Fabrication Processes

and Techniques Manual

RAYMOND C. ESPINA
 Fabrication processes and techniques

Fabrication of metal
refers to the building of metal
structures. This is done via a
variety of processes such as
cutting, bending, profiling,
welding and assembling.

Metals such as steel,

aluminum, and other ferrous
and non-ferrous metals are
used in the fabrication process.
These metals are often
procured by the fabricator in
their raw form, then they are cut,
bent and formed into the
required shapes and size ready
for welding.

The prepared metal from

the fabrication process is then welded together using a range of techniques and
procedures. Welding processes often include Arc, which is a welding technique
that uses a power supply in order to create an electric arc between the electrode
on the welding rod and the material itself. The current created excels a huge
amount of heat which is enough to melt the base material.

1
Other common welding processes include:

• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) - also known as manual metal arc
(MMA), SMAW is one of the most common arc welding processes. Using a
consumable flux-coated electrode that protects the weld area from oxidation
and contamination, SMAW produces carbon dioxide gas during the welding
process.

• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) - an automatic, or semi-automatic, process

that uses a continuous wire feed. Since the electrode here in continuous,
welding speeds are a lot greater with GMAW when compared to SMAW.

• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) – TIG uses a semi-inert gas mixture in
order to provide a welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten
electrode, an inert or semi-inert gas mixture and a separate filler material.
This welding process often requires high levels of skill from the operator and
is especially useful when welding thin materials. Though the process can be
slow, it produces high quality welds.

• Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) – FCAW uses a wire consisting of a steel

electrode surrounding a powder fill material. This wire if more expensive
than standard solid wires and it can also generate fumes. However, it
permits a high welding speed and great metal penetration.

Metal fabrication is a somewhat broad term for several types of fabrication

processes. Cutting, punching, forming, shearing, stamping, welding are common
fabrication techniques used to shape, cut, or mold raw metal material into a final
product. Fabrication is distinct from other manufacturing processes. For example,
unlike material that is assembled from ready-made components or parts,
fabrication can either produce end products or can produce parts for use in
completing those products.

2
 Fabrication manufacturing processes differ depending on the material and
the desired end product. The process can be used in making mass-produced
products or custom designs. Whether mass-produced or custom designed, the end
products are made with a wide range of metals and their alloys—stainless steel,
carbon steel, aluminum, copper, brass to name a few. In industrial fabrication
processes, chances are one or more of the following methods will be used to finish
or produce a part or end product:

3
Self-Check 1

Direction: Read the question carefully, encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What welding process that uses a wire consisting of a steel electrode

surrounding a powder fill material?
A. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
B. Flux-Cored Arc Welding
C. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
D. Gas Metal Arc Welding
2. What welding process that uses a continuous wire feed?
A. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
B. Flux-Cored Arc Welding
C. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
D. Gas Metal Arc Welding
3. What welding process that uses a consumable flux-coated electrode that
protects the weld area from oxidation and contamination?
A. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
B. Flux-Cored Arc Welding
C. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
D. Gas Metal Arc Welding
4. What welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode, an
inert or semi-inert gas mixture and a separate filler material?
A. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
B. Flux-Cored Arc Welding
C. Shielded Metal Arc Welding
D. Gas Metal Arc Welding
5. What refers to the building of metal structures?
A. Fabrication of Metal
B. Welding
C. SMAW
D. GMAW

4
 Performance Criteria Checklist 1
Common Welding Processes

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Not
Criteria Performed
performed

Identify and discuss the common

welding processes with its advantages
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
• Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

5
Types of Fabrication

➢ Cutting: The cutting of a metal

workpiece is a common fabrication
technique in which the material is split or
cut into smaller sections. Cutting can be
used as a first step in a much larger
fabrication process or the only step
necessary in the process. The old days of sawing have been superseded
by modern forms of cutting that utilize state-of-the-art machinery. From
power tools to computer numerical computer (CNC) cutters, today’s
methods include laser cutting, waterjet cutting, power scissors, and plasma
arc cutting.
➢ Forming:
In manufacturing, forming is
a fabrication process that
bends or distorts metal to
produce parts and
components. Metal can also
be formed via rolling, a
compressive method utilizing CNC press brakes able to produce up to 400
tons of pressure. Strips or sheets of metal are continuously fed through
parallel rollers that shape the workpiece into the desired form. During the
process of forming, the metal material does not lose its mass, only its form.

6
 ➢ Punching: Punch presses
are mechanical devices or
machines used to punch or create
holes in metals. Punching, as a
fabrication process, has a two-fold
purpose. A punch press houses
turrets that strike metal through or
into a die. The result “punches” or
creates uniquely designed holes in
the metal. The finished product can
either be the removed uniquely shaped pieces that were punched out from
the metal, known as blanks, or the holes can be used for fastening purposes.
Traditionally, in smaller fabrication shops punch presses are mechanical,
but smaller and can be hand-powered. In large-scale fabrication operations,
industrial CNC programmed presses are used to produce complex designs
at greater output to meet both heavy and light metalwork.

➢ Shearing: Used to trim or

remove unwanted material from
metal material, shearing is
achieved by mounting two
blades above and beneath the
metal to produce one long,
straight cut. The process is
primarily used to cut smaller
lengths and differently shaped
materials, the blades can be
mounted at angles to reduce the necessary shearing force required. Straight
cuts are achieved by combining two tools, essentially blades, with one of
the tools above the metal and the other one located below for applying
pressure. The upper blade forces the metal down onto the fixed or stationary

7
lower blade to fracture the piece and complete the separation.

➢ Welding: One of the more

common fabrication
processes, welding is the art of
joining two or more pieces of metal
together utilizing a combination of
heat and pressure. Metals can vary
in shape or size. The three main
types of welding procedures are
Stick or Arc Welding, MIG Welding,
and TIG Welding. Spot welding and
stud welding are two other versatile
welding applications used in
industrial metal fabrication shops.

8
Self-Check 2

Direction: Identify the types of fabrication, encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is a common fabrication technique in which the material is split or cut

into smaller sections?
A. Shearing C. Cutting
B. Welding D. Forming
2. What types of fabrication used to trim or remove unwanted material from
metal material?
A. Forming C. Punching
B. Welding D. Cutting
3. What is the art of joining two or more pieces of metal together utilizing a
combination of heat and pressure?
A. Cutting C. Shearing
B. Forming D. Welding
4. What fabrication process that bends or distorts metal to produce parts and
components?
A. Welding C. Forming
B. Shearing D. Punching
5. What type of fabrication that strike metal through or into a die?
A. Punching C. Forming
B. Shearing D. Welding

9
 Performance Criteria Checklist 2

Common Types of Fabrication

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Discuss the different types of metal

fabrication
• Cutting

• Forming
• Punching

• Shearing

• Welding

10
 ➢ Different Types of Metal Cutting
Metal fabrication is an essential step in creating all sorts of metal parts,
components and machines. During almost any fabrication process, the metal
materials required will need to be cut — however, there are several different types
of metal cutting approaches you can choose from.

