Filocentric family
Q.-9E: What are differences between joint family and nuclear family?
Joint family Nuclear family
Bigger Smaller
Usually, more than two adults work and In a nuclear family, either one
share financial responsibility in a joint or both parents must work to
household. support the household.
There are a lot of people, which means There are typically fewer
that they have a lot of different opinions, disputes and personal grudges
which could cause them to argue. in nuclear families.
Lesser privacy A greater level of privacy
Commen property Seprate property
Co-operative organization Non co-operative organization
25
WORKSHEET
LEC.-1: Sociology : Meaning & Subject Matter :

Q. 1A: Explain the meaning of Sociology ?
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Q.1B: Write 2 Definitions of Sociology ?
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Q.1C: Write the Subject Matter of Sociology ?

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LEC.- 2 : Scope of Sociology :
Q.-2A: Write the Scope of Sociology ?

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Q.-2B : Write 2 supporters & 3 features Specialistic or Formalistic School ?
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Q.-2C: Define Synthetic School ?
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LEC.-3 : Society : Meaning & Characteristics
Q.-3A: Explain the meaning of Society ?
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Q.-3B: Write definitions of Society ?
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Q.-3C: Write 5 characteristics of Society ?
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LEC.-4 : Community : Meaning & Elements :
Q.-4A: Explain the meaning of Community ?
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Q.-4B: Write definitions of Community ?
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Q.-4C: Write 4 main Elements of Community ?
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Q.-4D: Write distinction between Society and Community ?
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LEC.-5 : Association : Meaning & Elements :
Q.-5A: Explain the meaning of Association ?
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Q.-5B: Write definitions of Association ?
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Q.-5C: Explain 4 main Elements of Association ?
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LEC. 6 : Institution : Meaning & Characteristics
Q.-6A: Explain the meaning of Institution ?

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Q.-6B: Write definitions of Institution ?

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Q.-6C: Write 4 characteristics of Institution ?
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Q.-6D : Differences between Institution and Association ?
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LEC. 7 : Social Groups : Meaning & Characteristics :
Q.-7A: Explain the meaning of Social Group ?

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Q.-7B: Write two definitions of Social Group ?

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Q.-7C: Write five Characteristics of Social Group ?
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LEC. 8 : Classification of Social Group :
Q.-8A : Write four Characteristics of Primary Group ?
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Q.-8B : Write 3 Characteristics of Secondary Group ?
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Q.-8C: Write 4 Characteristics of In Group ?
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Q.-8D: Write 4 Characteristics of Out Group ?
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Q.-8E : Explain difference between Primary and Secondary Group ?
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Q.-8F : Explain difference between In and Out Group ?
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LEC. 9 : Family : Traditional & Modern :
Q.-9A: Explain the meaning of Family ?
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Q.-9B: Write defenitions of Family ?

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Q.-9C : Write 5 Distinctive features of the family ?
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Q.-9D : Define the types of Family ?
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Q.-9E: Write about joint family ?
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Q.-9F: Write 5 features of joint family ?
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Q. 9G: Write about nuclear family ?
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Q.-9H: Write 5 features of nuclear family ?
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Q.-9I: What are differences between joint family and nuclear family?
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35
SOCIOLOGY
( UNIT- 2 )
36
LEC.-1: Auguste Comte : Law Of Three Stages
Q.-1A : Write an introduction about Comte ?
 Comte was born in Montpellier, France. ( January 19, 1798 )
 He was a philosopher and one of the founders of Sociology and Positivism .
 Comte was the first person introduce the term"Altruism"(live for others).
 France was passing through social crisis during the time of Comte, so in order to find a way out of
this social impasses. He thought a new science of society is needed which he termed as"Sociology".
 He divided Sociology into two main parts,1- Social Statics 2- Social Dynamics .
 Social statics- the study of the conditions and pre-conditions of social order .for e.g. Family (smallest
social units),families become tribes and tribes become nation.
 Social dynamics- the study of human progress and evolution.
 His book 1- The course of Positive Philosophy 2- A system of Positive Polity.
 Comte was very much concerned about how society establish social order and how it is changed. In
this regard ,he argued that, society undergoes three phases in its quest for the truth according to the
Law of Three stages.
Q.-1B : Explain Law Of Three Stages ,according Comte ?
 Law of Three Stages is an idea developed by Auguste Comte in his work The Course in Positive
Philosophy. It states that society as a whole, and each particular science, develops through three
mentally conceived stages: (1) the theoleogical stage, (2) the metaphysical stage, and (3) the positive
stage.
(1)The Theological stage:
 refers to explanation by personified deities. During the earlier stages, people believe that all the
phenomena of nature are the creation of the divine or supernatural. Men and children failed to
discover the natural causes of various phenomena and hence attributed them to supernatural or
divine power Comte broke this stage into 3 sub-stages:
A. Fetishism –
Fetishism was the primary stage of the theological stage of thinking. Throughout this stage,
primitive people believe that inanimate objects have living spirit in them, also known as animism.
People worship inanimate objects like trees, stones, a piece of wood, volcanic eruptions, etc.
B. Polytheism –
The explanation of things through the use of many Gods. Primitive people believe that all natural
forces are controlled by different Gods; a few examples would be God of water, God of rain, God of
fire, God of air, God of earth, etc.
C. Monotheism –
Monotheism means believing in one God or God in one; attributing all to a single, supreme deity.
Primitive people believe a single theistic entity is responsible for the existence of the universe.
(2) The Metaphysical stage :
This stage is the extension of the theological stage. Metaphysical stage refers to explanation by
impersonal abstract concepts. People often tried to believe that God is an abstract being.They believe
that an abstract power or force guides and determines events in the world. Metaphysical thinking
discards belief in a concrete God. The nature of inquiry was legal and rational in nature. For example:
In Classical Hindu Indian society the principle of the transmigration of the soul, the conception of
rebirth .
(3) The Positive stage (Positivism ):
 This stage also known as the scientific stage, refers to scientific explanation based on
observation, experiment, and comparison.
37
 Positive explanations rely upon a distinct method, the scientific method, for their
justification.
 Today people attempt to establish cause and effect relationships. Positivism is a purely
intellectual way of looking at the world; as well, it emphasizes observation and classification
of data and facts.
 This is the highest, most evolved behavior according to Comte.
 This stage represents the scientific way of thinking. The positive or scientific knowledge is
based upon facts and these facts are gathered by observation and experience.
 Therefore, in positivistic society every possible sphere of human life is social, nature and
economic materials are subjected to scientific structure.
 Scientific study of social events .
 Primary importance to facts and reality .
 Focus on social reconstruction .
 Based on historical method .
 To free human views from religious thoughts .
38
LEC.-2: Auguste Comte : Religion Of Humanity :
Q.2A: . Discuss Comte’s view on “Religion of humanity” ?
 Comte founded a new religion called the “religion of humanity”.
 This religion of humanity is the scientific interpretation of religion.
 In theological stage, super natural forces were the object of worship and God was everything. But in
scientific religion, God is replaced by humanity.
 Humanity will be worshipped.
 Religion of Humanity is the scientific interpretation of religion .
 In scienctific religion , god is replaced by humanity .
 Religion of humanity based on morality.
 Religion of humanity put emphasis on altruism .
 According religion of humanity ,we must love mankind and live for others,not for yourself.
 A religion without god .
 Religion of humanity is not in favour of traditional Christianity.
 According to Comte, the best indicator of right and wrong is what is best for the whole human race,
and morality is avoiding any behavior detrimental to this goal. Therefore, every religion must have a
cult, prayer, and ritual. Comte views prayer as a purely emotional expression that is not directed
towards the Grand Etre or the whole of humankind. The public festivities are when humanity as a
whole is honored.
 The mother, wife, and daughter are the objects of private worship; they stand for the past, present,
and future and compel us to practice the social attitudes of awe, attachment, and compassion. The
public cult that Comte promotes is intended to honor and praise humanity as a whole, to celebrate
the connections between people and the various phases in human progress.
 Humanity consists of all those who are dead and who are living and who would be born in future.
Religion of Huminity Love mankind Live for others Love and affection
1-love mankind :
Comte put emphasis on those who are dead and those who had sacrificed their life for the welfare of
mankind. He told to “love mankind.” In religion of humanity selfishness is sin; sacrifice is a way of
salvation. He puts emphasis on altruism. You must live for others and not for yourself. Comte got the
idea of religion of humanity from Feuerbach.
2-Live for others :
Comte believed that society which was built in scientific principles needed very badly a religion
called religion of humanity. The egoistic tendencies of mankind as evinced in previous history would
be replaced by altruism and by the command “Live for others”. Men would be imbued with love for
their fellowmen.
3-Love and affection :
Comte at this stage made “Love and affection” the central points of human life, Comte not only
considered himself a social scientist, but a prophet and founder of new religion that promised
salvation for all ailments of mankind. He made a purely social religion. Mankind was an end in itself .
Q.2B : .Explain Salient features of Religion of Humanity?