Which type of metal cutting is right for your application? To help you decide,
here’s a look at some of the most commonly used metal cutting technologies and
approaches.

➢ Grinding: Grinding is a metal

cutting process used in fabrication.
The actual metal grinding is used
to rid metal components of rough
edges by deburring, smoothing out
welds and, in some cases,
creating sharp edges.Grinding is
almost always done by hand using
a grinding machine, though some
larger operations have finishing
machines they use for the
process. There are many different
types of machines used for
grinding, including bench grinders,
cylinder grinders, surface grinders,
bit grinders and more. Because
grinding is a manual process, it's
often one of the more intensive
and expensive steps in fabrication

11
 ➢ Drilling: Drilling is another
important action for metal
fabrication. Metal drilling is used to
create holes of precise
specifications in a metal
component or surface. The hole
itself is created by applying
pressure and rotation on top of the
metal component or surface.
When creating parts and
components that will be fastened to
other metal components or to
components made from other
materials, it’s often necessary to create holes for fasteners to pass through.
Different types of metal will require different levels of pressure and various types
of tools, depending on the specific drilling nee

➢ Turning: Also known as metal

spinning, metal turning is a
metalworking process wherein a
tube or disc rotates at a high speed
to help form metal in the desired
configuration. The turning process
is typically conducted by hand or
through use of a lathe, and the
technicians who perform turning
are highly skilled at forming parts
and components during the
fabrication process.

12
 ➢ Burning: Also known as welding, metal
burning is the process of heating metal
components to such a temperature that they
can be broken and formed along a pattern.
Burning and welding are often used to join
two different metal components, and
specialty tools are required for successful
burning and welding. Metal burning’s roots
lie in blacksmithing, a forge welding
specialty that involved heating and
hammering in an effort to join together iron
and steel.

13
Self-Check 3

Direction: Read the question carefully, encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What type of metal cutting that heats the metal components to such a
temperature that they can be broken and formed along a pattern?
A. Drilling C. Burning
B. Turning D. Grinding
2. What type of metal cutting that used to create holes of precise specifications
in a metal component or surface?
A. Grinding C. Burning
B. Turning D. Drilling
3. What type of metal cutting wherein a tube or disc rotates at a high speed to
help form metal in the desired configuration?
A. Turning C. Drilling
B. Grinding D. Burning
4. What type of metal cutting used to rid metal components of rough edges by
deburring, smoothing out welds and, in some cases, creating sharp edges?
A. Burning C. Turning
B. Drilling D. Grinding
5. Almost any fabrication process, the metal materials required will need to be
_______.
A. Cut C. Melt
B. Burn D. Grind

14
 Performance Criteria Checklist 3

Types of Metal Cutting

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Discuss the different types of metal

cutting

• Grinding

• Drilling

• Turning:

• Burning:

15
 Cutting Metal Using an Angle Grinder

Parts of Angle Grinder:

✓ Wheel Guard: Partially shields the user

from the disc and debris flying back toward the
user.

✓ Handle: Hand hold on either side of the

angle grinder to add stability while
using.

✓ Power Cord: it is connected to the main

power supply.

✓ Spindle Lock Button:

Locks the spindle from
spinning when installing and
removing discs.

16
 ✓ Power Switch: Turns the grinder
on and off.

✓ Disc: Is attached to the spindle

and held on by the spindle nut.
Does the work of grinding or
cutting.

✓ Body: Houses the motor

and is a hand hold while using.
✓

✓ Spindle: The spinning shaft of

the grinder where the disc or
wheel is attached.

17
 ✓ Spindle Nut: Nut that attaches the disc
to the spindle. Often has holes that require a
special wrench or spanner to loosen.

✓ Spindle Wrench: Special wrench

needed for installing and removing
the spindle nut on some grinders.

18
Self-Check 4

Direction: Label the parts of angle grinder, write your answer in the blank provided.

19
Grinder Safety

Precautions to take when using a grinder

1. Make Your Work Environment Safe: All work environments need to be

safe, but when using a power tool, a trip or fall can result in a serious
accident. Tools are often driven by powerful motors or engines and the
business end of the machine can be an abrasive cutting disk, a blade with
sharp teeth or a sharp drill bit. As the saying goes "flesh is no match for
steel", so safety is paramount.

Here are some tips:

• De-clutter Your Workspace. Tool boxes, scattered
tools, lengths of steel and timber and power cables can
cause trips and falls. Keep everything to one side
where it can be accessed if needed.
• Illuminate Your Workspace Adequately. Proper
illumination using background lighting and an optional
floodlight/spotlight ensures that you can see what you
are doing and don't have to strain your eyes. This is
especially important when using goggles which can
somewhat obscure vision if they become fogged or
dusty. Personally, I find a head torch is great as it
directs a beam of light exactly where needed.
Alternatively, you can work outdoors if weather
conditions allow it. The advantage of this is that sparks
are less likely to be a hazard, illumination is better and
dust and fumes tend to dissipate
• Power Cables and Flexes. Keep these behind you so
they can't end up getting cut or tripping you up.
• Provide Adequate Ventilation. Grinding and cutting will
produce dust and metal particles, sparks and fumes.

20
 Open doors and windows and try to direct sparks away
from you.
• Flammable Materials. Remove gasoline(petrol), diesel,
gas cylinders, solvents, sawdust and other flammable
materials from the work area. If this is not possible,
direct sparks away from these items. Paper and oily
cloths are also a fire hazard.
• Rain and Water. Don't work during rainy weather or use
a tool which has become wet without drying it
thoroughly. For added safety, power the angle grinder
from a socket or extension lead fitted with a GFCI
(RCD) adapter.
• Jewelry, Loose Clothing and Earphones. Remove
jewelry and bracelets, loose clothing such as scarves
and anything else which could possibly get caught up
in the rotating grinder disk and shaft. If you have long
hair, keep it up under a cap
• Fire Extinguisher. Make sure you have one of these
handy in the event of fire. The extinguisher should be
of the proper class. A powder extinguisher is suitable
for class A, B and C fires
• Be Aware of Those Around You. Keep children and
pets out of your work area
2. Use Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE) should be worn to protect your hearing, lungs, eyes,
hands and feet from injury. Clothing and gloves should be tight fitting so that
they don't get caught and pulled into the tool.

• Eye protection. Safety goggles need to be worn to protect

eyes from flying particles and sparks. These should be to
EN166B, ANSI Z87.1 or equivalent standard. A full-face

21
 visor/shield is highly advisable and gives additional protection.
• Ear Protection. Muffs or earplugs will lessen the risk of hearing
damage.
• Hand Protection. Gloves provide protection from sparks, and
small fragments of disk and waste metal thrown out by the
disk. They also protect your hands from general wear and tear,
i.e. minor cuts, scuffs and abrasion. Gloves may give some
protection from hot sharp edges of cut metal, but this depends
on the rating of the glove and thickness/material used. Some
people advise that gloves should never be worn when using
an angle grinder because the tool could be classed as rotating
machinery and gloves could get caught in the disk. However,
this shouldn't happen during normal use as both hands are
holding the grinder and the guard should be in place. In any
case, gloves should be tight fitting and not "baggy", so that you
can hold the tool securely.
• Breathing Protection. Use a suitable dust mask to protect
against fumes and dust particles. This should seal properly
around the face. Tiny particulate matter (dust particles)
entering your lungs over a prolonged period can eventually
cause lung disorders, maybe even cancer.
• Footwear. Wear steel toe cap shoes or boots with good grips.
If you are working with heavy items which could drop when cut
up, this will protect your toes. Footwear should also
incorporate steel insoles to protect feet in the event of walking
on nails or other sharp objects in the work area.
• Overalls and/or Leather Apron. These protect clothes from
sparks. You can of course use old clothes, but avoid
flammable materials. Watch out for sparks falling into pockets
or turn-up.
3. Check Your Grinder Is in Good Condition and Safe to Use: An angle

22
grinder like any power tool should be maintained in good condition
and given a quick inspection before use. Check out the following:
• Flex and Plug. The flex should be securely attached to the tool
and plug. Exposed cores in the flex at these entry points (where
damage often occurs), should be remedied by rewiring the plug
or grinder. Cracked and damaged flexes with exposed inner cores
should be replaced.
• Check the Guard. The guard on an angle grinder is an essential
component which should be in place at all times. It protects the
user from sparks thrown upwards and backwards and also takes
some of the impact if the disk shatters, by deflecting chunks of
material downwards. It also may give some protection for your
face if the grinder falls back against you while grinding overhead
(a practice which you should try to avoid. If there is no alternative,
always wear a full-face visor). The guard should be adjusted to
the correct angle, giving maximum protection by deflecting sparks
and disk fragments away from the operator. If the grinder needs
to be used in a confined location or to make a vertical cut, the
guard should be adjusted to suit. Usually, it is only necessary to
loosen screws or a bolt, twist the guard and re-tighten the
fastener. Any buildup of slag on the inside of the guard should be
periodically removed.
• A secondary but equally important function of the guard is to
shield the back of the disk from making contact with your hand,
potentially causing a serious injury.
• Side Handle. This should be tightly screwed into the tool.
• Ventilation Slots. These should be kept clear to prevent
overheating of the motor
• Use a GFCI (RCD) adapter. You will likely have one of these fitted
at the "fuseboard"/ electrical panel, but as added insurance
against lethal electric shock in case this fails, it's wise to use an

23
 adapter on the plug of your grinder or extension lead. For more
details see this article

4. Choose the Right Disk for the Job:

• Use the Proper Disk for the Material Being Cut. (e.g. masonry or
metal)
• Check the Disk for Defects. Cracks, missing chunks or other
defects in a disk are a potential hazard. Never use a damaged disk
which could potentially shatter and throw out fragments at high
velocity with fatal consequences
• Never Use a Cutting Disk for Grinding. Cutting disks are thin and
not designed to withstand side pressure, unlike disks used for
grinding. They can over flex and shatter. If you grind with the side
faces of a cutting disk, this will thin the disk, overstress it and
potentially result in a disk explosion, showering you with disk
fragments. Grinding disks shouldn't be used for cutting either
• Disks Should Never be Used at a Rotational Speed Greater Than
They Were Designed For. Disks are marked with the maximum
RPM (Revolutions Per Minute) specification which should match the
grinder they're used with. The larger the disk, the lower the maximum
speed it can rotate at. This means that you shouldn't use a worn-
down 9-inch disk on a 4 1/2 inch grinder
• Make Sure the Flange Nut is Suitable for the Disk and Tightened
Fully
• Make Sure the Disk is Seated Properly Before
Tightening. Usually the flange nut is turned upside down when used
with thinner disks, otherwise the spigot or raised rim around the
perimeter of the hole in the nut will prevent the nut from clamping
down on the disk.
• Don't Use a Disk After the Use by Date. Grinder disks have a use

24
 by date. This is due to a concern about moisture and/or ageing
resulting in softening of the binding resin and weakening the disk.
Disks may be perfectly ok after the use by date, but it's better to play
safe, not stock up on disks and use them before the date marked.
Disks should be kept in a cool dry place
• The "hollow" on a depressed center disk should be facing outwards.
Types of Disks:

• Ceramic or white aluminum oxide disks are available for cutting

and grinding harder steels such as stainless steel.
• Thinner disks are used for cutting metal sheeting such as roof
cladding. These cut quicker with less friction so there's less damage
to protective coating/paint on sheets. However, they also wear away
somewhat quicker.
• Diamond coated disks can be used for cutting brick, stone,
concrete, slate and roof tiles.
• Non-Abrasive Disks for Metal. These are a relatively new
innovation and similar to disks used for cutting masonry. The edge of
the disk is coated with diamond particles. These have three major
advantages over traditional bonded abrasive disks:

1. The disk is steel and much less likely to shatter.

2. No use-by date issues unlike bonded abrasive disks

Cutting doesn't produce sparks.

25
Self-Check 5
Direction: Read the statement carefully, encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. The following are the precautions to take when using a grinder, EXCEPT
one.
A. Choose the Right Disk for the Job
B. Use Personal Protective Equipment
C. Check Your Grinder Is in Good Condition and Safe to Use
D. Make Your Work Environment Dangerous

2. A type of disk that is use for cutting and grinding harder steels such as
stainless steel.
A. Non-Abrasive Disks
B. Thinner disks
C. White aluminum oxide disks
D. Diamond-coated disks

3. Disk that is used for cutting brick, stone, concrete, slate, and roof tiles.
A. Non-Abrasive Disks
B. Thinner disks
C. White aluminum oxide disks
D. Diamond-coated disks
E.
4. Disk that is used for cutting metal sheeting such as roof cladding.
A. Non-Abrasive Disks
B. Thinner disks
C. White aluminum oxide disks
D. Diamond-coated disks

5. The ____________ is steel and much less likely to shatter.

A. Metal
B. Disk
C. Aluminum
D. Iron

26
 Performance Criteria Checklist 4

Parts of an Angle Grinder

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Identify and discuss the function of the

different parts of an angle grinder

• Wheel Guard

• Handle:

• Spindle Lock

• Power Switch

• Disc

• Body

• Spindle

• Spindle Nut

• Spindle Wrench

27
 Performance Criteria Checklist 5
Angle grinder safety

Name: __________________ Course & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Discuss And perform the Needed Safety

Precaution in Using Angle Grinder

• Make Your Work Environment

Safe:

• Use Personal Protective

Equipment (PPE):

• Check Your Grinder Is in Good

Condition and Safe to Use:

• Choose the Right Disk for the

Job:

28
 Performance Criteria Checklist 6
Types of Disks

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Identify the different types of disks and

discuss its uses

• Ceramic or white aluminum oxide

disks

• Thinner disks

• Diamond coated disks

• Non-Abrasive Disks for Metal

29
 Cutting Metal Using a Drill

Hand Drill: A hand drill is the simplest form of drills. They are ideal for pre drilling
holes before putting the screws inside. Simply turn the drill left and right
until the tip gets in the wood. Then, keep turning the drill to the right until
you reach the required depth. These tools are excellent since they
require no power and are very easy to use.

Types Of Drills:

✓ Hand Drill and Brace: Even though we

live in the 21st century, people still use
these tools. They are much quieter than
electric drills and allow you to make
precise holes. You can use them for
wood and soft materials, but even in
that case, it can’t make deep holes.
There are also bits created especially for this type of drilling tools,
which allow improved precision.

✓ Standard Electric Drill: These drills are

excellent for most fixing jobs. They allow you to fix
heavier objects by making holes and using
screws. There are two types of electric drills:
battery-powered drills, and the ones that are
powered by cable.
The first ones are fine because you don’t
have to be near the power supply all the time.
Also, there are no cables getting in your way. On
the other hand, the drills powered by cable are usually much more powerful.

30
 ✓ Hammer Drill: Hammer drills are
similar to standard models but have an
additional “hammering” feature. They are
great for drilling into tough materials,
such as concrete and stone. Many models
allow you to switch between hammering
and rotating, or even use both at the same time.

✓ Benchtop Drill Press: These units

are a bit difficult to use for beginners but can
be invaluable to a professional DIY. The main
advantage of these drills is that they allow you
to make very accurate holes. Besides, they
usually produce lots of power and can be
used for various materials.

Types of Drilling Bits: Besides drilling tools, choosing the right drilling bit is also
of great importance. There are many different types of drilling bits, but
let’s mention the ones that homeowners use the most.

✓ Twist Bits: These bits are most

widely used. They are universal and
good for most materials, but they are not
perfect. Using more specialized bits is
always a better option. Also, twist bits are excellent for drilling steel.

31
✓ Masonry Bits: Masonry bits are easy to
recognize since their tip is wider than the
body. These are excellent for bricks, stones,
and mortar, but you should always use
them with a hammering turned on. Otherwise,
the tip will wear away pretty soon.

✓ Dowel Bits: These bits always have a sharp tip,

and their cutting edges are in the opposite direction.
They are ideal for drilling clean and precise holes in
wood. However, you can’t use them to drill metal or
plastic.

✓ Flat Bits: If you need to drill large

holes, where other types of bits are
expensive, flat bits are the best
solution. They are low cost and low
performance and make rough holes
in wood. The only advantage of flat
bits is their price. You should choose them if the neatness of the hole is not
important, and buying expensive bits is an unnecessary cost.

32
 ✓ Augers: These are low speed,
high torque bits. They are energy
efficient and produce very clean holes.
Also, you can use them with most
cordless drills, if the tool can produce
enough torque. However, augers are
prone to jamming, so you should
always buy a few, just in case.

33
Self-Check 6
Direction: Read each question, encircle the letter of the correct answer.
1. It is a type of drill that is great for drilling into tough materials, such as
concrete and stone.
A. Standard Electric Drill
B. Hammer drill
C. Benchtop Drill
D. Hand Drill and Brace

2. A type of drill that is use for beginners but can be invaluable to a

professional DIY.
A. Standard Electric Drill
B. Hammer drill
C. Benchtop Drill
D. Hand Drill and Brace

3. A type of drilling bits that is so easy to recognize since their tip is wider
than the body.
A. Flat Bits
B. Twist Bits
C. Masonry Bits
D. Dowel Bits

4. These bits always have a sharp tip, and their cutting edges are in the
opposite direction.
A. Flat Bits
B. Twist Bits
C. Masonry Bits
D. Dowel Bits

5. A type of drilling bits that is excellent for drilling steel.

A. Flat Bits
B. Twist Bits
C. Masonry Bits
D. Dowel Bits

34
 Performance Criteria Checklist 10
Types Of Drills:

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

identify and give the usage of each drill

in fabrication process and techniques

• Hand Drill and Brace

• Standard Electric Drill

• Hammer Drill

• Benchtop Drill Press:

Identify the different kinds of drill bits and
give its function

• Twist Bits

• Masonry bit

• Dowel Bits

• Flat Bits

• Augers

35
 Metal Turning
Types Of Metal Turning and Some Complementary Processes:
• Boring: Boring is the metalworking process of enlarging a hole already
drilled (or cast) using a single-point cutting tool (or a boring head containing
several such tools). Boring is commonly used to achieve greater accuracy
of a hole’s diameter and can be used to cut a tapered hole. Boring is the
internal-diameter counterpart to turning, which cuts external diameters.

There are three general types of boring bars: high speed steel, brazed
carbide, and indexable carbide. The benefits of HSS are that it is cheaper
and tougher. The benefits of carbide are that it can tolerate much more heat
(i.e. it can cut 2.5 – 5 times faster than HSS), and it has a modulus of rigidity
that is about 2.5 times greater than steel.
Using a boring bar to simply enlarge an existing hole is a straightforward
process. However, when trying to hit a particular size and tight tolerance,
everything begins to matter: boring bar selection and setup, cutting edge
geometry, tool deflection, lubrication, cutting parameters, chip evacuation,
part temperature, and our ability to measure the bore accurately and
precisely. If you cannot force yourself to be a little OCD, you might not be
good at precision boring.

Steps In Boring on The Lathe

Step 0: Understand EVERYTHING Matters: Using a boring bar to
simply enlarge an existing hole is a straightforward process. However,
when trying to hit a particular size and tight tolerance, everything begins to
matter: boring bar selection and setup, cutting edge geometry, tool
deflection, lubrication, cutting parameters, chip evacuation, part
temperature, and our ability to measure the bore accurately and precisely. If
you cannot force yourself to be a little OCD, you might not be good at
precision boring.
Step 1: Boring Bar Selection: There are three general types of boring
bars: high speed steel, brazed carbide, and indexable carbide. The benefits
of HSS are that it is cheaper and tougher. The benefits of carbide are that
it can tolerate much more heat (i.e. it can cut 2.5 – 5 times faster than HSS),
and it has a modulus of rigidity that is about 2.5 times greater than steel.
Step 2: Boring Bar Setup: It’s worth repeating: as with all metal cutting
processes, stiffness is key when boring, so do everything you can to
maximize it: use the largest diameter boring bar and the shortest extension
length possible.