1- A Religion without God –
 Comte's "Religion of Humanity " is based on morality and religion, and not upon a belief in God .
 The object of worship should be' Love mankind' and not God .
39
 The main slogan of the Comtean religion is We should have religion but not God.
 Priest serve as the moral guides of the Comtean concept of a new society.
 Comte believed that the society based upon scientific principles needed a religion which called a
Religion of Humanity.
 He wanted that a society should be directed by the spiritual power of priests of the new positive
religion and leaders of banking and industry.
 Priest use their" superior knowledge to recall men to their duties and obligations" .
 They work as directors of education and the supreme judges of the abilities of each member of the
society.
2- New Religion would lead to a new Epoch—

 Comte made "Love and affection " the central points of his religion .
 Religion of Humanity love mankind Live for others Love and affection 10 There should be harmony,
equity.
 The new epoch, according to Comte "Would have love as its principle, order as its basis, and
programme as its aim. Individual men should have a love for their fellows.
3- Religion of Humanity-
 A social religion based upon morality .
 Comte was not only a social scientist but also a prophet and founder of a new religion .
 He considered salvation as the end of all the miseries of mankind.
 Comte thus, wanted to create a purely "Social religion".
4- Comte not in favour of traditional Christianity—

 According to Comte, Christianity is purely religion, and lacking in social elements.
 A true religion must embody the principle of social utility also Christianity fails to serve this purpose.
so there must be a social religion .
 The Religion of Humanity Comte believed that Christianity employed the instruments of political
pressure and tyranny in order to gain support of people to Christian religion.
 Comte did not see the social element in Christianity.
5- Comtean religion is virtually a religion of human unity-

 Comte is the sociologist of human unity .
 Comte wanted men to be united by common belief , harmony sympathy and love for all .
 Conclusion –
Comte believed that there is the need for the Religion of Humanity. because society can only reformed
by the greater sub-ordination of politics to morals by the moralization of capital, by the renovation of
family , by a higher conception of marriage and so on . These ends can be reached only by a heartier
development of the feelings of sympathy and the sympathetic feeling can be developed only by the
Religion of Humanity.
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40
LEC.-3 : Durkheim – Theory of Suicide :
Q.-3A: . Discuss Durkheim’s view on “Theory of Suicide ‘’ ?
 Suicide (French: Le Suicide) was a groundbreaking book in the field of sociology. Written by French
sociologist Émile Durkheim and published in 1897 it was ostensibly a case study of suicide .
 Durkheim attributes suicide to be related to two underlying social facts Integration and Regulation.
 Integration refers to strength of attachment that we feel towards society .
 Regulation is the degree of external constraints on people.
 According Durkheim, Theory of Suicide is collective pressure of society .
 Theory of Suicide explain a imbalance of person and society .
 Durkheim sought to develop a sociological theory of suicide, which meant that suicide had to be
explained in terms of social causes.
 Durkheim has made an extremely minute and detailed study of the phenomenon of suicide.
 His theory of suicide is related in various ways to his study of the Division of labour.
 He used the method of statistical analysis to display sociological realism.
 He also concluded that different rates of suicide are the consequences of differences in degree and
type of social solidarity.
 Suicide is a kind of index to decay in social solidarity. There is a inverse relation between social
solidarity and ratio of suicide –
Social solidarity Ratio of suicide
Social solidarity Ratio of suicide
 Durkheim explores the differing suicide rates among Protestants and Catholics, arguing that
stronger social control among Catholics results in lower suicide rates. According to Durkheim,
Catholic society has normal levels of integration while Protestant society has low levels. Durkheim
concluded that:
 Suicide rates are higher in men than women (although married women who remained
childless for a number of years ended up with a high suicide rate).
 Suicide rates are higher for those who are single than those who are married.
 Suicide rates are higher for people without children than people with children.
 Suicide rates are higher among Protestants than Catholics and Jews.
 Suicide rates are higher among soldiers than civilians.
 Suicide rates are higher in times of peace than in times of war .
 The higher the education level, the more likely it was that an individual would choose
suicide.
 However, Durkheim established that there is more correlation between an individual's
religion and suicide rate than an individual's education level. Jewish people were
generally highly educated but had a low suicide rate .
Q.-3B: Define the types of Suicide ?
 Durkheim proposed four types of Suicide based on the degrees of imbalance of two socialforces:
1. Social Integration
2. Moral regulation
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1. Egoistic or Individualistic Suicide:
 According to Durkheim, when a man becomes socially isolated or feels that he has no place in
society, he destroys himself.
 This is the suicide of a self-centered person who lacks altruistic feelings and is usually cutoff from the
mainstream of society for example – a childless women ,alone senior citizens .
2. Altruistic Suicide:
 This type of suicide results from a high level of integration of the individual into his social group.
 Taking off own life for a great cause and value .
 There are three different types of altruistic suicide ---
1. Obligatory altruistic suicide - The practice of ―sati, jauher custom
2. Optional altruistic suicide - Soldier in the army, freedom fighters
3. Acute altruistic suicide - Harakiri ,Sallekhna method ,Euthanasia
3.Anomic Suicide:
 This type of suicide concerns social disorganization and imbalance.
 Anomie means normlessness . Reason – Sudden change of social and economical conditions .
4. Fatalistic Suicide:
 Fatalistic suicide was at the high extreme of the regulation continuum.
 He described it as suicide of “persons with futures pitilessly blocked and passions violently choked
by oppressive discipline.
 Due to helplessness / compulsion
42
LEC.-4 : Durkheim – Division of Labour & Social Solidarity Theory :
Q.-4A: Discuss Durkheim’s view on “Division of Labour ‘’ ?
 Emile Durkheim’s The Division of Labouris a classic of intellectual analysis. This was the first
published book by Emile Durkheim in 1893.
 The division of labour explains the relationship between individuals and collectivity and how the
diversity of individuals achieves social coherence.
 We find unity in society with diversity of human beings. Unity of society is based on division of
labour.As much division of labour,that much social solidarity .
 Needs of society and division of labour manage social solidarity ----
Needs Production Division of labour Specialization Interdependence
Social solidarity .
 Division of labour he postulates as the basis of social solidarity.
 Solidarity means the solidity of the organization. The concept of solidarity explains social
differentiation or the division of labour in society.
 It makes individuals interdependent and affects social integration among them.
 Durkheim studied the division of labour as a social institution and not as an economic institution.
 In the “Division of labour” in society, Durkheim employs his evolutionary functionalism to examine
the changing bases of social solidarity.
 According to him, primitive society is characterized by mechanical solidarity based upon the
conscience collective, and advanced society is characterized by organic solidarity based upon the
division of labour.
 Effects of Division of Labour in Society— 1.Specialization 2. Competition 3.Importance of work
4.Inter-dependence 5.Co-opration feeling 6.Individualism
Q.-4B : Write the Importance of division of labor for society ?
1. It channelizes the workforce into proper lines to achieve common goals.
2. It ensures the economic growth of a society
3. It produces a sense of solidarity among the individuals of a society. Solidarity means the sense of
attachment among the members of society. It creates cohesive forces to organize people in the form
of society. Without such a cohesive force, a society is likely to disintegrate.
4. It brings social and moral order in society. Durkheim argued that like a religion that serves as an
agent of social control, the division of labor also results in stability and order in a society.
Q.-4C : Explain Theory of Social Solidarity , according Durkheim ?
 Emile Durkheim described the division of labor based on social solidarity in traditional and modern
society.
 Social solidarity refers to cohesion and integration among the members of society. Durkheim
believed that the division of labor is deeply associated with the types of social solidarity in a society.
 Comte explained the division of labor in terms of the following two types of social solidarity --
1. Mechanical Solidarity
2. Organic Solidarity
1.Mechanical Solidarity :
 Mechanical solidarity refers to connection, cohesion, and integration born from homogeneity, or
similar work, education, religiosity, and lifestyle.
 Normally operating in small-scale ” traditional ” societies, mechanical solidarity often describes
familial networks; it is often seen as a function of individuals being submerged in a collective
consciousness.
43
 Collective consciousness is achieved when individuals begin to think and act in relatively similar
ways.
 Though traditional small towns, familial networks, and religious congregations are often cited
examples of mechanical solidarity, dispersed religious communities would also qualify if they can be
said to share a collective conscience .
 Primitive society is segmentary nature.
 People used to live in independent segments.
 Life is simple and all the individuals perform similar activities.
 Collective conscience is very strong.
 Solidarity is due to likeness or sameness.
 Society is very religious.
 Laws are very repressive.
 Population is very low – material density is low.
 Interaction between segments of population is also low – moral density is low .
2. Organic Solidarity
 Organic solidarity is born from the interdependence of individuals in more advanced societies,
particularly professional dependence.
 Although individuals perform very different roles in an organization, and they often have
different values and interests, there is a cohesion that arises from the compartmentalization and
specialization woven into “modern” life.
 For example, farmers produce the food to feed the factory workers who produce the tractors that
allow the farmer to produce the food.
 Durkheim believed that the cause of transition from mechanical to organic solidarity was the
dynamic density which refers to the combination of the number of people in a society and the
amount of interaction that occurs among them.
 With time population increases resulting into an increase in the material density.
 This leads to increase in the chances of interaction and hence increase in moral density.
 People from different segments now have an access to activities prevailing in other segments.
 This leads to competition.
 The fittest survives in an existing occupation while the unfit creates new occupations and
specialisations.
 Thus, the problems associated with dynamic density are solved through differentiation.
 It initiates a never-ending process of division of labour and the emergence of an organic solidarity
based society.
 Two types of law are present in human societies, and each corresponds with a type of social
solidarity: repressive law (moral) and restitutive law (organic)—
1. Repressive Law: Repressive law is related to the center of common consciousness, and everyone
participates in judging and punishing the perpetrator. Punishments for crimes against the collective are
typically harsh. Repressive law, says Durkheim, is practiced in mechanical forms of society.
2. Restitutive Law: The second type of law is restitutive law, which does focus on the victim when there
is a crime since there are no commonly shared beliefs about what damages society. Restitutive law
corresponds to the organic state of society and is made possible by more specialized society bodies such
as courts and lawyers.
44
Q.4D: Difference between Mechanical and Organic Solidarity ?
1.Definition:
Mechanical solidarity is the social integration that arises out of the homogeneity of members of a society,
but organic solidarity is the social integration that arises out of interdependence of members in the society.
2.Members of the Society:
Mechanical solidarity occurs in societies that have similar members, but organic solidarity occurs in
societies that have various types of individuals.
3.Type of Society:
While mechanical solidarity was seen in pre-modern societies, organic solidarity is seen in modern
societies.
4.Interdependence :
Moreover, there is less amount of interdependence in mechanical solidarity in comparison to organic
solidarity.
5.Division of Labor:
There is a minimum division of labour in societies with mechanical solidarity, but there is a complex
division of labour in societies with organic solidarity.
Conclusion
In brief, mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity are two concepts by the French sociologist Émile
Durkheim. Mechanical solidarity is the social integration that arises out of the homogeneity of members of a
society while organic solidarity is the social integration that arises out of interdependence of members in
the society. Thus, this is the main difference between mechanical and organic solidarity.
45
LEC.-5 : Durkheim : Theory of Religion
Q.5: Explain Durkheim : Theory of Religion ?
 Durkheim evolved a functional explanation for the existence of religion in the world.
 He observed its existence as a social fact and not as a supernatural phenomenon.
 He gave the idea of religion in his work, Elementary Forms Of Religious Life 1912.
 Religion is based on society .As society, that religion .
 Religious interests are the symbolic form of social and moral interest.
 According Durkheim ,Religion – A unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things,
that is to say – things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices, which you need them into a
single moral community, for all those who adhere to them.
 Religion and Sacredness: According to Durkheim, all things can be divided into profane and sacred.
 Sacred Things--
 Related with Religion. Any good never has feature of sacred, view of society make sacred to a
good.
 The sacred things are symbols and their significance lies in what they symbolize and not what
they are .
 Sacred refers to the
holy realm which is
viewed with
reverence .
 Things which are set
apart and are
forbidden.
• It includes all things
which are connected to
the supernatural or the
divine.
• Relationship of
distance and fear is
maintained with the
respect to these things.
 Profane Things --
 Economical and useful things and not related with religion .
 Profane are the things apart from the sacred.
 Includes day-to-day things which people use in their lives.
 Beliefs and Rituals --
 According Durkheim, Belief is the cognitive aspect of religion .
 The religious beliefs are based upon faith rather than evidence .
 Ritual is the active side of religion .Beliefs can neither be observed nor verified unless they are
expressed in ritual actions.
Religion Sacred things Beliefs Rituals Morality
46
 TOTEMISM :
 In this, totems are worshipped.
 Totem is a representation of the clan itself.
 He drew his analysis from the study of religious practices among Arunta, the Australian aboriginals.
 Primitive men, when they came together for some purpose like festivals and interacted on such
occasions, they felt the energy of social force.
 According to primitive logic, they explain this feeling in terms of presence of some supernatural force.
 Durkheim calls this height and feeling of energy generated in collective gatherings as state of exaltation
or collective effervescence.
 These higher forces are deemed as divine or supernatural and attributed to certain totems by the
primitive tribes.
 They create a totem to represent and regain that feeling.
 The totems are the material representations of the non-material force that is at their base and that non-
material force is none other than the society itself.
 The feeling which was due to the feeling of being together, was instead, interpreted as The Sacred. So,
totem is a symbol of collectivity or the symbol of society itself.
 RELIGION AND SOCIETY :
 Durkheim asks ‘If it is at once the symbol of God and Society, is it not because God and Society are one
and same’?
 Religious experiences are real experiences of social forces, forces that unite us.
 Social obligations are represented in sacred terms and hence transform into religious duties. Eg:
Marriage becomes a sacrament.
 Religion is also a social fact.
 It performs the function of bringing people together.
 CRITICISM :
 The dichotomy of profane and sacred is not absolute and there can be ‘things’ also as per William Edward
Stanner.
 Durkheim did not explain why a particular totem is chosen.
 Criticized for being an armchair theory.
 Generalisation of primitive religion to modern sophisticated religion is a farfetched view.
 Scholars argue that it is not religion but secularism which is binding the societies together in modern
industrialised societies.
 Fails to explain the cause of solidarity in multicultural polytheistic societies like India.
 Focused only on functional aspects and ignored the conflict caused by religion.
47
LEC.-6 : Max Weber – Theory of Authority :
Q.-6A: Discuss Weber’s view on “Theory of Authority ‘’ ?
 Authority is an institutional power or institutional form of power .
 Authority is a type of power which has provided to a person by a authorized organization .
 Weber defines authority as legitimate forms of domination that is, forms of domination which
followers or subordinates consider to be legitimate.
 Legitimate does not necessarily imply any sense of rationality, right, or natural justice.
 Rather, domination is legitimate when the subordinate accepts, obeys, and considers domination
to be desirable or at least bearable and not worth challenging .
 Weber is of the opinion that all authority ultimately rests on force. For any social and political
system this force must be recognized as legitimate .
 According to Weber, “Authority means the probability that a specific command will be obeyed.
Such obedience may feed on diverse motives.
Q.-6B: Explain the types of Authority , according Weber ?
 Weber outline three major types of legitimate domination: traditional, charismatic, and legal-
rational ------
1. Traditional Authority:
 In this type of authority, the traditional rights of a powerful and dominant individual or group are
accepted or not challenged by subordinate individuals.
 The dominant individual could be a priest, clan leader, family head, or some other patriarch or
dominant elite might govern.
 traditional authority is buttressed by cultures such as myths or connections to the sacred,
symbols such as a cross or flag, and structures and institutions that perpetuate this traditional
authority.
2.Charismatic Authority:
 Charisma is a quality of an individual personality that is considered extraordinary, and followers
may consider this quality to be endowed with super natural, super human, orexceptional powers
or qualities.
 Weber considers charisma a driving and creative force that surges through traditional authority
and established rules. It gains and maintains authority solely by proving his strength in life.
 For example: M.K. Gandhi, Hitler, Napoleon, Mao, Castro, Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great,
Churchill, and so on.
3. Rational Legal Authority:

 The term refers to a system of authority, which is both rational and legal.
 Such rules and procedures are commonly found in a written constitution and set of laws.
 Legal-rational authority stresses a “government of laws, not of peoples.
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LEC.-7 : Max Weber – Theory of Social Action :
Q.-7A: Discuss Weber’s view on “Theory of Social Action‘’ ?
 Social Actions are real background of society .
 Sociology is a broad science of social action .
 All physical and mental activities which are meaningfull called social action .
 Social Action = Activity + Meaning .
 Max Weber observes that social action is that action of an individual which is somehow influenced
by the action and behavior of other individuals and by which it is modified, and its direction is
determined.
 To Weber, social action is an action wherein the individual takes into account the actions and
reactions of other individuals and is thereby oriented in its course. It’s not just about behavior, but
about meaningful behavior – actions to which humans attach a sense of purpose and intention.
 Understanding these actions helps us to comprehend the motivations behind individual and
collective behaviors, mapping out the intricate connections that form the fabric of society .
Q.-7B: Explain the types of Social Action , according Weber ?
 Weber classified social action into four types as follows:

1.Rationally Purposeful Action—
This is purely rational action. It means that the actor is fully conscious of this end and selects the
appropriate means towards the attainment of his goal.
2.Value Rational Action—
Values govern the actor .Religious behaviour, in which people engage in a number of activities to
achieve certain things, is typically an example of this kind of social action.
3.Affectual Social Action:-
That action becomes emotional and impulsive. It's an action unplanned, resulting from the actor's
emotional state of mind. A mother patting her child on his back affectionately is the best example of
this action.
4.Traditional Social action: --
All customs, folkways, and mores belong to this category. A particular way of dressing, for instance,
is followed because that is what people before have been following, observance of several rites and
performance of ceremonies is a matter more of custom than rationality
49
LEC.-8 : Karl Marx's Theory of Class Struggle / Class-Conflict :
Q.-8A: Explain Karl Marx's Theory of Class Struggle / Class-Conflict ?
 While man, in the Maxian View, is generally a social animal, he is, more specifically and
fundamentally a “class animal.”
 In the most primitive people used to appropriate nature’s goods for satisfying their needs.
Distribution was ore or less equal. But soon the differences in distribution emerged and with it
society was divided into classes.
 “Society divides itself into classes, the privileged and the dispossessed the exploiters and exploited,
the rulers and the ruled. ”
 As regards the classes of modern society, there are according to Marx, three great classes based on
their respective sources of income. The owners of mere labor-power, the owners of capital, and the
landlords, whose respective sources of income are wages. Profit and ground-rent; in other words,
wage laborers, Capitalists and landlords, form the three great classes of modern society resting upon
the capitalist mode of production.
 Karl Marx's theory of class struggle argues that society consists of two main competing classes - the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
 The bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of production who employ wage labour, while the
proletariat are the working class who sell their labour to survive.
 According to Marx, the bourgeoisie exploit and oppress the proletariat by appropriating the surplus
value created by their labour. The proletariat create value through their work but are only paid the
minimum necessary for their survival. The difference - the surplus value - is pocketed by the
bourgeoisie as profit.
 This exploitation of labour creates an inherent conflict of interest between the bourgeoisie and
proletariat. Marx believed that as capitalism develops, this class disparity intensifies and the
proletariat becomes increasingly immiserated. This will inevitably lead to a proletarian revolution
where the working class overthrows the capitalist system and establishes a classless communist
society.
Q.-8B : Describe the types of Classes ?