36
 Step 3: Selection of Cutting Parameters
TIP: When using boring bars, it’s best to begin with a cutting speed equal
to half the typical computed value and work your way up if vibration and
tool life allow it. The primary reasons are the reduced stiffness due to the
cantilevered nature of boring bars, as well as the difficulty of providing
consistent lubrication to, and chip evaluation from, the cutting edge of the
tool unless flood cooling, as in a CNC lathe.
TIP: A safe maximum depth of cut for a boring bar is twice the corner
radius. It’s important to understand there is also a safe minimum depth of
cut, below which the tool constantly transitions between cutting and
smearing, leaving a very inconsistent size and finish. This safe minimum
depth of cut is typically around 0.002” to 0.005” depending on the
material. Harder / stronger materials usually can tolerance a smaller
minimum depth of cut.
TIP: A safe maximum federate for a boring bar is one quarter of the corner
radius.
Step 4: Ideology for Repeatable Results
Consistency is crucial to obtaining repeatable results when using boring
bars. Meaning, you want to vary the fewest parameters possible during
each cut, and preferably only one at a time. Anything that affects the
cutting force at the tool tip will change the amount of material
removed, or the surface finish obtained: depth of cut, federate, lubrication,
corner radius, part temperature, etcetera.

Let’s say you are trying to thru-bore a 1” hole in a piece of 303 stainless
steel. One approach would be as follows:
1. Remove as much material as possible by drilling, since it’s the most
efficient method of material removal. When doing this, be sure to leave
enough stock for the next step. Leave the bore about 0.050” small in
this case.

2. Perform a few test cuts to check how the boring bar is cutting. Rarely
will a boring bar cut perfectly. If you try to remove 0.010” off the diameter
of the bore, it may only remove 0.0096” on the first pass and another
0.0004” on the spring pass. (A spring pass is simply a second pass that
helps compensate for tool or part deflection during the first pass.) It’s
important to make a couple passes and write down how much each
removes so you can take the average and know what to expect when it
matters.

37
3. Do not try to “sneak up” on the final size. As anti-intuitive as it may
sound, the best results are not obtained by making smaller and smaller
cuts until you reach the desired size because of the safe minimum depth
of cut discussed in Step 3 above. The best results are obtained by
repeatedly removing a similar amount of material on each pass and
using the resulting measurement data to make small adjustments to
each subsequent pass. On the 1” 303 example piece, the final cut would
remove 0.005” to 0.010” from the diameter to bring the part into final size
tolerance.

Step 5: Bore Measurement

Bore measurements can be made using several tools, depending on the
budget, operator skill, and required measurement accuracy.
Dial or Digital Calipers: The easiest tool to use for bore measurement is
also the least accurate: dial calipers. These typically aren’t very accurate
(within a couple thousandths of an inch) on smaller bores (0.5”) because the
inside jaws have flats ground into them that prevent them from measuring
the true size of the hole.

38
Self-Check 7
Direction: Arrange the steps in boring on the lathe, write the answer before the
number.

___________Ideology for Repeatable Results

___________Boring Bar Setup

___________Bore Measurement

___________Understand EVERYTHING Matters

___________Selection of Cutting Parameters

___________Boring Bar Selection

39
 Performance Criteria Checklist 11
Steps In Boring on The Lathe

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Perform the steps in boring on the lathe

• Step 0: Understand
EVERYTHING Matters

• Step 1: Boring Bar Selection

• Step 2: Boring Bar Setup

• Step 3: Selection of Cutting

Parameters

• Step 4: Ideology for Repeatable

Results

• Step 5: Bore Measurement

40
• Chamfer Turning: Similar to step
turning, chamfer turning creates an
angled transition of a square edge
between surfaces with different
turned diameters.

• Contour Turning: In a contour

turning operation, the cutting tool axially
follows the path using predefined
geometry. Multiple passes of a
contouring tool are necessary to create
the desired shapes in the finished
product.

• Drilling: Drilling is the

metalworking process of removing
material from the inside of a
workpiece. This process uses
standard drill bits held stationary in
the tool turret of the lathe.
Separately available drilling
machines can do the procedure.

• Facing: Facing in the context of

metal turning work involves moving the
chosen cutting tool at right angles to the
workpiece’s rotation axis. Facing is
performed by the operation of the cross-
slide. The first operation is often
performed in the workpiece’s production
and frequently the last – hence the phrase
“ending up.”

41
 • Grooving: In metalworking, grooving
is similar to parting, but grooves are cut
to a specific depth instead of severing
the part entirely from the stock.
Machinists can perform grooving on
internal and external surfaces and the
part’s face (also known as face
grooving or trepanning).

• Hard Turning: Hard turning

consists of metal turning for materials with
a Rockwell C hardness more significant
than 45. It is typically performed after the
workpiece has been heat-treated. The
hard turning process tends to replace
more traditional grinding operations.

Hard turning is appropriate for parts

requiring a roundness accuracy of 0.5-
12 micrometers or surface roughness of
Rz 0.8–7.0 micrometers. Hard turning applications include gears, injection
pump components, and hydraulic components, among other applications.

• Knurling: Knurling is cutting a

serrated pattern onto the
surface of a part to use as a
handgrip using a specific
purpose knurling tool.

42
 • Parting: The parting process, also
called parting off or cutoff, creates deep
grooves that remove a completed or
partially completed component from its
parent stock.

• Polygonal Turning: Polygonal

turning is a turning process in
which non-circular forms are
machined without interrupting the
raw material’s rotation.

• Reaming: Reaming is a sizing

operation that removes a small amount
of metal from a hole already drilled.
Reaming is used for making internal
holes of extremely accurate diameters.
For example, a 6mm hole is made by
drilling with a 5.98 mm drill bit and then
reamed to precise dimensions.

43
• Threading: Both standard and
non-standard screw threads can
be turned on a lathe using an
appropriate cutting tool. Either
externally or within a bore,
generally referred to as single-
point threading.

44
Self-Check 8
Direction: Identify the picture shown below. Write your answer in the blank
provided.

1. ___________________

2. ___________________

45
3. ___________________

4. ___________________

5. __________________

46
 Performance Criteria Checklist 12
Types Of Metal Turning and Some Complementary Processes

Name: ________________Course & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Discuss And Perform the Different Types

of Metal Turning and Some
Complementary Processes

• Boring

• Chamfer Turning

• Contour Turning

• Drilling

• Facing

• Grooving

• Hard Turning

• Knurling

• Parting

• Polygonal Turning

• Reaming

• Threading

47
 ➢ Forming metal fabrication Rolling

Processes

Forging

Processes
Bulk

Deformation
Extrusion

Processes

Wire and Bar

Drawing

Metal forming

Bending

Operations
Stretching
Deep or Cup

Drawing
Sheet
Metalworking
Shearing

Processes

Miscellaneous

Processes

48
 Classification of basic bulk forming processes

Bulk forming: It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape

change. The surface area to volume of the work is relatively small. Mostly
done in hot working conditions.
Rolling: In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab or plate is
compressed between two rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that the
thickness is reduced. The rotating rolls draw the slab into the gap and
compresses it. The final product is in the form of sheet.
Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing shaped
contours. The die shapes are imparted into the final part.
Extrusion: In this, the workpiece is compressed or pushed into the die
opening to take the shape of the die hole as its cross section.
Wire or rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled
through the die opening to take the cross section.

49
Self-Check 9
Direction: Read the question carefully. Encircle the letter of the correct
answer.
1. It is similar to extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled
through the die opening to take the cross section.
A. Extrusion
B. Bulk Forming
C. Wire or rod drawing
D. Rolling
2. The workpiece in the form of slab or plate is compressed between
two rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that the thickness
is reduced.
A. Bulk Forming
B. Rolling
C. Forging
D. Extrusion
3. The workpiece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to
take the shape of the die hole as its cross section.
A. Wire or Rod drawing
B. Extrusion
C. Forging
D. Bulk Forming
4. The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing
shaped contours.
A. Rolling
B. Extrusion
C. Bulk Forming
D. Forging
5. : It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape
change.
A. Rolling
B. Wire or rod drawing
C. Forging
D. Bulk Forming

50
 Performance Criteria Checklist 13
Classification Of Basic Bulk Forming Process

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Discuss and illustrate the different

classification of basic bulk forming
process

• Bulk forming

• Rolling

• forging

• extrusion

• wire or rod drawing

51
52
Self-Check 10
Direction: Arrange the scrambled words.

1. ENDBGIN
2. EEPDDARW IGN
3. GNSAREHI
4. SFEEFTIGNROM
5. PSSSRCEO

53
 Performance Criteria Checklist 14
Classification Of Basic Sheet Forming Process

Name: __________________ Grade & Section: __________ Score: _____

Criteria Performed Not performed

Discuss and illustrate the different

classification of basic sheet forming
process

• sheet forming

• bending

• deep (or cup) drawing

• shearing

54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
 Introduction To Sheet Metal Punching

Sheet metal punching is an

exceptionally common metal fabrication
process used in the manufacturing of
countless goods. The process is a relatively
straightforward one. A punching press
machine punches designs through metal
sheets as the material passes through or
under the press. Where sheet metal
punching was done entirely with manually
operated machines, today’s punching processes are accomplished with advanced
computer automated machines programmed with matrices of standard or specially
designed shapes.

How is Sheet Metal Formed?

Sheet metal is formed by an

industrial process that presses metal
into thin, flat uniform workpieces. The
machines used to punch the metal
sheets are tooled with a punch and die
that cut and form the workpiece.
Industrial punching techniques apply a
compression force to exert pressure
into the desired form onto the sheet.
The process creates an initial
deformation of the sheet metal material
to be formed, followed rapidly by shear stress that fractures and cutouts the
material to specification.

The process is initiated when sheet metal is set in place. A punch then
passes downward through one side of the sheet metal and enters the die, located
on the metal piece’s underside, leaving the desired shape to form in the metal

63
workpiece as the remaining metal scrap, referred to as a slug, is separated from
the new pattern. The die also provides the necessary support to allow the punch to
apply maximum force without breaking the metal. The punch and die process
creates accurate, error-free metal parts of any size or shape as designed.

Sheet Metal Punching and Automation

Where sheet metal

punching was once operated
entirely through manual
processes, today’s advances in
metal punching technologies
allow manufacturers to perform
automated punching
techniques. Processes are
accomplished with speed and
precision to form intricate metal
parts for multiple industrial
sectors. Though small punch
presses are still operated
manually for specific jobs,
custom production, or small
runs (to meet product demand
requirements), industrial sheet metal punching is achieved on automated punching
machines operated by CNC (computer numerical control) programming.

CNC punching machines operate through automated mechanical processes

by means of commands programmed into computer software. The program clamps
the material in place and then shapes or forms custom, complex designs with
precision. Machines can be fitted with multiple punch and die sets to be used
simultaneously to form a part with just one stroke of the press. CNC programmed
punching offers flexibility, versatility, efficiency, and complexity for manufacturers
to meet the most challenging production requirements. It can produce many sheet

64
metal forming processes, can produce intricate yet economical holes of varying
shapes with precise duplication, and, as a result, is the most cost-effective method
in forming metals in medium to high production runs.

Common Industries That Utilize Sheet Metal Punching

Sheet metal punching is used to create parts and components for various
goods used in many industries. Automotive, agriculture, electronics, aerospace,
energy, construction, architecture, and many other sectors rely on fabricated metal
parts to build their products.

Sheet metal materials used in punching differ—aluminum, copper, stainless

steel, titanium, brass, and other metals—and so do their properties, which can
subsequently impact punch quality. Material subjected to repeated punching,
especially those in a tight perforation, can cause varying material stress and heat
build-up degrees. This may lead to slight distortion, such as stretching,
deformation, and warping. Ways to reduce the effects of distortion vary, but begins
with the use of sharp tooling.

Dull tooling requires more force, which creates stress that can result in
increased distortion of the material. Sharp tools will improve punch performance
and prolong tool life. Another way to limit distortion is to treat or coat punches. This
will reduce heat build-up during high volume production runs.

Sheet Metal Punching is Cost-Effective and Offers Flexibility

Countless everyday objects are fabricated as a result of sheet metal

punching. With today’s ever-increasing technological advancements, CNC
programmed presses punch and rapidly and precisely cut the most challenging
patterns. Versatile and flexible, it is one of the more fundamental and most cost-
effective methods used in metalworking today.

65
 Sheet Metal Cutting (Shearing)
Cutting processes are
those in which a piece of sheet
metal is separated by applying a
great enough force to cause the
material to fail. The most
common cutting processes are
performed by applying
a shearing force, and are
therefore sometimes referred to
as shearing processes. When a
great enough shearing force is
applied, the shear stress in the
material will exceed the ultimate
shear strength and the material
will fail and separate at the cut
location. This shearing force is
applied by two tools, one above
and one below the sheet. Whether these tools are a punch and die or upper and
lower blades, the tool above the sheet delivers a quick downward blow to the sheet
metal that rests over the lower tool. A small clearance is present between the edges
of the upper and lower tools, which facilitates the fracture of the material. The size
of this clearance is typically 2-10% of the material thickness and depends upon
several factors, such as the specific shearing process, material, and sheet
thickness.