 A crucial aspect of the Marxist concept of class is the transformation from a "class in itself" to a "class
for itself."
 Class in Itself :
 This term refers to a societal group whose members share common economic interests or a similar
relationship to the means of production. However, they lack collective awareness or class
consciousness.
 Class for Itself :
 A "class for itself" represents a societal group that, aside from having common economic interests, is
fully aware of its social status and actively works to change the conditions that perpetuate its
economic hardship.
 In Marx's perspective, the proletariat begins as a "class in itself" but, through the struggle, gains
consciousness, becoming a "class for itself," thus fueling the class struggle .
50
Q.-8C : Explain historical stages of Class Conflict ?
 Marx believed that human society evolves through different stages according to the means of
Production that is dominant at each stage:
1. Primitive communism (there is no Private Property)
2. Slavery (One class owns and exploits the members of another)
3. Feudalism (Class of aristocratic landlords exploits the mass of the peasants)
4. Capitalism (The owners of wealth exploit the mass of industrial workers.) Each of these systems
is more economically productive then its predecessor, but the tensions of class conflict lead to
revolution that results in the fifth stage.
5. Socialism ( It occurs when the industrial workers have finally revolted.)
Q.8D: Write main ingredient of Marxian Theory of Class-Conflict ?

 In the Capitalist Society, the bourgeois and Proletariat are dependent upon each other. However,
the mutual dependency of the two classes is not a relationship of equality and of respectable
reciprocity, instead, it is a relationship of exploiter and exploited, oppressor and oppressed. The
Capitalist class (the ruling class) gains at the expense of the labor class (the subject class) and
there is therefore a conflict of interest between them. Marx developed his theory of class conflict
in his analysis and antique of capitalist society.
 The main ingredient of this theory of conflict have been enlisted here :
1. The Development of the Proletariat
2. The Importance of Poverty
3. The Identification of Economics and Political power and Authority
4. Polarization of classes
5. The theory of Surplus value
6. Pauperization
7. Alienation
8. Class solidarity and Antagonism
9. Revolution
10. The Dictatorship of the Proletariat.
51
WORKSHEET
LEC.-1: Auguste Comte : Law Of Three Stages
Q.-1A : Write an introduction about Comte ?
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Q.-1B : Explain Law Of Three Stages ,according Comte ?
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Q.-1C: The Theological stage ?
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Q.-1D: The Metaphysical stage ?
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Q.-1 E: The Positive stage (Positivism ) ?
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52
LEC.-2: Auguste Comte : Religion Of Humanity :
Q.2A: . Discuss Comte’s view on “Religion of humanity” ?
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Q.2B : .Explain Salient features of Religion of Humanity?
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LEC.-3 : Durkheim – Theory of Suicide :
Q.-3A: . Discuss Durkheim’s view on “Theory of Suicide ‘’ ?
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Q.3B: Egoistic or Individualistic Suicide ?
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Q.3C: . Altruistic Suicide ?
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Q. 3D: Anomic Suicide ?
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LEC.-4 : Durkheim – Division of Labour & Social Solidarity
Q.-4A: Discuss Durkheim’s view on “Division of Labour ‘’ ?
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Q.-4B: Effects of Division of Labour in Society ?
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Q.-4C : Write the Importance of division of labor for society ?
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Q.-4D: Explain Theory of Social Solidarity , according Durkheim ?
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Q.4E: Difference between Mechanical and Organic Solidarity ?
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LEC.-5 : Durkheim : Theory of Religion
Q.5A: Explain Durkheim : Theory of Religion ?
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Q.5B: Sacred Things ?
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Q.5C Profane Things ?
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Q.5D: TOTEMISM ?
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Q.5E: RELIGION AND SOCIETY ?
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56
LEC.-6 : Max Weber – Theory of Authority:
Q.-6A: Discuss Weber’s view on “Theory of Authority ‘’ ?
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Q.-6B: Explain the types of Authority , according Weber ?
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Q.-6C: Charismatic Authority ?
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Q.-6D: Traditional Authority ?
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Q.-6E:. Rational Legal Authority?
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LEC.-7 : Max Weber – Theory of Social Action :
Q.-7A: Discuss Weber’s view on “Theory of Social Action‘’ ?

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Q.-7B:Write the types of Social Action , according Weber ?
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Q.-7C: Rationally Purposeful Action ?
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Q.-7D: Value Rational Action?
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Q.-7E: Affectual Social Action ?
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LEC.-8 : Karl Marx's Theory of Class Struggle / Class-Conflict :
Q.-8A: Explain Karl Marx's Theory of Class Struggle / Class-Conflict ?
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Q.-8B : Describe the types of Classes ?
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Q.-8C : Write historical stages of Class Conflict ?
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60
61
SOCIOLOGY
( UNIT- 3 )
62
LEC.-1 : Social Change :Meaning , Nature & Patterns :
Q.1A : Explain the Meaning of Social Change ?

 The term ‘social change’ is used to indicate the changes, that takes place in human interactions and
inter relations.
 Society is a web of social relationships and hence ‘Social change’ obviously means a change in the
system of social relationship.
 Social relationships are understood in terms of social process and social interactions and social
organization .
 Thus the term ‘social change’ is used to desirable variations in social interaction, social process and
social organization.
 It includes alteration in the structure and functions of the society . Social change refers to the
changes that come about in the society in relation to human relationships and social institutions.
 When looking at human history you will notice that no society remains unchanged. With the
passing of time ever society undergoes changes, this leads to a transformation in the society. Social
changes occur mainly due to the changes that take place in social institutions.
 In every society, there are a number of social institutions such as the family, economy, religion,
politics and education. It is the interconnected functioning of these institutions that create a society.
Man is a dynamic being hence society can never be static it undergoes variations .
Q.1B : Write Definitions of Social Change ?
1.M.F. Jones ,“Social change is a term used to describe variations in, or modifications of any aspect
of social patterns, social interaction or Social organization.”
2. Kingsley Davis ,“By Social change is meant only such alterations as occur in social organization,
that is structure and functions of Society. ”
3.MacIver & Page ,“Social change refers to a process responsive to many types of changes; to
change in the manmade condition of Life; to change in the attitudes and beliefs of men and to the
changes that to beyond the human control to the biological and the physical nature of things.
Q.1C: Explain Nature of social change ?
1-It is a social process.
2-Social change is universal in n ature.
3- Social change is a continuous process 4-Social Change is comparative and relative. 5-Time
factor is social change.6-Speed of social change is not same in every society .7-Social Change has
various patterns.
63
Q.1D: Distinguishing Between Linear and Cyclical Theories of Social Change ?
 Theories of social change provide frameworks for understanding how societies evolve over time.
Two prominent perspectives on social change are the linear theory and the cyclical theory.
 Linear Theory of Social Change:

 Characteristics:
1.Progressive Development: The linear theory posits that societies progress along a unidirectional
path, moving from a less advanced state to a more advanced one. This progression is often
conceptualized as a linear trajectory, akin to a developmental ladder.
2.Irreversibility: Linear theorists assume that once a society advances to a certain stage, this
progress is irreversible. The idea is that societies move forward and upward, with no return to
previous stages or conditions.
3.Teleological Perspective: Linear theories often incorporate a teleological perspective, suggesting
that societies are moving toward a predetermined endpoint or ideal state. This viewpoint implies a
sense of purpose or destiny in the developmental trajectory of societies.
4.Technological and Economic Determinism: Linear theories frequently associate social change
with technological and economic development. Advances in technology and economic structures are
seen as driving forces that propel societies forward.
5.Examples: The Enlightenment notion of progress, Auguste Comte's stages of societal evolution,
and Karl Marx's historical materialism all align with aspects of the linear theory.
Example- Telephone Mobile Internet Social Media
 Cyclical Theory of Social Change:

 . Characteristics:
1.Recurring Patterns: The cyclical theory posits that societies undergo recurring patterns of rise,
peak, decline, and renewal. These cycles may be linked to natural, cultural, or historical factors,
leading to repeated phases of growth and decline.
2.Rhythmic Nature: Cyclical theories often emphasize the rhythmic nature of societal change,
suggesting that certain patterns repeat over time. This cyclical rhythm may be associated with
natural phenomena, such as seasons or celestial cycles.
3.Historical Continuity: Unlike the linear perspective, cyclical theories stress historical continuity,
acknowledging that societies may revisit earlier stages or conditions. This allows for the possibility
of regression or cycles of decline and renewal.
4.Cultural and Moral Factors: Cyclical theories may attribute societal changes to cultural and moral
factors, emphasizing the importance of values, beliefs, and social cohesion in shaping the rise and fall
of civilizations.
5.Examples: The concept of historical cycles in the work of Oswald Spengler, Arnold J. Toynbee's
challenge and response, and the Hindu-Buddhist concept of yugas are examples of cyclical theories.
Spengler : Each civilization is like a biological organism and has a similar life cycle, birth maturity
old age and death --
64
LEC.-2: Social Change : Factors, Distinction between Social and Cultural Change
Q.2A: What are factors responsible for Social Change ?
1. Demographic factors:
Population plays an important role in society it there is change in the composition of population , there is
change in society by composition we mean the structure i.e. sex ratio. For balance in society the sex ratio
should be 1:1 and if there is change in the ratio there is change in society. The composition of population
depends upon variables like age, sex, marital status, literacy etc. Changes in demographic structure, which
may be caused by changes in mortality rates, will produce changes in the ratio of breadwinners to
dependents. Such a change can have consequences for the structure of family, kinship, political and other
institutions. The size of population affects each of us quite personally. Whether we are born into a growing
or a shrinking population has a bearing on our education, the age at which we marry, our ability to get a job,
the taxes we pay, and many other factors.
2. Physical Factor:
This factor is also known as geographical or natural factor. Physical factors consist of climatic conditions,
physical environment, animal life, biodiversity, mineral resources, natural resources (rivers, vegetation,
mountains) etc. They have great influence upon human society. Social change is to some extent conditioned
by physical factors. National calamities, floods, epidemics affairs society in its social relationships.
3. Technological factors:
Technological development continues to be an index of the overall 'progress' of society. Technological
changes have affected social, economic, religious, political and cultural life of human beings. For example,
during the decades of the British period in India, systems of transportation and communication were laid.
These may well have served the needs of the colonizers then, but we still continue to benefit from the
systems founded by them. Indeed, successive Indian Governments have further expanded and improved
these services.
4. Socio-cultural Factors:
Human culture is a process of change. Any change in the cultural order is accompanied by a corresponding
change in the whole social order. Where two cultures meet or clash, social changes are inevitable. Cultural
diffusion is a source of change. Culture includes our values, beliefs, ideas and ideologies, morals, customs
and traditions. These are all subject to change and they in turn, cause changes. It is an established fact that
there is an intimate connection between our beliefs and social institutions, our values and social
relationships. Values, beliefs, ideas, institutions are the basic elements of a culture. Certainly, all cultural
changes involve social change.
5. Economical Factor:
This factor is of unique importance in social change. Stages of economic development in human history are
not limited to economic transformation in society. They promoted large scale political and social
transformations. Amidst these changes, there continues to be a need for a decent livelihood and human
welfare. Of economic influences, the most far-reaching is the impact of Industrialisation. It has
revolutionised the whole way of life, institutions, organisations and community life. In traditional
production systems, levels of production were fairly static since they were geared to habitual, customary
needs. Modern industrial capitalism promotes the constant revision of the technology of production, a
process into which science is increasingly drawn.ells within which life is extinct.
6. Political Factor:
State is the most powerful organisation which regulates the social relationships. It has the power to legislate
new laws, repeal old ones to bring social change in the society. Laws regarding child marriage, widow
remarriage, divorce, inheritance and succession, untouchability are some of the examples which have
brought many changes in the social structure of Indian society. The type of political leadership and
individuals in power also influences the rate and direction of social change.
65
Q.2B : Distinction between Social and Cultural Change ?
 Cultural Change :
 Cultural change refers to the changes that come about in both the material and nonmaterial
cultural elements
 . As we all know culture refers to the system of values, attitudes, norms, mores, practices, behaviors
of a group of people. In this sense, culture is a social construct that assists a society to continue.
 Unlike in the case of social change, in cultural change, an ideological transformation takes place.
The impact of technology, ideology, new practices, and lifestyles can lead to a cultural change.
 Cultural change is thus much broader than the social change. No part of culture is totally unrelated
to the social order, but it remains true that changes sometimes occur in these branches without
notice by affecting the social system.
 Culture include social heritage of beliefs tradition, custom, moral, knowledge etc that is passed on
from one generation to another.
 Difference between Social & Cultural Change :
 The difference between Social and Cultural change has a great Sociological importance. By “Social
Change” is meant only such alteration as occurs in Social Organization that is, Structure and
functions of Society.
 The term “Cultural change” according to Kingsley Davis, “embraces all changes occurring in any
branch of culture including art, Science, technology, Philosophy, etc, as well as changes in the forms
and rules of Social organization.”
 Cultural change is broader than Social change, and Social change is only a part of it. All Social
changes are cultural changes, but all cultural changes need not necessarily be the Social changes.
Cultural changes can be called social changes only when they affect human relations and the social
organization and cause some variation in them .
 On the other hand, the rise of organized labor in the capitalistic Society and the introduction of
communism in the place of democracy, represent social change. These two changes may cause a
series of changes in human relation and organization. They represent a basic alteration in the
relation of employer and employee, rulers and the ruled. They may contribute to the changes in the
economic organization the changes in the economic organization, methods of administration,
legislation, economic policies and programs, and so on.
 Key Points-Social Change Vs Cultural Change :
1-Cultural change is a very broad and dynamic change.
2-Social change is only a part of cultural change.
3- Cultural change includes change in ideology, administration and social change refers to changes
in social relationship among people
4-Social change is all about improvements made to uplift certain life style.
5- Cultural change gives new direction to social change.
6-Cultural change could be material or non-material.
7.Cultural change has a very broad and dynamic sort of change appearance. On the other side,
social change is the part of the cultural change.
8.Cultural change is all about the changes that are witnessed within the ideology and even the
administration. But the social change is all about the change that refers to changes in social
relations among the people.
9.Social change is defined to be the change of improvements that is hence made to uplift a certain
lifestyle.
10.In social change, you will be able to identify the roots of social institutions. But in cultural
change, the roots can be identified with the technology and some new ways of life.
66
LEC.-3: Social Control : Meaning ,Types & Importance :
Q.3A: Explain the meaning of Social Control ?
 Social control is the pattern, suggestions, persuasion, restraint and coercion by whatever means
including physical force by which a society brings into conformity to the approved pattern of
behavior.
 Social control is the way in which entire social order coheres and maintains itself.
 Social Control is the control over the individual; some of man’s tendencies are beneficial to society while
others are detrimental to its interest. Social control may be a self control and it keeps on changing in
accordance with the changes in society.
 Social Control is a comprehensive phenomenon, it has both positive and negative as well as creative
aspects. Social control works to maintain the equilibrium of society and prevent the unacceptable behavior
of the individual or group. Social control not only controls the human behavior but also governs and guides
the human tendencies by creating a pattern of norms as according to which the human being behaves.
Q.3B; Write Definitions of Social Control ?
1. H.C. Bearly says, "Social control is collective term for those processes, planned and unplanned, by
which individuals are taught persuaded or compelled to conform to the usages and life values of
group."
2. .E.A. Ross defines "Social control as the system of devices whereby society brings its members into
conformity with the accepted standards of behavior."
3. .Ogbum and Nimkoff are of the opinion that "Social control is the pattern of pressure which society
exerts to maintain order and establish rules."
Q.3C: Explain the nature of Social Control ?
 Social control is the control of society over individuals.
 Social control denotes some kind of influence. This influence may be exercised in various ways by
means of public opinion, coercion, religion, leadership etc.
 The influence of social control is essentially exerted by the society or community.
 The influence of social control is exercised for promoting the welfare of all the individuals or the
group as a whole.
 Social control is as old as human society. It is an essential condition of the human society.
 The influence of social control is universal. Where there is society, there is social control
 Social control is exercised through both formal and informal agencies.
 Universal and continuous process.
 Control of individual over individual.
Q.3D: Explain the need and importance of Social Control ?
 Social control is necessary for an orderly social life.. Without social control the organization of the
society is about to get disturbed.
 According to Kimball Young, it is necessary "to bring about conformity, solidarity and continuity of a
particular group or society".
 It is possible only through social control ,Society has to make use of its mechanism .
 Control on human behavior .
 Socialization
 Continuity of traditions
 Controlling social conflict
 Stability in social organization
 Develop unity and activity in society
 Make peacefull environment in society
67
Q.3E : Explain Social Control Theory ?
 Social control theory was developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969.
 It is also known as the Social Bond Theory.
 Hirschi refers to four elements which constitute the societal bond. These bonds include:
1. Attachment -- to other individuals
2. Commitment -- to following rules
3. Involvement -- by typical social behaviors
4. Belief -- a basic value system
 When one of these four items break down, Hirschi hypothesizes that an individual may then
participate in criminal activities .
Q.3F: Explain Types or Forms of Social Control ?
 According to Karl Mannheim, there are two types of social control---1-Direct Social Control 2-
Indirect Social control.
 Kimball Young also defined the two types of social control ---1-Positive Social Control 2-Negative
Social Control
 Direct Social Control :
The control exercised upon the individual by the reactions of the people living in proximity, such control is
visible in family, neighborhood and other primary group. This control is clearly visible in the socie
 Indirect Social Control :
The control exercised upon the individual by factors which are separated from him. Prominent means are
tradition, customs, values etc. Here social control is sometimes not visible. ty.
 Positive Social Control :
The control over the individual by motivating him in a positive manner by reward or appreciation. These
rewards/appreciation constantly endeavor to conform to the traditions, values, mores, ideals etc.
 Negative Social Control :
The control exercised over the
individual by the use of
punishment or by the fear of
defamation which will make a
negative image of individual,
that control is regarded as
negative social control.
 Formal social control :
The formal means of social
control come from
institutions.Man is forced to
accept these forms of social
control. Generally these forms
are exercised by secondary
groups.The state, law, education and those which have legitimate power. They apply coercive measures in
the case of deviance
 Informal social control :
These agencies of Social Control have grown according to the needs of the society. Folk ways, mores,
customs, social norms etc fall under this category of social control. Generally primary institutions exercise
this type of social control.
68
LEC.-4: Means of Social Control :
Q.4A: What are the Means of Social Control ?
 Social Control is the control over the individual; some of man’s tendencies are beneficial to society
while others are detrimental to its interest.
 Social control may be a self control and it keeps on changing in accordance with the changes in
society .
 The functioning of mechanisms for societal control has sparked significant interest among
sociologists.
 Social control has been a constant presence, evolving in its operational nature across different eras.
 While norms and values have always existed, their components have undergone continual change.
 In the contemporary era, factors such as industrialization, urbanization, rapid transportation and
communication, village abandonment, increased mobility, the emergence of towns, cities, and
metropolitan areas, and unprecedented mingling of diverse populations have disrupted traditional
values.
Q.4B: Write main Agencies of Social Control ?
There are following agencies of social control ---
 Law
 State
 Administration
 Religions
 Family
 Public Opinion
 Propaganda and Press
 Law :
 Law is a powerful method of control. The state runs its administration through the government.
 Law encompasses both common law, primarily rooted in custom and enforced by the courts, and
statutory law, created by the Parliament. According to Professor Holland, law can be defined as a
general rule of external action enforced by a sovereign political authority. It serves as a universal
standard set by the State, expected to be followed by members of the body politic in specific
circumstances. The law is uniform and applicable to all individuals.
 Violating the law results in penalties, as noted by Pollock, who highlighted that laws existed before
the state had effective means of enforcement. The earliest form of law was customary, enforced by
accepted authorities and originating from the general usages of families, tribes, or clans. Over time,
certain customs faded with changing circumstances, while others, consistently repeated across
generations, gained influence. Consequently, custom emerged as a significant source of law,
alongside religion, equity, scientific commentaries, judicial decisions, and legislation . In short, law is
an important formal means of Control to regulate the individual behaviour in society
 State :
 State has a vital role in administering social control.
 State functions through the government. Modern nation-states strive to be welfare states, i.e. they
seek to provide to the citizens a wide range of social services like education and medical care.
 In modern societies, State has become increasingly important as an agent of social control.
69
 Religion:
 Religion serves as an important agency of social control.
 It is religion, which supports the folkways and modes of a society by playing super natural sanctions
behind them. It adopts negative as well as positive means to regulate the in society.
 Religion encompasses traditions, ceremonies, restrictions, ethical standards, and societal roles that
are predominantly centered around or validated by the supernatural and the sacred.
 Functioning as a potent force for social regulation, religion governs an individual’s interactions with
both the physical and social elements of their environment. The influence of religion on human
behaviour is contingent upon the extent to which its followers embrace and adhere to its doctrines.
 Education :
 Education in modern times is a very powerful means of social control. It prepares the child for social
living and teaches him the values of discipline, cooperation, tolerance and integration.
 Educational institutions at all levels(i.e. school, college, university, etc.) impart knowledge as well as
ethics through formal structured courses and behavioral inputs. The child learns many things from
the Education institutions, which he cannot learn from other sources.
 It is education, which makes all efforts to discipline the mind of the student in the school so that he
can realize the importance of social control.
 Administration :
 Administration is very powerful and the most effective instrument of social control. It forces the
individual to obey social control. The administrations punish the violators with the help of the police,
the army ete
 Public Opinion :
 Public Opinion of the people is the most important method of social control in a democratic set up.
Every man tries to escape from the criticism and condemnation by the society. He therefore, tries to
act according to public opinion and public sentiments. In a democratic set up, public opinion is more
effective and important than any other agency.
 Newspapers, radio, television, motion pictures, legislations, pamchlets, etc. moula public opinion.
 Our government rests in public opinion. Whoever can change public opinion, can change the
government, practically just so much.
 (Abraham Lincoln)
 Family :
 Family is a very important instrument agency of social control. Family prescribes rules and
regulations that the members have to follow. These rules and regulations form a part of social
control.
 The family socializes the child into the norms, values, traditions and customs of the group. Thus,
family has predominant role in the shaping of the personality of the child. Family teaches the child to
conform to the norms of the society. It exercises control over its members to bring about the desired
action.
 Propaganda and Press :
Propaganda involves a purposeful attempt to influence the behavior and interpersonal dynamics of social
groups by employing methods that impact the emotions and attitudes of the individuals comprising thE
group. Various mediums, including radio, television, press, and literature, not only shape the thoughts of the
populace but also contribute to alterations in lifestyles and thought processes.
70
WORKSHEET
LEC.-1 : Social Change :Meaning , Nature & Patterns :
Q.1A : Explain the Meaning of Social Change ?
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Q.1B : Write Definitions of Social Change ?
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Q.1C: Explain Nature of social change ?
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Q.1D: Distinguishing Between Linear and Cyclical Theories of Society ?
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71
LEC.-2: Social Change : Factors, Distinction between Social and Cultural Change
Q.2A: What are factors responsible for Social Change ?
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Q.2B : Distinction between Social and Cultural Change ?
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72
LEC.-3: Social Control : Meaning ,Types & Importance :
Q.3A: Explain the meaning of Social Control ?
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Q.3B; Write Definitions of Social Control ?
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Q.3C: Explain the nature of Social Control ?
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Q.3D: Explain the need and importance of Social Control ?
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Q.3E : Explain Social Control Theory ?

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Q.3F: Write Types or Forms of Social Control ?
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73
LEC.-4: Means of Social Control :
Q.4A: What are the Means of Social Control ?
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Q.4B: Write main Agencies of Social Control?
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74
SOCIOLOGY
( UNIT- 4 )
75
LEC.- 1: Profession and Professionalisms :
Q.1A: What is a Profession ?
 Profession is an activity that requires specialised training, knowledge, qualification and skills. It
implies membership of a professional body, and certificate of practice. The individuals who
undertake a profession of rendering personalised services are called professionals, who are guided
by a certain code of conduct, set up by the respective body.
 A profession is an occupation, for which a person has to undergo specialised training or internship,
for getting a high degree of education and expertise in the concerned area. The main objective of the
profession is to render services to those who need them.
 The profession is governed by a professional body or statute. To be called as a professional, a person
has to pursue higher studies and qualify the exam conducted by the governing body. Normally, a
professional is said to be an expert in his field. Ethical codes are developed by the professional body
which must be followed by the professionals, to ensure uniformity in their work.
Q.1B : What is a Professionalisms ?

 Professionalism is a person’s abilities, competence, and behavior in a particular profession. It aims
for higher standards, more remarkable performance, and better connections with clients and co-
workers. Business professionalism entails honoring commitments, producing excellent work, and
holding yourself up as an expert.
 It aims to develop a courteous attitude when interacting with people at the workplace. It is a style of
conduct typically designed to be composed, in control, impartial, and generous. It combines several
traits, not just academic proficiency or polite behavior. A professional must possess specialized
knowledge in their chosen subject.
 Professionalism at work exemplifies when a worker performs to the best of their abilities, especially
on challenging days; exhibits the knowledge, skills, and behaviors necessary for their position;
exceeds the requirements of their work, and continually seeks out chances to advance better both
the organization and themselves.
 Professionalism skills ensure a friendly, secure, and inclusive workplace. It’s about fostering an
environment where individuals feel valued and a part of something. This involves being a courteous
team member, being transparent in our communication, making sure everyone feels included,
participating and interacting, and taking the opportunity to get to know co-workers.
 Professionalism development fosters a culture of inclusivity, setting a solid example, developing a
sense of accountability, and aligning the personal behavior and values necessary to the organization.
The workplace depends on our capacity to manage emotions rather than allowing them to influence
behavior.
 Employee engagement increases the likelihood that they will act professionally. Additionally,
professionalism ethics directly impacts the entire firm’s functioning, resulting in profitability and
customer satisfaction.
 All of these elements will be noticeable in any profession. However, they vary in degrees in every
workplace. The judgment of professionals determines management skills.
76
Q.1C : Write main Characteristics for a Professionalisms ?
True professionals have several crucial traits that apply to almost every industry. Some of them are:
1. Ethics – Doctors, lawyers, and public accountants must follow a robust code of professional ethics. It
would be best if it acted ethically, regardless of whether the business or sector has a formal code.
2. Reliability – It is also critical to return messages quickly and keep your word when you commit.
Meeting expectations necessitates having strong communication skills. Always be cautious while
making assumptions.
3. Competence – Professionals aspire to become experts in their sector, distinguishing themselves
from the competition, extending their education by enrolling in classes, attending conferences, and
earning relevant professional
credentials.
4. Appearance – When meeting prospects
or clients, pay close attention to how
you seem and take style cues from their
dress. Be careful to adhere to or even
exceed your company’s dress code
requirements.
5. Accountability – Professionals are
always responsible for their conduct. If
there is a mistake, own up to it and try
to resolve it. Avoid attempting to blame
a co-worker. Instead, accept the need
for a compromise when it arises and use
the experience to improve.
6. Communication – One of the essential traits of a professional is effective communication.
Communication is listening intently, understanding it effectively, and efficiently expressing a
message. Professionals have an excellent grasp of language, which they use to communicate ideas
Q.1D: Difference Between Profession And Professionalism ?

 While a profession is a career or occupation that allows a person to earn a living, professionalism
encompasses every facet of a profession’s practice. Crucial differences between the two are:
Profession Professionalism
It is a field of study or a career. It is a set of accepted behavior at the workplace.
It is limited and specified to

However, it applies to any job.
particular fields.
Example – showing respect, working on time, and

Examples are medicine, law, and
accepting accountability.
accounting.
77
LEC. 2 : Distinction between Profession and Occupation :
Q.2A : Explain Definition of Occupation ?
 Occupation is an activity undertaken by the person to earn his livelihood. It can be business,
profession or employment that a person undertakes to make money. Many think that occupation and
profession are synonyms, but the fact is they are different.

 Occupation refers to the kind of economic activity endeavoured by a person regularly for earning
money. When someone engages or occupies himself, most of the time, in any economic activity, that
activity is known as their occupation.
 Example: Drivers, shopkeepers, a government servant, clerks, accountants, etc.
 An occupation does not necessarily require specialised schooling in a particular stream. Physical or
mental both kinds of jobs are included in an occupation. It is divided into the following categories:
 Business: When a person in engaged in any trade, commerce or manufacturing activities, he is said
to be doing business.
 Employment: The occupation in which a person works for others and gets a fixed and
regular income is employment.
 Profession: The occupation in which a person renders services to others, by applying
his knowledge and skills is a profession.
Q.2B : Explain Definition of Profession ?