The effects of shearing on the material change as the cut progresses and
are visible on the edge of the sheared material. When the punch or blade impacts
the sheet, the clearance between the tools allows the sheet to plastically deform
and "rollover" the edge. As the tool penetrates the sheet further, the shearing
results in a vertical burnished zone of material. Finally, the shear stress is too great

66
and the material fractures at an angle with a small burr formed at the edge. The
height of each of these portions of the cut depends on several factors, including
the sharpness of the tools and the clearance between the tools.

A variety of cutting
processes that utilize shearing
forces exist to separate or
remove material from a piece of
sheet stock in different ways.
Each process is capable of
forming a specific type of cut,
some with an open path to
separate a portion of material
and some with a closed path to
cutout and remove that material.
By using many of these
processes together, sheet metal
parts can be fabricated with
cutouts and profiles of any 2D
geometry.

As mentioned above, several cutting processes exist that utilize shearing

force to cut sheet metal. However, the term "shearing" by itself refers to a specific
cutting process that produces straight line cuts to separate a piece of sheet metal.
Most commonly, shearing is used to cut a sheet parallel to an existing edge which
is held square, but angled cuts can be made as well. For this reason, shearing is
primarily used to cut sheet stock into smaller sizes in preparation for other
processes. Shearing has the following capabilities:

Sheet thickness: 0.005-0.25 inches

Tolerance: ±0.1 inches (±0.005 inches feasible)

67
Surface finish: 250-1000 μin (125-2000 μin feasible)

The shearing process is performed on a shear machine, often called a

squaring shear or power shear, that can be operated manually (by hand or foot) or
by hydraulic, pneumatic, or electric power. A typical shear machine includes a table
with support arms to hold the sheet, stops or guides to secure the sheet, upper and
lower straight-edge blades, and a gauging device to precisely position the sheet.
The sheet is placed between the upper and lower blade, which are then forced
together against the sheet, cutting the material. In most devices, the lower blade
remains stationary while the upper blade is forced downward. The upper blade is
slightly offset from the lower blade, approximately 5-10% of the sheet thickness.
Also, the upper blade is usually angled so that the cut progresses from one end to
the other, thus reducing the required force. The blades used in these machines
typically have a square edge rather than a knife-edge and are available in different
materials, such as low alloy steel and high-carbon steel.

Fabricated Metals Used in Product Making

Forming metal pieces for assembly use is just part of the process when it comes
to making metal products. The next stage involves taking different pre-made parts
and turning them into machines, appliances, cookware, and other products.
Depending on the operations at hand, a given set of assembly parts might go to a
factory or independent craftsperson. In most cases, a project will start with one or
more of the following materials:

o Expanded metal. For machines and fixtures needing metal panels

that are grated instead of solid, metal is expanded to take on the
desired consistency. Basically, sheets of metal are sheared in a
pattern that forms diamond-shaped holes along the surface, which is
held together by the remaining mesh-like metal. As the final formation
of each sheet takes place, the metal is effectively expanded to its

68
 ultimate dimensions.
Expanded metal is commonly used as a protective wall on machines
that need ventilation, such as along back-portion panels of computers
and heaters. Panels of expanded metal are also commonplace on
the fences and screen doors of condominium complexes and gated
communities. The grating size on different sheets of expanded metal
may vary, though wider holes are generally favored as a fencing
material, and smaller holes are often better for panels on electronics
equipment. Expanded metal is also available in a variety of
thicknesses.

o Sectional metals. In the construction and engineering sectors, metals

are regularly ordered in sectional varieties for numerous applications.
Sectional metal is any type of prefabricated piece that’s designed for
standardized assembly. A construction company, for example, could
need structural framing panels of particular lengths and widths, the
measurements of which would be standardized throughout the
industry and pre-fabricated for order from a construction-parts
supplier. Common types of sectional materials include:

▪ I-beam. An I-shaped, cross-sectional beam.

▪ Z-shape. A sectional piece shaped similarly to the last

letter in the alphabet.

▪ Bar. A rectangular cross-sectional metal piece.

▪ Rod. A long sectional metal piece, either square or

round.

• Flat metal. For any given number of applications, flat metal pieces are used
in construction and industrial assemblies. Flat metal is a raw material that is
fabricated in a range of thicknesses. While the pieces are generally thin, the

69
 gauge will range from under a millimeter to two or more centimeters. Flat
metals typically fall into three groupings:

▪ Leaf metal. The thinnest kind, also known as foil metal.

▪ Sheet metal. The most widespread kind, which tends to be

under 6mm thick.

▪ Plate metal. The thickest kind, which exceeds 0.25 inches.

Flat metals are commonly used to form the side panels on ovens,
refrigerators and other household appliances.

• Welding wire. Used as a welding aid, the wire consists of metal strands,
which are typically bound together into thicker cords and sold on spools.
True to its name, the wire is used to hold two pieces of metal together during
a welding application. Usually, the wire is melted into the welded piece by
the heat of the application as the process takes places. Welding wire is
made of various types of metal, and it is generally found in a range of
thicknesses.

The Industries That Use Metal-Fabricated Products

Manufacturing

• Architectural and Structural Metals Manufacturing. In this industry,

fabricated metals are used to form the structures of buildings large and
small. In the construction of modern skyscrapers, structural beams made of
fabricated metals have made it easier to erect buildings from the ground on
up to completion in record time. Best of all, fabricated metals make buildings
structurally more sturdy and fire-resistant.

• Boiler, Tank and Shipping Container Manufacturing. In the shipping

industry, metal is used in virtually everything, from the assembly parts that
make up a ship to the fasteners that hold everything together. Furthermore,

70
 the shipping industry is involved in the transfer of untold tons of fabricated
metals on an annual basis. Metal, in effect, could be seen as the driving
force of the shipping industry.

• Other Fabricated Metal Product Manufacturing. If a list were to be

compiled of all the commercial and industrial machines, products and parts
that consist of metal, it would probably fill up an encyclopedia. Fact is,
metals are produced every day throughout the world for numerous different
uses, and in many cases, metal fabrication itself serves as the backbone for
the industry in question, whether a company manufactures metal products
or relies on products made of metal for virtually everything.

• Spring and Wire Product Manufacturing. Wire is intrinsically important to

custom metal fabrication processes because welding wires are often used
to help weld pieces of metal together in various products. In addition to their
uses in crafts, springs and wires play crucial roles in industrial machinery,
and are, therefore, among the key reasons why factories are efficient and
capable of today’s advanced productions.