 A profession is an occupation, for which a person has to undergo specialised training or internship,
for getting a high degree of education and expertise in the concerned area. The main objective of the
profession is to render services to those who need them.
 The profession is governed by a professional body or statute. To be called as a professional, a person
has to pursue higher studies and qualify the exam conducted by the governing body. Normally, a
professional is said to be an expert in his field. Ethical codes are developed by the professional body
which must be followed by the professionals, to ensure uniformity in their work.
 Example: Doctors, Engineers, Lawyers, Chartered Accountant etc.
Q.2C : Distinction between Profession and Occupation ?
78
BASIS FOR
OCCUPATION PROFESSION
COMPARISON
Meaning Occupation refers to the A profession is an occupation or
regular activity performed by vocation which requires a high
a person to earn his bread and degree of knowledge and expertise
butter. in the specific field.
Code of conduct No Yes
Training Not necessary Compulsory
Regulated by No Yes
statute
Basis of pay Produce Skill and Knowledge
Higher education No Yes
Degree of There is no independence. A professional is completely
independence independent.
Responsibilities No Yes
Respect and Low Very high
Status
Key Differences Between Occupation and Profession:
1. An activity performed by a person normally for monetary compensation is known as the Occupation.
Profession refers to vocation, in which high degree of education or skills is required.
2. Unlike occupation, the profession has a code of conduct.
3. Occupation does not require any sort of training in a particular field, but the profession requires
specialisation in a specific area, and that is why training is a must.
4. In general, the profession is regulated by a particular or professional body statute while an
occupation is not.
5. A person doing occupation get paid for what he produces, whereas a profession gets paid according
to his knowledge and expertise.
6. The profession is also an occupation when the person is paid for utilising his skills and expertise.
7. A professional is independent, i.e. his work is not influenced by any external force. Conversely, there
is a lack of independence in the profession because the person performing the occupation has to
follow the commands of his supervisors.
8. There are some responsibilities which are associated with the profession. However an occupation is
not backed with such responsibilities.
9. The basic pay in the profession is normally higher than in occupation.
10. The professionals are respected by people and have a high status in the society as compared to the
occupation.
79
LEC.- 3: Society and Professional Ethics :
Q. 3A: What is Professional Ethics ?
 Professional people and those working in acknowledged professions exercise specialist knowledge
and skill. How the use of this knowledge should be governed when providing a service to the public
can be considered a moral issue and is termed professional ethics.
 Professionals are capable of making judgments, applying their skills and reaching informed
decisions in situations that the general public cannot, because they have not received the relevant
training.
 One of the earliest examples of professional ethics is probably the Hippocratic oath to which medical
doctors still adhere to this day.
 Professional ethics is a set of standards adopted by a professional community. Professional ethics
are regulated by standards, which are often referred to as codes of ethics.
 The code of ethics is very important because it gives us boundaries that we have to stay within in
our professional careers.
 The one problem with the code of ethics is that we can't always have the answers black and white.
Sometimes there are grey areas where the answers aren't so simple. Professional ethics are also
known as Ethical Business Practices.
Q.3B : Explain Components related Professional Ethics ?
 A number of professional organisations define their ethical approach as a number of discrete