• Specialty Manufacturing. Metal fabrication is used in OEM (original

equipment manufacturing) parts, which are used in specialty manufacturing
environments. By extension, the auto repair industry benefits from here,
because it allows faltering cars to be replaced part by part.

Hardware and Hand Tools

• Hardware Manufacturing. Computers would have never spread nearly as

far and wide as they currently have had manufactures lacked the ability to
fabricate metals for all the hardware components. From the enclosures on
hard drives to the metals used on motherboards, modems, monitors and
computer cases, metal fabrication has kept computer systems strong
enough for home and office use for nearly four decades.

• Cutlery and Hand Tool Manufacturing. The processes of metal fabrication

are foremost responsible for the sharpness of knives and the precision of

71
 hand tools. Without the ability to cast, cut and shear metals, most of the
tools that laymen take for granted would be impossible to produce, and
various industries would face unimaginable limitations.

• Machine Shops, Turned Product and Screw, Nut and Bolt

Manufacturing. For anyone who wonders how metal fabrication works, the
answers are often witnessed in the subsector where metal parts like screws,
nuts, and bolts are manufactured. At machine shops across the U.S.,
shelves are stocked with items that are the direct result of various fabrication
processes, whether it’s a product assembled from metal panels or a part
that was mass produced from die cuts.

Building and Construction

• The HVAC Industry. The production of equipment from the heating and coo
ling industry is made possible by metal fabrication processes. Standard and
specialized ductwork, as well as miscellaneous HVAC accessories, are the
results of such processes.

• The Building/Construction Industry. From fire escapes and metal

staircases to catwalks and decking, metal fabrication creates custom pieces
for use in building projects. If not for the processes the fabrication of metal
entails, today’s buildings would not be as structurally sound and emergency
ready.

Other Industries and Applications

• The Aerospace Industry. Various items manufactured by aircraft

developers consist of metal fabricated parts. Considering how aerospace is
one of the most demanding industries in terms of safety, metal fabrication
processes can largely be thanked for making the fastest form of travel
possible.

72
 • The Farming Industry. Whether it’s specialized parts for farm equipment
or replacement pieces for an old tractor, metal fabrication supports the
farming industry, particularly in South Central PA.

• Coating, Engraving, Heat Treating, and Allied Activities. The process of

stamping forms the backbone of the engraving market, which consists of a
vast range of metal products that bear engravings of initials, names, images
and design motifs. On everything from metal trays and silverware to
collectible coins and mementos, the processes of fabricating metal are
utilized to make these items valuable.

• Forging and Stamping. The shaping of metals with machines and dies is
done within the forging and stamping subsector. Numerous items that are
commonplace throughout the industrial sector, as well as in retail, are
produced through these methods. With the technologies for stamping and
forging witnessing constant innovation, the subsector plays a key role in the
global economy.

Everyday Items Made from Metal Fabrication Processes

Many everyday items are manufactured using the metal fabrication process, such as:

• Blinds. The blinds that block excessive sunlight and help to keep interiors
private are made of leaf metals, which undergo shearing and folding to take
on the shape and consistency required to seal off windows from light and
outside exposure.

• Cans. Canned goods are sold in metal containers that consist of tinplate or
aluminum leaf metals, which are formed into a circle. They are then welded
shut at the seam and along the circumference of the adjoining bottom. Once
the food product has been inserted, the lid is welded into place.

• Handles. Door knobs and handles are made of metals such as nickel silver
and brass, which are casted and sometimes folded and sheared into the

73
 desired shape. Whether it’s an opener that consists of a straight or curved
handle, or a flat or ball-shaped knob, the fabrication processes involved are
complex yet similar.

• Heaters. The enclosures of heating units consist of sheet metal, as do some

of the internal components that make these machines function.

• Locks. Of all the non-electronic features in a house or building of any kind,

door locks contain the most complex mechanisms. The inner workings of
the metal lock are designed for an exclusive key shape, which the lock must
be die cast to accommodate.

• Keys. Once the die has been cast for a door lock, the key itself must follow.
A lot of keys are made out of punched and stamped brass, but the stronger,
more durable metal for keys is nickel silver.

• Latches. For homes, buildings, and fences, latches are produced in a

variety of designs, yet all are realized through metal fabrication. Shearing
and die casts are common during the process, but some designs may also
involve stamping, machining, and folding.

• Pots. There are few everyday household items that embody the casting
process as boldly as the cooking pot, the shape of which originates from a
casting form that is filled with liquid metal during production.

• Silverware. Eating utensils such as spoons, forks, and knives generally

consist of sterling or nickel silver, which are cast or stamped into shape at
metal fabricating facilities. A similar process is applied to cooking utensils
and kitchen tools such as whips, graters, and openers.

• Fans. Even though many of today’s indoor fans consist of plastic and
fiberglass parts, many models still feature enclosures that are made of cut
and folded metal.

• Chairs. The legs of a desk chair, as well as the underlying support structure,
are generally made of casted metal. The processes of metal fabrication are

74
 more clearly pronounced on fold-up chairs, which feature bars and panels
made of cut and folded metals.

• Hinges. The hinges that connect doors to walls and cabinets consist of
sheet metal, which is cut to shape and punched with holes that are fitted to
fasteners. The process of folding is employed at the barrel, and this gives
hinges their fixed axis of rotation.

• Lamps. Light fixtures are made in full or in part of cut, folded and cast
metals, whether the fixture consists of a metal socket connected to a
ceramic base, or a full-metal body, which is typical of gooseneck desk
lamps.

• Faucets. Sinks vary in their material makeup, but faucets are all made of
metal. Faucets are generally made through the fabrication process of
casting, as are the handles and connecting pieces.

• Appliances. When it comes to appliances, metal fabrication is responsible

not only for the shells of stoves, dishwashers, and refrigerators but also for
toaster enclosures, blender bases and the pressing surface of a clothing
iron.

• Tools. Indoor and outdoor hand tools are typically produced through the
metal fabrication processes of cutting, stamping and casting. Examples
range from scissors and X-ACTO® knives to hammers, saws and bush
trimmers.

• Cables. The cables and cords that bring appliances electricity — and
connect computers to the Internet — are mostly plastic on the outside. Yet
the workings of each cable/cord are due to the wires within the plastic, as
well as the connectors and prongs, which are produced within a die.

• Sinks. While bathroom sinks are typically made of vitreous china, kitchen
sinks consist of metals such as cast iron and steel, which undergo the

75
 casting and sometimes the folding processes before being embedded into
countertops.

• Fasteners. Regardless of whether a house or apartment building consists

of metal or wooden structural frames, the structural pieces are held together
with fasteners like screws, nuts, bolts and sometimes rivets, all of which are
products of the casting and stamping processes of metal fabrication.

76