components. Typically these include:
1. Honesty :
"Honesty is the best policy" is a famous statement. Honesty refers to a facet of moral character and
connotes positive and virtuous attributes such as integrity, truthfulness and straightforwardness
along with the absence of lying, cheating or theft. Honesty is revered in many cultures and religions.
2. Integrity :
Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, principles, expectations,
and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's
actions. Integrity can be regarded as the opposite of hypocrisy, in that integrity regards internal
consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding apparently conflicting values should
account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs.
3. Transparency :
80
Transparency, as used in science, engineering, business, the humanities and in a social context more
generally, implies openness, communication, and accountability. Transparency is operating in such a
way that it is easy for others to see what actions are performed. For example, a cashier making
change at a point of sale by segregating a customer's large bills, counting up from the sale amount,
and placing the change on the counter in such a way as to invite the customer to verify the amount of
change demonstrates transparency
4. Accountability :
In ethics and governance, accountability is answerability, blameworthiness, liability, and the
expectation of account-giving. As an aspect of governance, it has been central to discussions related
to problems in the public sector, nonprofit and private (corporate) worlds. In leadership roles,
accountability is the acknowledgment and assumption of responsibility for actions, products,
decisions, and policies including the administration, governance, and implementation within the
scope of the role or employment position and encompassing the obligation to report, explain and be
answerable for resulting consequences.
5. Confidentiality :
Confidentiality is a set of rules or a promise that limits access or places restrictions on certain types
of information. Confidentiality is ensuring that information is accessible only to those authorized to
have access.
6. Objectivity :
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern
behavior. Laws are made by governments, specifically by their legislatures. The formation of laws
themselves may be influenced by a constitution (written or unwritten) and the rights encoded
therein. The law shapes politics, economics and society in countless ways and serves as a social
mediator of relations between people.
7. Respectfulness :
Respect gives a positive feeling of esteem or deference for a person or other entity (such as a nation
or a religion), and also specific actions and conduct representative of that esteem. Respect can be a
specific feeling of regard for the actual qualities of the one respected (e.g., "I have great respect for
her judgment"). It can also be conduct in accord with a specific ethic of respect. Rude conduct is
usually considered to indicate a lack of respect, disrespect, where as actions that honor somebody or
something indicate respect. Specific ethics of respect are of fundamental importance to various
cultures and therefore key to success in any organization is respectfulness.
8. Obedience to the law :
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern
behavior. Laws are made by governments, specifically by their legislatures and in organizations, by
the Top Management.. The formation of laws themselves may be influenced by a constitution
(written or unwritten) and the rights encoded therein. The law shapes politics, economics and
society in countless ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. And the
employees working in an organization are bound to obey the Laws & Regulations of that
organization.
81
LEC.- 4: Sociology of Law & Relationship between Law and Society :
Q.4A: Describe meaning of Sociology of Law ?
 The works of sociologists and jurists at the turn of the 20th century can be used to trace the origins
of the sociology of law.
 Max Weber and Emil Durkheim both conducted social studies that examined the connection between
the law and society. The foundation of modern legal sociology is found in the works of early
sociologists of law.
 Legal sociology is the study of law as a functioning, influential social system that is used to govern
societies.
 To think of law as a social system is to consider the goals that these legal texts pursue as well as the
processes of law-making and its application (or the application of its texts and their activation in
social reality).
 Sociology of law relates to consideration of legal structures (i.e., the legal system), legal procedure
(how law is formed), and the role of law in societal transformation.
 As per sociology of law, it is crucial to examine how the law affects race, class, gender, and other
socially significant values, underlining that .
 The sociology of law studies law and legal institutions as social relationships. This course inquires
into the ways through which ‘legality’ is constituted by a wide range of political, economic and
cultural practices, and in turn the ways in which law is constitutive of social life in general.
 Everyday life both creates and incorporates legal meanings and practices. This course examines the
ways that legal meanings and practices appear in conceptions of society, community and the
individual.
 This course also examines the special role of legal professionals in the creation of legal meanings,
and the social impacts of their practice.
82
Q.4B: Explain Relationship between Law and Society ?
 Law and sociology are related in such a way that one cannot exist without other. Sociology and
society are closely intertwined, and each society has its own set of laws in this regard.
 Laws are thus a fundamental component of civilization. Sociology aids in ability of law to better
comprehend society for easier regulation and law-making. The law also plays a crucial role in
regulating society.
 If there was no law, then society would be nothing less than a jungle. Laws were created because
people require rules and regulations to keep them on track. These laws are made and established by
society as a whole, or they are created by elected governments. Sociology covers everything, from
the idea's conception through its execution to its effects on society.
 Legal sociology, which focuses on the study of law as a social phenomenon, cannot fully understand
this phenomenon without drawing on the research from all other branches of sociology, including
family, rural, urban, educational, political, and economic sociology.
 On the other hand, the knowledge gained in legal sociology contributes to the advancement of
knowledge in other branches of sociology in particular and the Social Sciences in general.
 From the foregoing, it can be inferred that legal sociology is a subfield of sociology that focuses on
the study of a specific aspect of life, namely the legal, in order to better comprehend this effort on the
one hand and increase our understanding of social life as a whole on the other.
Q.4C : Write Importance of Law in Society ?
 A society needs the law because it establishes a standard of behaviour for its members. It was also
created to maintain the balance between the three organs of government and to give all individuals
adequate instructions and order regarding their behaviour. It maintains society's operations.
Without law, there would be anarchy.
 Modernization and societal change are facilitated by the law. It serves as a sign of societal complexity
and the integration issues that come with it. Social change refers to desired changes in social
institutions, social processes, and social organisation. When we examine the role of law in relation to
social change more closely, we can distinguish between the direct and indirect components of that
involvement:
 Through its direct influence on society, law has a significant indirect impact on social transformation.
 On the other hand, law has a direct connection to social change since it often interacts with
fundamental social structures in an indirect way.
 Conclusion :
Law is a set of rules and regulations that, if practicable, are applied through social institutions to
regulate human behaviours. It influences politics, economics, and society in a variety of ways and
acts as a social mediator of interpersonal relationships. Criminal law provides a way by which the
state can bring the culprit to justice if the act is declared illegal by legislation. The formation of laws,
the defence of human rights, and the choice of political representatives are all governed by
constitutional law. The legal response to a specific social or technological issue is thus in and of itself
a significant social action that has the potential to either worsen or ameliorate the issue at hand and
contribute to its resolution.
WORKSHEET
83
LEC.- 1: Profession and Professionalisms :
Q.1A: What is a Profession ?
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Q.1B : What is a Professionalisms ?
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Q.1C : Write main Characteristics for a Professionalisms ?
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3.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q.1D: Difference Between Profession And Professionalism ?
1.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LEC. 2 : Distinction between Profession and Occupation :
84
Q.2A : Explain Definition of Occupation ?
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Q.2B : Explain Definition of Profession ?
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Q.2C : Distinction between Profession and Occupation ?
1.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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3.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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5.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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LEC.- 3: Society and Professional Ethics :
85
Q. 3A: What is Professional Ethics ?
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Q.3B : Write Components related Professional Ethics ?
1.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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2.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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3.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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4.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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5.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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LEC.- 4: Sociology of Law & Relationship between Law and Society :
86
Q.4A: Describe meaning of Sociology of Law ?
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Q.4B: Explain Relationship between Law and Society ?
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Q.4C : Write Importance of Law in Society ?
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GLOSSERY:
87
 A list of special or unusual word and their meanings usually at the end of a text or book.
1-Sociology-sociology is the scientific and systematic study of human society that focuses on human
behaviour. It investigates causes behind social phenomena,
2-Scope:the range or area where something can be done.
3-Subject- matter: the information and ideas that are discussed or dealt with a book. Anything which can
be content for some theory.
4-Society: A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group
sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations.
5-Community: A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with a shared socially significant
characteristic, such as place, set of norms, culture, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may
share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood.
6-Association: Association is a group of persons collected together with some particular aim.
7-Institution:An institution is a system for organizing standardized patterns of social behavior. In other
words, a group consists of people, and an institution consists of actions.
8-Mores: Mores are social norms that are widely observed within a particular society or culture. Mores
determine what is considered morally acceptable or unacceptable within any given culture.
9-Social group: a group refers to "any number of people with similar norms, values, and expectations who
interact with one another on a regular basis."
10-Family: a group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood, or adoption, constituting a single
household and interacting with each other.
11-Tradition: A tradition is a system of beliefs or behaviors (folk custom) passed down within a group of
people or society with symbolic meaning or special significance ..
12-Social thought: a philosophical and intellectual ideas of a person or persons regarding to a particular
time, place.
13-Pioneers: a person who is one of the first to develop an area of human knowledge, culture, etc.
14-Auguste comte: French sociologist who is also known as father of sociology.
15-Law of three stages-The law of three stages is an idea developed by Auguste Comte in his work The
Course in Positive Philosophy. It states that society as a whole, and each particular science, develops
through three mentally conceived stages: (1) the theological stage, (2) the metaphysical stage, and (3) the
positive stage.
88
16-Religion of humanity: Comte's religion of humanity has no concept of God. This religion is purely based
on morality and not on the belief in supernatural or divine power.
17-Emile Durkheim: Emile Durkheim is most known for his theories regarding functionalism, division of
labor, solidarity, and anomie.
18-Social solidarity: emphasizes the interdependence between individuals in a society, which allows
individuals to feel that they can enhance the lives of others. 15. It is a core principle of collective action and
is founded on shared values and beliefs among different groups in society.
19-Division of Labour: the separation of a work process into a number of tasks, with each task performed
by a separate person or group of persons.
20-Religion: Religion, human beings' relation to that which they regard as holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual,
divine, or worthy of especial reverence.
21-Suicide: suicide as a death resulting from an "act, carried out by the victim himself, which he was aware
would produce this result."
22-Karl Marx: Karl Marx was a German-born philosopher, political theorist, economist, historian,
sociologist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist.
23-Class Struggle: a conflict between different social classes, especially (in Marxist ideology) the conflict of
interests between the workers and the ruling class in a capitalist society, regarded as inevitably violent.
24-Social change: social change as changes in human interactions and relationships that transform cultural
and social institutions. These changes occur over time and often have profound and long-term
consequences for society.
25-Max Weber: was a German sociologist and political economist best known for his thesis of the
“Protestant ethic,” relating Protestantism to capitalism,
26-Authority: Authority is commonly understood as the legitimate power of a person or group over other
people. In a civil state, authority is practiced by the legislative .
27-Social Action: a prominent German sociologist, defined social action as any action that takes into
account the behavior of others and is oriented to them in its course. In other words, social action is any
action that an individual takes in response to the actions and behaviors of others, and that is influenced by
the social context in which it occurs.
28-Cultural Change: Cultural change refers to the movement supporting the transformation of society
through invention, discovery, or contact with other communities.
29-Social Control: social control is the process by which members of a group regulate themselves to
prevent negative deviance and preserve the beliefs, principles, and values that are generally accepted.
89
30-Public Opinion: Public opinion, or popular opinion, is the collective opinion on a specific topic or voting
intention relevant to society. It is the people's views on matters .
31-Propaganda: information and ideas that may be false or exaggerated, which are used to gain support
for a political leader, party, etc.
32-Reward and Punishment: Reward and punishment are both behaviors that require the actor to pay a
short-term cost, but they differ in the consequences for the target: reward generates immediate payoffs for
the target, whereas punishment does the opposite.
33-State: The state is a form of human association distinguished from other social groups by its purpose,
the establishment of order and security; its methods, the laws and their enforcement; its territory, the area
of jurisdiction or geographic boundaries; and finally by its sovereignty.
34-Profession: a job that needs a high level of training and/or education.
35-Professionalism: a way of doing a job that shows great skill and experience.
36-Professional Ethics: Professional ethics are principles that govern the behaviour of a person or group
in a business environment. Like values, professional ethics provide rules on how a person should act
towards other people and institutions in such an environment.
37-Law: Law is an instrument which regulates human conduct/behavior. Law means Justice, Morality,
Reason, Order, and Righteous from the view point of the society. Law means Statutes, Acts, Rules,
Regulations, Orders, and Ordinances from point of view of legislature.
38-Sociology of law: Sociology of law can be defined as an empirical knowledge, with theoretical
foundations, aimed at describing and explaining the mutual relationships between law in its various forms,
and social structures, social institutions, culture, ideologies, and values.
39-Occupation-occupation, business, profession, trade refer to the activity to which one regularly devotes
oneself, esp. one's regular work, or means of getting a living.
40-Professionals: Professionals are usually highly qualified individuals who have undergone a significant
period of education and training..
90
91

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1

 Unit I : Basic Concepts :

 Unit II : Pioneers of Social Thought :

 Unit III : Social Change and Social Control :

 Unit IV : Sociology of Profession :

 Previous Year Questions :

Q.4:”Sociology studies each and everything under the Sun.”Discuss.{2021}

Q.7:The feeling of ‘We’ is strong in the community .Examine critically.[2023}

 Unit:2-PIONEERS OF SOCIAL THOUGHT:

Q.10:Discuss the concept of Social Action of Max Weber.{2021}

Q.11:Discuss the concept of Historical Materialism given By Karl Marx.{2021}

Q.13:Sociology is a science like other natural science.Comte.Explain.(2023}

Q.14:Criticallyb explain Marx’s historical socialism.{2023}

 Unit:3-SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL CONTROL:

Q.17:’’Social Change is a universal and compulsory phenomena.” Discuss.{2021}

Q.19:The speed of social change depends on social activities.Examine.{2023}

Q.20:Social change is a universal phenomena ,it cannot be stopped.Evaluate critically.{2023}

Q.25:Define profession and describe the characteristics of Law profession.{2023}

 Unit I : Basic Concepts :

 Unit II : Pioneers of Social Thought :

LEC. 1-------------------- Comte : Law of 3 stages & Positivism

 Unit III : Social Change and Social Control :

LEC. 1-------------------- Social Change : Meaning ,Nature & Patterns

 Unit IV : Sociology of Profession :

LEC. 1-------------------- Profession and Professionalism

Q.1B: Write the Definitions of Sociology ?

Q.-8A : Write the Characteristics of Primary Group ?

Traditional Family/Joint Modern Family/ Nuclear

Lesser privacy A greater level of privacy

Commen property Seprate property

Co-operative organization Non co-operative organization

LEC.-1: Sociology : Meaning & Subject Matter :

Q.1C: Write the Subject Matter of Sociology ?

Q.-2A: Write the Scope of Sociology ?

Q.-2C: Define Synthetic School ?

Q.-3B: Write definitions of Society ?

Q.-4A: Explain the meaning of Community ?

Q.-5C: Explain 4 main Elements of Association ?

Q.-6A: Explain the meaning of Institution ?

Q.-6B: Write definitions of Institution ?

Q.-6C: Write 4 characteristics of Institution ?

Q.-6D : Differences between Institution and Association ?

Q.-7A: Explain the meaning of Social Group ?

Q.-7B: Write two definitions of Social Group ?

Q.-7C: Write five Characteristics of Social Group ?

Q.-9B: Write defenitions of Family ?

Q.-9C : Write 5 Distinctive features of the family ?

Q.-9D : Define the types of Family ?

Q.-9F: Write 5 features of joint family ?

Q. 9G: Write about nuclear family ?

Q.-9H: Write 5 features of nuclear family ?

Q.2B : .Explain Salient features of Religion of Humanity?

2- New Religion would lead to a new Epoch—

4- Comte not in favour of traditional Christianity—

5- Comtean religion is virtually a religion of human unity-

Social solidarity Ratio of suicide

Social solidarity Ratio of suicide

Religion Sacred things Beliefs Rituals Morality

Q.-6B: Explain the types of Authority , according Weber ?